Untt 1 Fluid Properties

SATHYABAMA UNIVERSITY
School of Mechanical Engineering SME1202 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery
UNTT 1 FLUID PROPERTIES
Fluid Properties: Density, Specific weight ,Specific gravity, Viscosity ,Surface tension, Capillarity,
Vapour pressure and compressibility.
Fluid Statics: Hydrostatic Law - Pressure Variation in static fluid- Hydrostatic force on submerged
plane surfaces - Location of hydrostatic force.
Manometers- Simple U tube and differential manometers.
Buoyancy - Metacentric height; determination of stability of floating bodies and submerged bodies.
Fluids: Substances capable of flowing are known as fluids. Flow is the continuous deformation of
substances under the action of shear stresses.
Fluids have no definite shape of their own, but confirm to the shape of the containing vessel. Fluids
include liquids and gases.
Fluid Mechanics:
Fluid mechanics is the branch of science that deals with the behavior of fluids at rest as well as in
motion. Thus,it deals with the static, kinematics and dynamic aspects of fluids.
The study of fluids at rest is called fluid statics. The study of fluids in motion, where pressure
forces are not considered, is called fluid kinematics and if the pressure forces are also considered for
the fluids in motion, that branch of science is called fluid dynamics.
Fluid Properties:
1.DENSITY (or )MASS DENSITY:
Density or mass density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the mass of the fluid to its volume.
Thus, Mass per unit volume of a fluid is called density.
Mass of fluid
Mass density ,  
Volume of fluid
S.I unit of density is kg/m3.

The value of density for water is 1000 kg/m3.
2.SPECIFIC WEIGHT (or) WEIGHT DENSITY (w ):

Specific weight or weight density of a fluid is the ratio between the weight of a fluid to its
volume.
The weight per unit volume of a fluid is called specific weight or weight density.
Weight of fluid
Weight density 
Volume of fluid
Mass of fluid X g
w
Volume of fluid
w  g
S.I unit of specific weight is N/m3.
The value of specific weight or weight density of water is 9810N/m3 or 9.81 kN/m³.
3. SPECIFIC VOLUME (ʋ):
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Specific volume of a fluid is defined as the volume of a fluid occupied by unit mass.
Volume per unit mass of a fluid is called Specific volume.
Volume of a fluid 1
Specific volume  
Mass of fluid 
Thus specific volume is the reciprocal of mass density. S.I unit: m3/kg.
4. SPECIFIC GRAVITY (s):

Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the specific weight of a fluid to the specific weight
of a standard fluid.
Specific weight of liquid
Specific gravity 
Specific weight of water
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
Specific gravity is also equal to Relative density. Relative density =
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
5. VISCOSITY:
Viscosity is defined as the property of a fluid which offers resistance to the movement of one
layer of fluid over adjacent layer of the fluid.
When two layers of a fluid, at distance ‘dy’ apart, move

one over the other at different velocities, say u and u+du as
shown in figure. The viscosity together with relative velocity
causes a shear stress acting between the fluid layers.
The top layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent lower layer
while the lower layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent top
layer.
This shear stress is proportional to the rate of change of velocity
with respect to y.
du

dy
du
or 
dy
where, μ is the constant of proportionality and is known as the co-efficient of dynamic viscosity or
du
viscosity and represents the rate of shear strain or rate of shear deformation or velocity gradient.
dy


 du 
 
 dy 
Thus the viscosity is also defined as the shear stress required to produce unit rate of shear
strain.
S.I unit: Ns/m². It is still expressed in poise (P) as well as centipoises (cP).
;
Kinematic Viscosity(ν):
It is defined as the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and density of the fluid
𝐷𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜇
ν =. =
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜌
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SI unit: m2/s; CGS unit ‘stoke’. 1 stoke = 1 cm2/ sec = 10-4 m2/s
Newton's Law of Viscosity:

It states that the shear stress (τ) on a fluid element layer is directly proportional to the rate of shear
strain. The constant of proportionality is called the co-efficient of viscosity.
du

dy
6.COMPRESSIBILITY:
Compressibility is the reciprocal of the bulk modulus of elasticity, K, which is defined as the
ratio of compressive stress to volumetric strain.
Compression of fluids give rise to pressure with the decrease in volume.
dV
If dv is the decrease in volume and dp is the increase in pressure, Volumetric Strain = 
V
(- ve sign indicate the volume decreases with increase of pressure)
Increase of pressure
Bulk modulus K =
Volumetric Strain
dp
=
 dV
V
1
Compressibility =
K
7.SURFACE TENSION:
Surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid in contact with a
gas or on the surface between two immiscible liquids such that the contact surface behaves like a
membrane under tension.
Surface Tension on Liquid Droplet:

