Last week, you learned about Mineral and rocks, their properties,

classifications and compositions. It was also noted in the previous module, how
these minerals are forms and how rocks undergo a continuous cycle to alter, and
create new rocks. In this module, you are about to read and discover the different
mineral resources. As you go through the module, topics such as mineral
categories, mineral utilization and mineral conservation will help you understand
more about minerals and their impacts to the environment and to mankind.
Mineral Resources
What are Mineral Resources?
A mineral is a naturally occurring substance, representable by a chemical
formula, that is usually solid and inorganic, and has a crystal structure. Mineral
resources are the key material basis for socio-economic development. Statistical
results show that more than 95% of energy used by mankind, 80% industrial raw
materials and 70% raw materials for agricultural production are from mineral
resources.
 Mineral Occurrence – concentration of a mineral that is of scientific or
technical interest.
 Mineral Deposit – mineral occurrence of sufficient size and grade or
concentration to enable extraction under the most favorable conditions.
 Ore Deposit – mineral deposit that has been tested and known to be
economically profitable to mine.
 Aggregate – rock or mineral material used as filler in cement, asphalt,
plaster, etc; generally used to describe nonmetallic deposits.
 Ore – naturally-occurring material from which a mineral or minerals of
economic value can be extracted.
https://www.google.com/search?q=ores+NDmineral+resources&tbm
Different Types of Mineral Resources
          A mineral is a pure inorganic substance that occurs naturally in the earth’s
crust. More than two-thousand minerals have been identified and most of these are
inorganic, which are formed by the various combination of elements. However, a
small proportion of the earth’s crust contains organic materials, consist of single
elements such as gold, silver, diamond, and sulfur.
          Mineral resources can be classified according to the mechanism responsible
for concentrating the valuable substance.
 
1. Magmatic Ore Deposits
 valuable substances are concentrated within an igneous body through
magmatic processes such as crystal fractionation, partial melting and crystal
settling.
 magmatic processes can concentrate the ore minerals that contain valuable
substances after accumulating elements that were once widely dispersed and
in low concentrations within the magma.
2. Hydrothermal Ore Deposits
 concentration of valuable substances by hot aqueous (water-rich) fluids
flowing through fractures and pore spaces in rocks.
 hydrothermal solutions - are hot, residual watery fluids derived during the
later stages of magma crystallization and may contain large amount of
dissolved metals. These can also originate from the ground water circulating
at depth that is being heated up by a cooling and solidifying igneous body or
along depths with known geothermal gradient.
 Such hot water can dissolve valuable substances (at low concentrations)
from rocks. As the metal enriched hot waters move into cooler areas in the
crust, the dissolved substances may start to precipitate.
 There are numerous hydrothermal mineral deposits as compared to the
different types of deposits.
3. Sedimentary Ore Deposits
 Some valuable substances are concentrated by chemical precipitation
coming from lakes or seawater.
4. Placer Ore Deposits
 Deposits formed by the concentration of valuable substances through gravity
separation during sedimentary processes.
 Usually aided by flowing surface waters either in streams or along
coastlines.
 Concentration would be according to the specific gravity of substances,
wherein the heavy minerals are mechanically concentrated by water currents
and the less-dense particles remain suspended and are carried further
downstream.
 Usually involves heavy minerals that are resistant to transportation and
weathering.
 Common deposits are gold and other heavy minerals such as platinum,
diamonds and tin; - The source rock for a placer deposit may become an
important ore body if located.
5. Residual Ore Deposits
 A type of deposit that results from the accumulation of valuable materials
through chemical weathering processes.
 During the process, the volume of the original rock is greatly reduced by
leaching.
 Important factors for the formation of residual deposit include parent rock
composition, climate (tropical and sub-tropical: must be favorable for
chemical decay) and relief (must not be high to allow accumulation)
 Common deposits are bauxites and nickeliferous laterites.
 Bauxite, the principal ore of aluminum, is derived when aluminum-rich
source rocks undergo intense chemical weathering brought by prolonged
rains in the tropics, leaching the common elements that include silicon,
sodium and calcium through leaching.
 Nickeliferous laterites or nickel laterites are residual ore deposits derived
from the laterization of olivine-rich ultramafic rocks such as dunite and
peridotite. Like in the formation of bauxite, the leaching of nickel-rich
ultramafic rocks dissolves common elements, leaving the insoluble nickel,
magnesium and iron oxide mixed in the soil.
 Secondary Enrichment Deposits are derived when a certain mineral deposit
becomes enriched due to weathering.
  Leaching – the removal of soluble materials in rocks or ore
body through the percolation of water
 Relief – the configuration of an area that pertains to the
elevation and slope variations and the irregularities of the land
surface
 Laterization – conditions of weathering which leads to the
removal of alkalis and silica, resulting in a soil or rock with
high concentrations of iron and aluminum oxides.
 Categories of Mineral Resources
Mineral resources can be divided into two major categories.

