WATER SOURCES

A. Surface Water Sources

1. Rivers
― river water quantity and quality strongly depends on its runoff system, the
seasonal changes and the general soil and vegetation it flows through on its way
to the sea
Advantages

 Quick access to water

 Fresh and clean water needs only little further treatment
Disadvantages

 Quality and quantity strongly depend on season and runoff

 Flooding leads to contaminated water and to destruction of houses, fields
and infrastructure close to the river
 Dams for flood control are expensive in construction and maintenance

2. Lakes
― are surface water sources, with water levels changing depending on the
seasons
― lake management has to consider that the amount of water extracted is not
higher than water entering the lake
Advantages
 Quickly and easily accessible water source
 Fresh and clean water needs only little further treatment
 Can be used to produce energy
Disadvantages
 Often misused to discharge waste water and solid waste
 Expensive intake constructions for large scale extraction necessary
3. Man-made Reservoirs
― sometimes called artificial lakes, are important water sources in many
countries around the world
― reservoirs are artificial, usually formed by constructing a dam across a river or
by diverting a part of the river flow and storing the water in a reservoir
Advantages
 Quick and easy access to a water source
 Increased protection of downstream river from flooding events
 Increased potential for sustained agricultural irrigation
 Production of energy (hydropower)
Disadvantages
 Excessive human immigration into reservoir region, with associated social,
economic and health problems
 Dams are expensive in construction and maintenance

4. Bank Filtration
― infiltration of surface water, mostly from a river system into a groundwater
system induced by water abstraction close to the surface water (e.g. a river bank )
― in the context of developing or newly-industrialized countries, bank filtration
may contribute to a more sustainable water cycle by recharging stressed
groundwater bodies with filtered surface water
Advantages
Improves water quality by removing particles (suspended solids), organic
pollutants, microorganisms, heavy metals and nitrogen
Low cost or cost effective natural treatment process that can also reduce costs for
subsequent treatment (e.g. chemical usage for disinfection or run-time of
activated carbon filters is extended)
Disadvantages
 High organic pollution and higher mean temperatures (often found in
developing countries) both promote microbial growth and may lead to
oxygen depletion, thereby lowering the removal efficiency of BF systems
 The presence of dissolved heavy metals (e.g. arsenic) may severely impair
BF quality

5. Desalination
― the chemical process of changing seawater into potable or fresh water is called
desalination
― thermal distillation and membrane processes are the two main approaches
used around the world to desalinize water
Advantages
 Uses an abundant water source (seawater)
 Allows drinking water production in arid, coastal regions
Disadvantages
 High energy consumption or investment costs
 Desalinated water has to be demineralized before it becomes drinking
water

B. Groundwater Sources
1. Springs
― when groundwater makes its way to the earth’s surface and emerges as small
water holes or wet spots
― although springs only need little operation and maintenance, monitoring of
water quality has to be conducted regularly
Advantages
 High water quality
 Fairly low construction costs if pumping is not required (gravity-based
distribution system)
 Very little operation and maintenance
Disadvantage
 Risk of contamination, especially for gravity springs
 Unstable flow, mostly dependent on rainfall (only gravity springs)
 Location of the spring may not be convenient or easily accessible

2. Dug Wells
― the traditional and still most common method of obtaining groundwater in
rural areas of the developing world is by means of hand-dug wells
― a hole is dug until the groundwater level is reached. Inflowing groundwater is
collected and extracted with the help of pumps or buckets

Advantages
 High degree of involvement of the local community during the whole
process
 Under supervision, no skilled workers are required
 Simple equipment sufficient for both construction and maintenance
Disadvantages
 Long construction phase
 Dangerous excavation (collapse, gases)
 Alteration of groundwater level can adversely affect the surrounding
environment

3. Manual Pumping
― hand pumps are water-lifting devices that can be operated manually to
withdraw water from surface water sources, groundwater sources and reservoirs,
or to pump water into distribution systems
― they are widely used in places where access to power sources is constrained,
where financial resources for investment are limited, and where domestic water
requirement is not excessive
Advantages
 Significant increase in agricultural yields (improved water availability for
irrigation)
 Adequate discharge capacity to meet the domestic water requirements of
 families or small rural communities
 Low-cost options for most human-powered pump types available
Disadvantages
 Appropriate and very frequent maintenance is vital
 Discharge capacity too low for large communities
4. Mechanized Pumping
― water-lifting devices used to withdraw water from surface water sources,
groundwater sources and reservoirs or to pump water into distribution systems
Advantages
 Very high performance: discharge capacity sufficient to meet the water
requirements of large scale irrigation systems or urban drinking water
supplies
 Less labor-intensive/less physical effort
 Pumps provide fast access to drinking water
Disadvantages
 Generally costly in acquisition (or hiring) and often expensive in operation
(fuel, electricity) and maintenance (spares, lubricants)
 Fuels and fumes can pose health risks; can pollute groundwater and the
environment
 Appropriate and very frequent maintenance is vital
5. Drilled Wells
― can serve as a low-cost water supply for single households, for small rural
communities and for more urban areas
― a hole is drilled into a groundwater body and infiltrating water is then
abstracted with the help of a manual or motorized pump.
Advantages
 Quicker and cheaper to sink than hand-dug wells

 Less susceptible to contamination

Disadvantages
 Drilling point has to be identified
 Skilled staff and experts required for drilling
 Pump required which needs appropriate operation and maintenance

C. Other Water Sources

1. Bottled Water
― understood as packaged drinking-water (e.g. glass, plastic) in various sizes,
from single servings to large carboys holding up to 80 liters
Advantages
 (In general) A safe source for drinking water
 Can provide safe water during seasonal shortages or emergency situations
Disadvantages
 Prices are higher than from household connections or public utilities

2. Water Vendors
― water vendors are common in many parts of the world where water scarcity or
lack of infrastructure limit access to drinking water, particularly in urban areas
― water vending refers to many forms of selling water: It ranges from individuals
who carry water in containers on pushcarts, to water kiosks, where consumers
fetch the water by themselves
Advantages
 Flexible payment system
 Households can purchase small quantities on a daily basis
 More choices for households
Disadvantages
 Water prices are higher than those from household connections or public
utilities
 Service is not guaranteed