Consider a small spherical droplet of a liquid of diameter ‘d’. On the entire surface of the droplet,
the tensile force due to surface tension will be acting.
Let σ = Surface tension of the liquid
p = Pressure intensity inside the droplet (in excess of the outside pressure intensity)
d = Dia. of droplet.
Let the droplet is cut into two halves. The forces acting on one half will be
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i) Tensile force (FT)due to surface tension acting around the circumference of the cut portion as
shown in fig. and this is equal to = σ x Circumference = σ x π d
𝜋𝑑2 𝜋𝑑2
ii) Pressure force (Fp) on the area 4 is = p x 4 as shown in the figure.
These two forces are equal under equilibrium conditions. i.e.,
𝜋𝑑2
px =σxπd
4
4𝜎
Therefore, 𝑝 =
𝑑
Surface Tension on a Hollow Bubble:

A hollow bubble like a soap bubble in air has two surfaces in contact with air, one inside and other
outside. Thus two surfaces arc subjected to surface tension.
In that case,
𝜋𝑑2
px = 2 x (σ x π d)
4
8𝜎
Therefore, 𝑝 =
𝑑
8. CAPILLARITY:
Capillarity is defined as a phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid surface in a small tube relative to the
adjacent general level of liquid when the tube is held vertically in the liquid.
The rise of liquid surface is known as capillary rise while the fall of the liquid surface is known as
capillary depression. It is expressed in terms of cm or mm of liquid. Its value depends upon the
specific weight of the liquid, diameter of the tube and surface tension of the liquid.
Expression for Capillary Rise:

Consider a glass tube of small diameter ‘d' opened at both ends and is inserted in a liquid. The liquid
will rise in the lube above the level of the liquid.
Let, h = height of the liquid in the tube. Under

a state of equilibrium,
the weight of liquid of height h is balanced by
the force at the surface of
the liquid in the tube. But the force at the
surface of the liquid in the tube
is due to surface tension.
Let, σ = Surface tension of liquid
θ= Angle of contact between liquid and glass
lube.
The weight of liquid of height ‘h’ in the tube = (Area of tube x h) x ρ x g

where, ρ = density of liquid
Vertical component of the surface tensile force
= σ x Circumference x cos θ
= σ x πd x cos θ
Weight of liquid of height ‘h’ in the tube = Vertical component of the surface tensile force
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𝟒𝝈 𝒄𝒐𝒔ɵ
or h=
𝒘𝒅
9.VAPOUR PRESSURE:
Vapour pressure is the pressure of the vapor over a liquid which is confined in a closed vessel at
equilibrium.
Vapour pressure increases with temperature.All liquids exhibit this phenomenon.
Types of fluid:
i. Ideal Fluid: A fluid, which is

incompressible and is having no viscosity, is
known as an ideal fluid. Ideal fluid is only an
imaginary fluid as all the fluids, which exist,
have some viscosity.
ii. Real Fluid: A fluid, which possesses
viscosity, is known as real fluid. All the fluids,
are real fluids in actual practice.
iii. Newtonian Fluid: A real fluid, in which the shear stress is directly proportional to the rate of
shear strain (or) velocity gradient, is known as a Newtonian fluid.
iv. Non-Newtonian Fluid: A real fluid, in which the shear stress is not proportional to the rate of
shear strain (or) velocity gradient, is known as a Non-Newtonian fluid.
v. Ideal Plastic Fluid: A fluid, in which shear stress is more than the yield value and shear stress is
proportional to the rate of shear strain (or) velocity gradient, is known as ideal plastic fluid
Fluid Pressure
Fluids exert pressure on surfaces with which they are in contact.
Fluid pressure is the force exerted by the fluid per unit area. Fluid pressure is transmitted with equal
intensity in all directions and acts normal to any plane.
In the same horizontal plane the pressure intensities in a liquid are equal.
𝐹
Fluid pressure or Intensity of pressure or pressure, 𝑝 = 𝐴
S.I unit of fluid pressure are N/m² or Pa, where 1 N/m² = 1 Pa.
Many other pressure units are commonly used:

1 bar = 105 N/m²
1 atmosphere = 101325 N/m² = 101.325kN/m²
Some Terms commonly used in static pressure analysis include:

Pressure Head: The pressure intensity exerted at the base of a column of homogenous fluid of a
given height in metres.
Vacuum: A perfect vacuum is a completely empty space in which, therefore the pressure is zero.
Atmospheric Pressure: The pressure at the surface of the earth exerted by the head of air above the
surface.
At sea level the atmospheric pressure = 101.325 kN/m² = 101325 N/m² or pa
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= 1.01325 bar
= 760 mm of mercury
= 10.336 m of water
Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus, the atmospheric pressure is
often referred to as the barometric pressure.
Gauge Pressure: The pressure measured by a pressure gauge above or below atmospheric pressure.
Vacuum pressure: The gauge pressure less than atmospheric is called Vacuum pressure or negative
pressure.
Absolute Pressure: The pressure measured above absolute zero or vacuum.
Absolute Pressure = Atmospheric Pressure + Gauge Pressure
Absolute Pressure = Atmospheric Pressure – Vacuum pressure
Atmospheric, Gauge & Absolute pressure
Hydrostatic law
The hydrostatic law is a principle that identifies the amount of pressure exerted at a
specific point in a given area of fluid.
It states that, “The rate of increase of pressure in the vertically downward direction, at a point
in a static fluid, must be equal to the specific weight of the fluid.”
Pressure Variation in static fluid