1. Metallic Mineral Resources

2. Non-metallic Mineral Resources

Classification of Minerals Resources

          There are metals that are hard which conduct electricity and heat with
characteristics of luster or shine. Such metals are called metallic minerals. For
example, Silver, Chromium, Tin, Nickel, Copper, Iron, Lead, Aluminum, Gold,
and Zinc.
I. Characteristics of Metallic Minerals
 
o Metallic Minerals show a metallic shine in their appearance.
o The potential source of the metal that can be got through mining.
o Contains metals in their chemical composition.
o Metallic minerals contain metal in raw form.
Classification of metallic minerals:
1. Ferrous metallic minerals
 Minerals that contain iron are called ferrous minerals. Example of ferrous
minerals is Chromites, Iron ore, and manganese.
2. Nonferrous metallic minerals
 Minerals that do not contain iron are called non- ferrous minerals. Examples
of nonferrous minerals is lead, silver, gold, and copper. 
II. Characteristics of Nonmetallic Mineral Resources
 Minerals appear with a non-metallic shine or luster
 Do not contain extractable metals in their chemical composition
 There is a group of chemical elements which when melted do not generate a
new product. Such special groups are called Nonmetallic minerals. Example:
Dimension stone, halite, sand, gypsum, uranium metal, gravel.
Uses of Minerals
 The use of minerals depends upon its deposits. Some countries are rich in
mineral deposits, while others have no deposits. The greatest use of minerals
depends on its properties. For instance, Aluminum is light, strong and
durable in nature, so it is used for aircraft, shipping, and car industries.
 Minerals are used in almost all industries. Gold, silver, and platinum
metalare used in the jewelry industry. Copper is used in the coin industry
and for making pipes and wire. Silicon obtained from quartz is used in the
computer industry.
 Mineral elements give fireworks colour. Barium produces glossy greens;
strontium yields dark reds; copper yields blues; and zinc yields sodium.
Mixing elements can make many colors: strontium and sodium create bright
orange; titanium, zirconium, and magnesium alloys create silvery white;
copper and strontium make lavender blue.
Examples of Minerals
  Minerals are compounds naturally produced on Earth. They have clear
structure and chemical composition. There are more than 3000 known
minerals. Some, like gold and diamond, are rare and precious, while others,
like quartz, are more ordinary.
 Minerals are composed of atoms as are all compounds. There are just only a
hundred components around us and they are the fundamental building blocks
in everything of us. They can be found in their pure form, or chemically
combined with other compound-making elements. A compound is composed
of two or more chemically united elements.
 Over 99 per cent of the minerals that make up the surface of the Earth
consist of only eight elements. Some of such elements are found as
complexes in conjunction with other elements. Minerals are naturally
occurring elements or compounds in the Earth’s crust. Rocks are minerally
shaped mixtures. Much as the building blocks of rocks are elements, so the
rocks form the rock building blocks.
 The mineral biotite has basal cleavage which means that it has a complete
cleavage. The cleavage plane on top of this sample is visible on the smooth,
reflective surface. The flat surface at the bottom, in line with the top of the
bowl, is similar to the rim and thus reflects the same cleavage axis.
Conservation of Mineral Resources
 The total volume of consumable mineral resources is just 1% of all the
minerals present in the earth’s crust. However, the consumption rate is so
high that these mineral resources which are nonrenewable will get exhausted
very soon. Here are some of the measures to conserve minerals:
o Use of minerals in a planned and sustainable manner.
o Recycling of metals
o Use of alternative renewable substitutes.
 Technology should be improved to use the low-grade ores profitably.
 Any minerals usually occur as well-developed crystals, and are treated in
their crystal types. A detailed nomenclature has emerged to classify crystal
types, and may be familiar with some common names. Different properties
aid in the detection of other minerals. For certain minerals these properties
may not be distinguishable enough to aid for their detection. And, they can
only be found in some minerals
Value Statement
“The nation behaves well if it treats the natural resources as assets which it must
turn over to the next generation increased; and not impaired in value.”
-Theodore Roosevelt
References
Reference Book
          Lutgens, F. & Tarbuck F., (2005). Pearson Prentice Hall. New Jersey.
Foundations of Earth Science. Fourth Edition.
 Online Resources
          Mineral Resources, (2020). Retrieved
from https://byjus.com/chemistry/mineral-
resources/https://byjus.com/chemistry/mineral-resources/
 WEEK 1: PLANETS, EARTH, AND EARTH
SYSTEMS
Good day! Before we go through our first topic, you shall first be oriented with the
subject.  This subject is Earth Science, a core subject for both STEM HEALTH and
STEM NON-HEALTH, and is designed to provide a general background for the
understanding of the Earth on a planetary scale.  It presents the history of the Earth
through geologic time.  It discusses the Earth’s structure and composition, the
processes that occur beneath and on the Earth’s surface, as well as issues, concerns,
and problems pertaining to Earth’s resources.
As you may observe in the next coming weeks, some of the topics present in the
course outline will not be discussed. Topics that are deemed most essential will be
discussed only. This is in compliance with the revised syllabus of the Department of
Education that should be used during this pandemic. Rest assured that there will be
some enrichment of the topics for you to further understand and appreciate the lesson.
In this lesson, we are going to understand how the universe came into existence,
the formation of the solar system and its entities, the different characteristic and
attributes of the planets and the reason behind earth’s ability to harbor life. 
The Planets of the Solar System 
The sun is the hub of a huge rotating system consisting of eight planets,
their satellites, and numerous small interesting bodies, including asteroids,
comets, and meteoroids. An estimated 99.85% of the mass of our solar system
is contained within the sun, while the planets collectively make up most of the
remaining 0.15%. Under the control of the sun’s gravitational force, each
planet maintains an elliptical orbit, and most of them rotate and travel in the
same direction, except for Venus and Uranus.

https://giphy.com/explore/solar-system
 Careful examination of the photo, shows that the planets fall quite nicely
into two groups: the TERRESTRIAL PLANETS and the JOVIAN PLANETS. 
Terrestrial Planets
Common characteristics:
 Smaller size and mass
 Higher density
 Made mostly of rock and metal
 Solid surface
 Few moons (if any) and no rings
  Closer to the Sun (and close together) with warmer surface.

https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/overview/
Jovian Planets
Common characteristics:
 Larger size and mass
 Lower density
 Made mostly of hydrogen, helium and hydrogen compounds
 Rings and many moons
  Farther from the Sun (and farther apart) with cool temperatures

Characteristics of Earth
What makes Earth habitable?
 It has a right distance from the sun.
 It has a strong magnetic field that shield us from the strong
electromagnetic radiation coming from the sun.
 It is protected by the plate tectonics from the very hot temperature of the
core.
 It has right chemical materials that could support life (e.g. water).
 The presence of oxygen in the atmosphere.
  Right atmospheric conditions.
 Right Elements: ¡SPONCH!
 Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus
 Trace elements, like iron (Fe) & magnesium (Mg)
Earth Subsystems
ATMOSPHERE
 The atmosphere is the thin gaseous layer that envelopes the lithosphere.
 The present atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen (N), 21% oxygen
(O2), 0.9% argon, and trace amount of other gases.
 One of the most important processes by which the heat on the Earth's
surface is redistributed is through atmospheric circulation.
 There is also a constant exchange of heat and moisture between the
atmosphere and the hydrosphere through the hydrologic cycle.