Consider a small vertical cylinder of static fluid in equilibrium.
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School of Mechanical Engineering SME1202 Fluid Mechanics and
Machinery
Assume that the sectional area is dA and the pressure acting upward on the bottom surface is
p and the pressure acting downward on the upper surface (dz above bottom surface) is
(p + dp)dz.
Let the free surface of the fluid be the origin, i.e., Z = 0. Then the pressure variation at a
depth Z = - h below the free surface is
governed by
(p + dp) A + W = pA
dpA + ρgAdz = 0
dp = -ρgdz
𝑑𝑝
= - ρg = - w
𝑑𝑧
Therefore, the hydrostatic pressure increases linearly with depth at the rate of the specific weight,
w = ρg of the fluid.
If fluid is homogeneous, ρ is constant.

By simply integrating the above equation,
ʃdp = - ʃρg dz => p = - ρg Z + C
Where C is constant of integration
When z = 0 (on the free surface), p = C = po = the atmospheric pressure.
Hence, p = - ρgZ + po
Pressure given by this equation is called ABSOLUTE PRESSURE, i.e., measured above perfect
vacuum.
However, it is more convenient to measure the pressure as gauge pressure by setting atmospheric
pressure as datum pressure. By setting po = 0,
p = -ρgz+0 = -ρgz=ρgh
p = wh
The equation derived above shows that when the density is constant, the pressure in a liquid at rest
increases linearly with depth from the free surface.
𝒑
The above expression can be rearranged as, h =
𝒘
Here, h is known as pressure head or simply head of fluid.
In fluid mechanics, fluid pressure is usually expressed in height of fluids or head of fluids.
Hydrostatic force
Hydrostatic pressure is the force exerted by a static fluid on a plane surface, when the static
fluid comes in contact with the surface. This force will act normal to the surface. It is also known as
Total Pressure.
The point of application of the hydrostatic or total pressure on the surface is known as Centre of
pressure.
The vertical distance between the free surface of fluid and the centre of pressure is called depth of
centre of pressure or location of hydrostatic force.
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Total Pressure on a Horizontal Immersed Surface

Consider a plane horizontal surface immersed in a liquid as shown in figure.
Let, w = Specific weight of the liquid, kN/m³
A = Area of the immersed surface in m²
x̅ = Depth of the horizontal surface from the liquid level in m
We know that,
Total pressure on the surface, P = Weight of the liquid above the immersed surface
P = Specific weight of liquid x Volume of liquid
= Specific weight of liquid x Area of surface x Depth of liquid
P = wA x̅ kN
Total Pressure and depth of centre of pressure on a Vertically Immersed Surface

Consider an irregular plane vertical surface immersed in a liquid as shown in figure .
Let,
w = Specific weight of liquid
A = Total area of the immersed surface
x̅ = Depth of the center of gravity of the immersed surface from the liquid surface
Now. consider a strip of width ‘b’, thickness ‘dx’ and at a depth x from the free surface of the liquid
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Moment of pressure on the strip about the free surface of liquid = x b dx X x = x² b dx

Total moment on the entire plane immersed surface = ∫ x² b dx
M = ∫ 𝑥² 𝑏 𝑑𝑥
But, ∫ 𝑥² 𝑏 𝑑𝑥 = second moment of area about free liquid surface = Io
therefore, M = Io
Io = IG + A x̅², according to parallel axis theorem.
Therefore, M = (IG + A x̅²) ------------------------------ (1)
Also M = P x h̅ = Ax̅ x h̅ ---------------------------------- (2)
Since equations 1 & 2 are equal,
Ax̅ x h̅ = (IG + A x̅²)
Depth of centre of pressure, h̅ = (IG + A x̅²) / Ax̅
𝐺 𝐼
Therefore, h̅ = x̅ +
A𝑥
For Vertically immersed plane surfaces,

𝐼𝐺
Total pressure, P = A x̅ and Depth of centre of pressure, h̅ = x̅ +
𝐴𝑥
Total Pressure and depth of Centre of Pressure on an Inclined Immersed Surface

Consider a plane inclined surface, immersed in a liquid as shown in figure. Let,
w = Specific weight of the liquid
A = Total area of the immersed surface
̅x̅ = Depth of the centroid of the immersed plane surface from the free surface of liquid.
θ = Angle at which the immersed surface is inclined with the liquid surface
̅h̅ = depth of centre of pressure from the liquid surface
b = width of the considered thin strip
dx = thickness of the strip
O = the reference point obtained by projecting the plane surface with the free surface of liquid
l = distance of the strip from O
Area of the strip = b dx