https://niwa.co.nz/education-and-training/schools/students/layers

LITHOSPHERE
 The lithosphere includes the rocks of the crust and mantle, the metallic
liquid outer core, and the solid metallic inner core.
 Briefly discuss the Plate Tectonics as an important process shaping the
surface of the Earth. The primary driving mechanism is the Earth's
internal heat, such as that in mantle convection.
 https://www.nationalgeographic.org/topics/resource-library-earth-structure/
CRUST
 Outermost and thinnest
 5-70 km thick layer of oceanic and continental crust
 Composed of the elements oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium,
potassium and magnesium.
                    Two types of Earth’s Crust:
                                   OCEANIC- found in oceanic bases
                                   CONTINENTAL- thicker, makes up the Earth’s surface
 Temperature ranges from 200ºC-400ºC
 MOHOROVICIC DISCONTINUITY
 Discovered by Andrija Mohorovicic
 Transitional boundary that divides the crust from the mantle.
  Showed the 2 kinds of seismic waves:
 P- waves and S-waves
 P waves are the first waves recorded by a seismograph because they travel
faster than S- waves.
 MANTLE
 Made of solid rock
 The mantle is about 2900 km thick
 Average temperature is 3000ºC
 Made mostly of silicate minerals
 Upper part of the mantle directly below the crust is the Asthenosphere
 The extreme temperature and pressure in the asthenosphere causes the rocks
to be ductile and thus move like liquid.
 GUTENBURG DISCONTINUITY
 Discovered by Beno Gutenburg
 Transitional boundary between the mantle and the outer core.
 OUTER CORE
 Core is made of iron and nickel
 Fluid part of the core (magma-like)
 2890-5000 km beneath the Earth’s surface
 Temperature ranges from 4500-6000ºC
 The layer that creates the Earth’s magnetic field
 INNER CORE
 Deepest part of the Earth
 Average temperature is 5500ºC
 SOLID
 LEHMANN DISCONTINUITY
 Discovered by Inge Lehmann
 Transitional boundary between the inner core and the outer core.
HYDROSPHERE
 Total amount of water found on Earth
 This includes water in various forms – whether in ice, vapor, or liquid, found on
or below the surface of the Earth and in gas in the atmosphere.
 98% of the Earth’s water is saltwater
 About 70% of the Earth is covered with liquid water (hydrosphere) and much of
it is in the form of ocean water.
 Only 3% of Earth's water is fresh: two-thirds are in the form of ice, and the
remaining one-third is present in streams, lakes, and groundwater.
  The oceans are important sinks for CO2 through direct exchange with the
atmosphere and indirectly through the weathering of rocks.
 Heat is absorbed and redistributed on the surface of the Earth through ocean
circulation.
 Hydrological Cycle
 It is the cycle that explains the continuous movement of water, above or below
the Earth’s surface.
 The sun is the driving agent of this cycle

https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/fundamentals-water-
cycle
Evaporation
 It is the process by which liquid bodies of water changes into gaseous state due
to the increase in temperature.
 Water vapor rises in the atmosphere as gas.
 The sun is the major driving force of this process for it will heat the water and it
will become water vapor.
Transpiration
 It is a type of evaporation that occur in vegetation such as trees and land
plants.
 Water movement from plants.
  The sun absorbs the water from the leaves and it will evaporate and become
water vapor.
Condensation
 It is the process by which water vapor changer into liquid water droplet
collected in the atmosphere that may result to the formation of clouds.
 Reverse process of evaporation
 Evaporated water vapor cooled down to its dew point
Percolation
 It is the process by which the precipitates sips down to the groundwater.
 Precipitation (water) was absorbed by the soil and moves into the rocks and
usually replenishes the groundwater system.
Precipitation
 It is the process by which accumulated water droplets are heavy enough to be
released back into the earth’s surface.
 Water released from the condensed clouds
 Depending on condensing temperature changes, water may fall from the
atmosphere in different forms
Run-off
 It is the process by which the excess rain water accumulated on land will be
drained back to bodies of water.
 