Pressure of liquid on the strip = w x sinθ
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Total pressure on the strip = w x sinθ X b dx

Total pressure on the entire area of plane surface, P = ∫ 𝑤 𝑥 sinθ X b dx
𝐴 x
P = w sinθ ∫ 𝑥. 𝑏𝑑𝑥, and we know from parallel axis theorem, ∫ 𝑥. 𝑏𝑑𝑥 =
sin 𝜃
Therefore, P = wAx̅
Moment of pressure on the strip about O = wl sinθ b dx x x = wx² sinθ b dx

Total moment of pressure on the entire area = ∫ 𝑤 𝑥² sin 𝜃 𝑏 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑤 sin 𝜃 ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑏 𝑑𝑥
But, ∫ 𝑥 2 b dx = second moment of area about O-Oʹ = Io
o
o o M.I = 𝑤 sin 𝜃 Io --------------------------------------- (1)
𝑥̅²
but, Io = IG + A sin² 𝜃
̅
h
Also,M.I = P.y; y = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
̅
h
o
o o M.I = P.𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 -----------------------------------------------(2)
Equating 1 & 2, P.h̅ = 𝑤 sin² 𝜃 Io

𝑥̅²
P.h̅ = 𝑤 sin² 𝜃 [IG + A sin² 𝜃 ]
𝑥̅²
𝑤 sin² 𝜃 [IG + A ] 𝐼𝐺 sin² 𝜃
o
o o h̅ = 𝑤 sin² 𝜃 [IG + A x̅²]/ P = sin² 𝜃
= + x̅
𝑤𝐴x 𝐴 x
𝐼𝐺 sin² 𝜃
or h̅ = x̅ + 𝐴x
For inclined immersed surfaces,

Total pressure, P = A x̅
𝐼𝐺 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ɵ
Depth of centre of pressure , ̅h̅ = + x̅
Ax
M.I and Geometric Properties of some plane surfaces
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Pascal's law
Pascal’s law states that “Intensity of pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is same in all directions”.
The basic property of a static fluid is pressure.
Pressure is the surface force exerted by a fluid against the walls of its container.
Pressure also exists at every point within a volume of fluid.
For a static fluid, as shown by the following analysis, pressure turns to be independent direction.
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Consider a triangular prism of small fluid element ABCDEF in equilibrium. Let Px is the
intensity of pressure in the X direction acting at right angle on the face ABFE, Py is the intensity of
pressure in the Y direction acting at right angle on the face CDEF, and Ps is the intensity of pressure
normal to inclined plane at an angle θ as shown in figure at right angle to ABCD..
For a fluid at rest there will be no shear stress, there will be no accelerating forces, and
therefore the sum of the forces in any direction must be zero.
Thus the forces acting on the fluid element are the pressures on the surrounding and the gravity force.
Force due to px = px x Area ABFE = px dydz
Horizontal component of force due to pN = - (pN x Area ABCD) sin(θ) = - pNdNdz dy/ds = -PNdydz
As Py has no component in the x direction, the element will be in equilibrium, if
px dydz + (-pNdydz) = 0
i.e. px = pN
Similarly in the y direction, force due to py = pydxdz
Component of force due to pN = - (pN x Area ABCD) cos(θ) = - pNdsdz dx/ds = - pNdxdz
Force due to weight of element is negligible and the equation reduces to,
py = pN
Therefore, px = py = pN
Thus, Pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is same in all directions.
Piezometer :The simplest form of manometer is the piezometer. The height of the fluid in the tube
gives the difference between pressure in the pipe and atmosphere.
The piezometer is only useful when the pressure to be measured is greater than
atmospheric (otherwise) air would be sucked back into system.
ℎ𝐴 = h .s1 m of water
pA = w.hA kN/m2
where, w = specific weight of fluid in kN/m³
Simple U tube manometer:

A very common form of manometer is the U tube manometer. In this version one of the tubes is open
to the atmosphere.
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Manometer equation
Let the lower level of manometer liquid be the datum
Pressure of liquid above datum in the left limb = Pressure of

liquid above datum in the right limb
ℎ𝐴 + h1.s1 = h2. s2 m of water
ℎ𝐴 = h2. s2 - h1.s1 m of water.
PA = w.hA kN/m2
where , w = specific weight of water.
Differential U-tube manometer
Let,
A and B are the two pipes carrying liquids of specific gravity s1 and s3 & s2 = specific gravity of
manometer liquid.
h1 = height of pipe A liquid in left limb & h2 = height of manometer liquid in right limb above datum;
h3 = height of pipe B liquid right limb as shown in figure.
Let, 𝑝𝐴 and 𝑝𝐵 be the pressure of liquids in the corresponding pipes A and B.
If 𝑝𝐴 > 𝑝𝐵 , then the manometer equation is,
𝑝𝐴 + 𝑤1 ℎ1 = 𝑝𝐵 + 𝑤2 ℎ2 + 𝑤3 ℎ3
𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = 𝑤2 ℎ2 + 𝑤3 ℎ3 − 𝑤1 ℎ1 N/ m2
Dividing both sides by specific weight of water, w
𝑝𝐴 −𝑝𝐵 𝑤2 ℎ2 𝑤3 ℎ3 𝑤1 ℎ1
= + − m of water
𝑤 𝑤 𝑤 𝑤
𝑝
ℎ𝐴 − ℎ𝐵 = 𝑠2 ℎ2 + 𝑠3 ℎ3 − 𝑠1 ℎ1 m of water [ ᶱ ᶱᶱ = pressure head ‘h’, in m of water &
𝑤
𝑤𝑙
= sl (sp.gravity of liquid)]
𝑤𝒘
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= [𝑠2 ℎ2 + 𝑠3 ℎ3 − 𝑠1 ℎ1 ] x 9.81 kN/m²
Buoyant force: The upward force exerted by a liquid on a body when the body is immersed in the
liquid is known as buoyancy or buoyant force.
The point through which force of buoyancy is supposed to act is called centre of buoyancy.
The buoyant force acting on a body is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the body.
For a fluid with constant density, the buoyant force is independent of the distance of the body from the
free surface. It is also independent of the density of the solid body.
Archimedes' principle: The buoyant force acting on a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight
of the fluid displaced by the body, and it acts upward through the centroid of the displaced volume.
For floating bodies, the weight of the entire body must be equal to the buoyant force, which is the
weight of the fluid whose volume is equal to the volume of the submerged portion of the floating body.
ρ - density of body; ρf – density of fluid
A solid body dropped into a fluid will sink, float,

or remain at rest at any point in the fluid,
depending on its average density relative to the
density of the fluid.
Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies

A floating body possesses vertical stability, while an immersed neutrally buoyant body is neutrally
stable since it does not return to its original position after a disturbance.
An immersed neutrally buoyant body is (a) stable if the center of gravity G is directly below the center of
buoyancy B of the body, (b) neutrally stable if G and B are coincident, and (c) unstable if G is directly above B.
Stability of floating bodies: A floating body is stable if the body is bottom-heavy and thus the center
of gravity G is below the centroid B of the body, or if the metacentre M is above point G. However,
the body is unstable if point M is below point G.
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Metacentre: The point about which a body starts oscillating when the body is tilted is known meta-
centre.
Metacentric height GM: The distance between the center of gravity G and the metacenter M is
known as Meta centric height. It is the point of intersection of line of action of buoyant force with the
line passing through centre of gravity, when the body is slightly tilted.
The length of the metacentric height GM above G is a measure of the stability: If the metacentric
height increases, then the floating body will be more..
𝐼
The meta-centric height (GM) is.given by, GM = - BG
V
Where, I = Moment of Inertia of the floating body (in plan) at water surface about the axis Y- Y
V = Volume of ihe body sub merged in water
BG = Distance between centre of gravity and centre of buoyancy.
Conditions of equilibrium of a floating and submerged body are :
Equilibrium Floating Body Sub-merged Body

(i) Stable Equilibrium M is above G B is above G
(a) Unstable Equilibrium M is below G B is below G
(Hi) Neutral Equilibrium Af and G coincide B and G coincide
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𝑤1 𝑥̅
The value of meta-cenlric height GM, experimentally is given as GM =
𝑊 tan 𝜃
Where
w1 = Movable weight
x = Distance through which w1 is moved
W = Weight of the ship or floating body including w1
θ = Angle through the ship or floating body is tilted due to the movement of w1
Problems
1. 5000 litres³ of an oil weighs 45 kN. Find its Specific weight, mass density and relative density.
Given: To find:
Volume, V = 5000 lit = 5000/1000 = 5 m³ i)Density,ρ
Weight, W= 45 kN = 45000 N ii)relative density, s
Specific Weight, w = W/V = 45000 / 5 = 9000 N/m³ = 9 kN/m³

Specific Weight, w = ρg
Mass density, ρ = w/g = 9000/ 9.81 = 917.43 kg/m³
Relative density = Density of oil/density of water = 917.43/ 1000 = 0.917
2. The density of an oil is 850 kg/m³. Find its relative density and Kinematic viscosity if the
dynamic viscosity is 5 x 10-3 kg/ms
Density of oil, ρoil = 850 kg/m³

Density of water, ρwater = 1000 kg/m³
Relative density of oil = 850/1000 = 0.85
Dynamic viscosity = µ = 5 x 10-3 kg/ms = 5 x 10-³ N s/m²
Kinematic viscosity = ν = µ / ρ = 5 x 10-³/ 850 = 5.882 x 10-6 m²/s
3. The space between two large inclined parallel planes is 6mm and is filled with a fluid. The planes
are inclined at 30° to the horizontal. A small thin square plate of 100 mm side slides freely down
parallel and midway between the inclined planes with a constant velocity of 3 m/s due to its
weight of 2N. Determine the viscosity of the fluid.
Given: Gap between plane and plate =6/2 = 3 mm = 0.003 m