BIOSPHERE
 The biosphere is the set of all life forms on Earth.
 It covers all ecosystems—from the soil to the rainforest, from mangroves to coral
reefs, and from the plankton-rich ocean surface to the deep sea.
 For the majority of life on Earth, the base of the food chain comprises
photosynthetic organisms. During photosynthesis, CO2 is sequestered from the
atmosphere, while oxygen is released as a byproduct. The biosphere is a CO2
sink, and therefore, an important part of the carbon cycle.
 Sunlight is not necessary for life.
 A closed system that makes up all the living components of Earth
 It drives us to be in constant need of interaction with the planet
 In this system an organism can consume another organism to allow energy to
circulate to the ecosystem
 The biosphere helps drive the biogeochemical cycling of carbon, nitrogen,
phosphorus, sulfur and other elements.
Biomes
 Made of many ecosystems
 Very large ecological areas on the earth’s surface, with fauna and flora adapting
to their environment.
 https://sciencing.com/biome-definition-types-characteristics-examples-13719223.html

 Value Statement:
 “To the mind that is still, the whole universe surrenders”
-Lao Tzu
 We create our own universe, and every universe has their own uniqueness.
We create different galaxies; we make different planets and our universe
reflects the way we take care of our entities. It is in our hands how we shape
everything. But all in all, happiness should be the force that binds your whole
cosmos.
 Reference Books
  Lutgens, F. & Tarbuck F., (2005). Pearson Prentice Hall. New Jersey.
Foundations of Earth Science. Fourth Edition.
 Online Resources
          NASA (2020). Planets of the solar system. Retrieved
from https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/overview/
          Dotson, D. (2019, June 24). Biomes: definition, types, characteristics
and examples. Retrieved from https://sciencing.com/biome-definition-types-
characteristics-examples-13719223.html
Photos Sources
https://www.google.com/search?q=water+cycle+hd&rlz
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F
%2Fwww.sciencenewsforstudents.org%2Farticle%2Fexplainer-earth-layer-
layer&psig
https://www.google.com/search?q=the+solar+system&tbm
https://www.google.com/search?q=bigbang+theory+universehd&tbm
 WEEK 3: MINERALS: BUILDING BLOCKS OF ROCKS
Last week, you learned about the different characteristics of the planets and the
characteristic of earth that makes it the only planet that can support life. The different
earth subsystems were also tackled and their interconnections with one another. In this
module, you are to the solid earth materials. You are going to differentiate minerals from
rocks, identify their characteristics and properties and analyze how they are formed
through systematic process and inclusion of other naturally occurring factors. 
Minerals: Building Blocks of Rocks
 Earth’s crust is the source of a wide variety of minerals, many of which
are useful and essential to people. The term “mineral” is used in several
different ways. Geologists define minerals as any naturally occurring inorganic solid
that possesses and orderly crystalline structure and a definite chemical composition.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS

 NATURALLY- OCCURRING - minerals should exist naturally. steel and
synthetic diamonds are created artificially, and therefore, are not
minerals.
 INORGANIC - minerals are limited to substances formed through
inorganic processes, and exclude materials derived from living organisms
which involved organic processes.
 SOLID - all liquids and gases – even those that are naturally formed
such as petroleum – are not considered minerals.
 DEFINITE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION - the chemical composition of
minerals should express the exact chemical formula with the elements
and compounds in specific ratios.
 ORDERED INTERNAL STRUCTURE - the atoms in minerals are
organized in a regular, repetitive geometric patterns or crystal structure.
 https://www.google.com/search?q=mineralsandrock&tbm
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/mineralcrystals/

Mineral Formation

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-earthscience/chapter/mineral-formation

 Minerals form from hot magma as it cools inside the crust, or as lava
cools on the surface.
 When these liquids cool to a solid, they form crystals (minerals).
 Size of the crystal depends on time it takes to freeze into a solid.
 https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-earthscience/chapter/mineral-formation

Properties of Minerals
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS - Useful for identifying minerals
using a systematic method.
1. Crystal Form and Habit
o It is the external expression of a mineral’s internal orderly
arrangement of atoms.
o Some minerals tend to form crystals that aid in the identification of
the mineral.
o Habit is the outward appearance of the mineral’s crystal form.
o Generally, when a mineral for without any space restrictions, it will
develop individual crystals with well-formed faces.

https://letstalkscience.ca/educational-resources/backgrounders/minerals-and-rocks