Inclination of plane, θ = 30°
Velocity, u = 3 m/s
Weight of plate, W = 2 N
To find: viscosity, µ
Area of plate, A = 0.1 x 0.1 = 0.01 m²

Force due to the weight of the sliding plate along the direction of motion = 2 sin 30 = 1 N
Viscous force, F = shear stress x A = µ x (du/dy) x (2 x A) [. .. viscous force both sides of plate]
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Substituting the values,

1 = µ x [3/0.003] x [2 x 0.01]
Solving for viscosity, µ = 0.05 Ns/m² or 0.5 Poise
4. Determine the resistance offered to the downward sliding of a shaft of 400 mm dia and 0.1 m
length by the oil film between the shaft and a bearing of internal diameter 402 mm. The
kinematic viscosity is 2.4 x 10-4 m²/s and density is 900 kg/m³. The shaft is to move centrally
and axially at a constant velocity of 0.1 m/s.
Force, F opposing the movement of the shaft = shear stress x area

F = µ(du/dy) (π x D x L)
µ = ν x ρ = 2.4 x 10-4 x 900 = 0.216 Ns/m²
du = 0.1 m/s, L = 0.1 m, D= 0.4 m
dy = (402 - 400)/(2 x 1000) m = 0.001m,
Substituting,
F = 0.216 x {0.1 /0.001} ( π x 0.4 x 0.1) = 2714 N
5. A square plate of size 1m x 1m and weighing 350 N slides down an inclined plane with a
uniform velocity of 1.5 m/s.The inclined plane is laid on a slope of 5 vertical to 12 horizontal
and has an oil film of 1 mm thickness. Calculate the dynamic viscosity of oil.
6. Two large surfaces are 2.5 cm apart. This space is filled with an oil of absolute viscosity 0.82
NS/m². Find what force is required to drag a plate of area 0.5m² between the two surfaces at a
speed of 0.6m/s. (i) When the plate is equidistant from the surfaces, (ii) when the plate is at
1cm from one of the surfaces.
Page | 17
Case (i) When the plate is equidistant from the surfaces,
Let F1 and F2be the force required to overcome viscous resistance of oil above and below the plate
respectively.
In this case F1 = F2, Since the liquid is same on both side and the plate is equidistant from the
surfaces.
u = du = 0.6 m/s
F1 = F2 = A x µ x du/dy = 0.5 x 0.82 x 0.6/0.0125 = 19.68 N
Total force required, F = F1 + F2 = 19.68+19.68 = 39.36 N
Case (ii) when the plate is at 1cm from one of the surfaces.
Here, F1 ≠ F2
dy1 = 1.5 cm = 0.015 m; dy2= 1cm = 0.01m
F1= A x µ x du/dy1= 0.5 x 0.82 x 0.6/0.015 = 16.4 N
F2 = A x µ x du/dy2= 0.5 x 0.82 x 0.6/0.01= 24.6 N
Total force required, F = F1 + F2 = 16.4+24.6 = 41 N
7. Determine the power dissipated to rotate a shaft of 300 mm diameter at 400 rpm supported at
two journal bearings of 300 mm length with uniform oil thickness of 1 mm. Take viscosity for
oil as 0.03 Ns/m².
Given: Dia of Shaft, D= 300 mm= 0.3 m

Speed of rotation, N = 400 rpm
Bearing length, L=300 mm = 0.3 m
No.of bearings = 2
Thickness of oil,dy = 1 mm=0.001 m
Viscosity of oil, µ = 0.03 Ns/m²
Solution:
By Newton’s law of viscosity,
du
Shear stress,   
dy
πDN 𝜋 x 0.3 x 400
For a rotating shaft, u = = = 6.283 m/s
60 60
6.283
°
°° shear stress, τ = 0.03 x 0.001 = 188.49 N/m²
Area of contact between shaft and 2 bearings, A = 2 x πDL = 2 x π x 0.3 x 0.3 = 0.5655 m²
Shear force, F = τ x A = 188.49 x 0.5655 = 106.59 N
Torque, T = F x r = F x D/2 = 106.59 x 0.3/2 = 15.989 Nm
2πNT 2π x 400 x 15.989
Power dissipated, P = = = 669.75 Nm/s or Watts
60 60
Page | 18
8. Convert a pressure of 500 kN/m² in terms of i) height of a column of water of density 1000
kg/m³ and ii) height of mercury with specific gravity 13.6 .
We know that,
Pressure p = wh and w = ρ g
h = p/w
Specific weight of water = 1000 x 9.81 = 9810 N/m³ = 9.81 kN/m³
Pressure head of water = hw =500/9.81 = 50.97 m of water
Pressure head, hw = sm x hm
Therefore, hm = hw/sm = 50.97/13.6 = 3.75 m of mercury
9. A Capillary tube having an inside diameter 5mm is dipped in water at 20° C. Determine the
rise of water in the tube. Take σ =0.0736N/m at 20° C.
Dia of glass tube, d = 5 mm = 0.005 m

θ for water = 0°
Capillary rise, h = 𝒘 𝒅 = (4 x 0.0736 x cos 0) / (9810 x 0.005) = 0.006 m = 6 mm
10. Calculate capillary rise in a glass tube when immersed in Hg at 20° c. Assume
σ for Hg at 20°c as 0.51N/m. The diameter of the tube is 5mm. θ = 130°.
Dia of glass tube, d = 5 mm = 0.005 m

θ for Hg = 130° ; σ = 0.51N/m
Capillary rise, h = = (4 x 0.51 x cos 130) / [(9810 x 13.6) x 0.005)] = -1.97x10-3 m
𝒘𝒅
Negative sign indicates fall of mercury in the tube.
10. Convert the following absolute pressure to gauge pressure:
(a) 120kPa (b) 3kPa (c) 15m of H20 (d) 800mm of Hg.
Solution:
(a) Pabs = Patm + Pgauge
Pgauge = Pabs - Patm = 120- 101.3= 18.7 k Pa
(b) pgauge = 3-101.3 = -98.3 kPa
Pgauge = 98.3 kPa (vacuum)
(C) habs = hatm + hgauge
15 = 10.3+hgauge
hgauge = 4.7m of water
(d) habs = hatm + hgauge
800 =760 + hgauge
hgauge = 40 mm of mercury
11. The right limb of a simple U-tube manometer containing mercury is open to the atmosphere
while the left limb is connected to a pipe in which a fluid of specific Gravity, 0.9 is flowing.
The centre of the pipe is 12 cm below the level of mercury in the right limb. Find the pressure
of fluid in the pipe if the difference of mercury level in the two limbs is 22 cm.
Page | 19
Specific gravity of pipe liquid, S1 = 0.9;

Specific gravity of manometer liquid, S2 = 13.6;
Height of pipe liquid above datum, h1 = 22-12 = 10 cm = 0.1 m
Height of manometer liquid above datum, h2 = 22 cm = 0.22 m
Let, Pressure head of fluid in the pipe = hA m of water
Pressure of liquid above datum in the left limb = Pressure of liquid above datum in the right
limb
ℎ𝐴 + h1.s1 = h2. s2 m of water
ℎ𝐴 = h2. s2 - h1.s1 = (0.22 x 13.6) – (0.1 x 0.9) = 2 .902 m of water.
Pressure of fluid in the pipe, PA = w.hA = 9.81 x 2.902 = 28.469 kN/m²
where , w = specific weight of water = 9.81 kN/m²
12. A U tube differential mercury manometer is connected to two pipes A and B, both carrying
water. Pipe A lies 1.5 m above Pipe B. The level of mercury raised up in the left limb
connected to pipe A is leveling the centre of pipe B. If the difference in levels of mercury is 7.5
cm and the pressure in pipe A is 170 kN/m², find the pressure in Pipe B.
Given Data: Refer figure
To find: Pressure in lower pipe-B, pB = ?
Solution:
Let Z-Z be the datum (lower level of mercury in right limb connected to pipe-B)
Pressure in Pipe- A, pA =170 kN/m² Specific weight of water in pipe A & B,
Difference in levels of pipe = h1 = 1.5 m ѡ𝟏 = 9.81 kN/m³
Difference in levels of mercury,
h2 = h3 =7.5 cm = 0.075 m
Page | 20
Specific gravity of water in pipe –A & pipe-B = Specific weight of mercury(manometer liquid),
s1=1 ѡ𝟐 = s2 × ѡ𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 13.6 × 9.81 = 133.416
Specific gravity of manometer liquid, s2 = 13.6 kN/m³
Manometer equation:
Pressure of liquids above datum in Left limb = Pressure of liquids above datum in right
limb
𝒑𝑨 + ѡ𝟏 𝒉𝟏 + ѡ𝟐 𝒉𝟐 = 𝒑𝑩 + ѡ𝟏 𝒉𝟑
𝒑𝑩 = 𝒑𝑨 + ѡ𝟏 𝒉𝟏 + ѡ𝟐 𝒉𝟐 − ѡ𝟏 𝒉𝟑
= 𝒑𝑨 + ѡ𝟏 𝒉𝟏 + ѡ𝟐 𝒉𝟐 − ѡ𝟏 𝒉𝟐 [ since 𝒉𝟑 = 𝒉𝟐 ]
= 𝒑𝑨 + ѡ𝟏 𝒉𝟏 + [ѡ𝟐 − ѡ𝟏 ] × 𝒉𝟐 = 170 + [9.81 × 1.5] + [133.416 - 9.81] × 0.075
= 170 + 14.715 + 9.2705 = 193.9855 kN/m²
𝒑𝑩 = 𝟏𝟗𝟑. 𝟗𝟖𝟓𝟓 𝒌𝑵/𝒎²
13. A rectangular plane surface is 2 m x 3 m is immersed vertically in water. Determine the total
pressure and location of centre of pressure on the plane surface when its upper edge is
horizontal and (a) coincides with water surface, (b) 2.5 m below the free water surface.
Case -1 Case -2
Area, A=2x3= 6 m² Area = 6 m²

̅x = 3/2 =1.5 m x̅ = 2.5+3/2 =4 m
IG = bd³/12 = 2x3³/12 = 4.5 m4 IG = bd³/12 = 2x3³/12 = 4.5 m4
Total Pressure
P= wA ̅x = 9.81 x 6 x 1.5 = 88.29 kN P = 9.81x 6x4 = 235.44 kN
Depth of centre of centre of pressure
h̅ = ̅x + IG/A ̅x = 1.5+4.5/(6 x1.5) h̅ = 4+4.5/(6x4)
=2m = 4.1875 m
14. An inclined circular plate, 3 m in diameter is submerged in an oil of specific gravity 0.8 in
such a way that its is greatest and least depth are 1 m and 2 m respectively. Find the total
pressure and the point where it acts.
Page | 21
Given: Circular plate; Dia. D = 3 m

Specific gravity of oil = S = 0.8
Depth of point A = 1 m
Depth of point C = 2 m
To find:
Total pressure of oil, P
Depth of centre of pressure, ̅h
Refer figure Specific weight of oil, w = Soil x ww

From right angle triangle ABC, = 0 .8 x 9.81
Sin θ = BC/AC = (2-1)/ 3 = 1/3 m and = 7.848 kN/m³
AG = 3/2 = 1.5 m
Depth of centre of gravity, x̅ = DA + AG x Sinθ Area of circular plate, A = 4 = 4
𝜋𝐷 2 𝜋 𝑋 32
= 1 + 1.5 x 1/3
= 1.5 m = 7.0686 m²
𝜋𝐷 4 𝜋 𝑋 34
Total pressure, P = wAx̅ IG = = = 3.9761 m4
64 64
= 7.848 x 7.0686 x 1.5
= 83.21 kN
𝐼 sin² 𝜃
Depth of centre of pressure, h̅ = x̅ + 𝐺 𝐴x
3.9761 X (1⁄3)2
= 1.5 + = 1.5417 m
7.0686 X 1.5
15. A rectangular block of wood is 5 m long, 3 m wide and 1.2 m thick. 0.8 m height is
submerged in sea water. If the centre of gravity is 0.6 m above the bottom of the wood block,
determine the metacentric height. Take density for sea water = 1025 kg/m³.
Given: Size of wood block = 5m x 3m x 1.2 m

Hight under water = 0.8 m
Density of sea water = 1025 kg/m³
Base to C.G distance, AG = 0.6 m
Solution:
Centre of buoyancy will lie at a distance of 0.8/2 = 0.4 m from base along the vertical axis
passing through C.G; ie., AB = 0.4 m
Moment of inertia about Y-Y, I = 5 x 3³/12 = 11.25 m4

Volume of wood block under water,V = 5x3x0.8 =12 m³
Distance between B and G, BG = AG-AB = 0.6 – 0.4 = 0.2 m
𝐼
Metacentric height, GM = – BG
V
11.25
= − 0.2 = 0.7375 m
12
Page | 22
16. An object weighing 2200 N in water has dimensions 1.75 rn x 1.25 m x 2.25 m, Find its
weight
in air and its specific gravity.
Given :
Size of the object = 1.75 m x 1.25 m x 2.25 m

Weight when in water = 2200 N
Solution:
Volume of the object = 1.75 m x 1.25 m x 2.25 m = 4.921875 m³
Volume of the water displaced - Volume of the object = 4.921875 m³
.-. Weight of water displaced = 9810 x 4.921875 = 48283.59375 N
For the equilibrium of the object
Weight of object in air - Weight of water displaced = Weight in water
Weight of object in air – 48283.59375 = 2200
Weight of object in air = 48283.59375 + 2200 = 50483.59375N
Weight in air = 50483.59375 N
Specific weight ot the object = W/V = 50483.59375 /4.921875 = 10256.9841 N/m³
specic weight of object 10256.9841
Specific gravity = specific weight of water = = 1.046
9810
Questions for practice:

PART - A
1. Define fluid and fluid mechanics.

2. Define real and ideal fluids.
3. Define mass density and specific weight.
4. Distinguish between fluid statics and kinematics.
5. Define viscosity.
6. Define specific volume.
7. Define specific gravity.
8. Distinct b/w capillarity and surface tension.
9. Calculate the specific weight, density and specific gravity of 1 liter liquid which weighs
7N.
10. State Newton’s law of viscosity.
11. Name the types of fluids.
12. Define compressibility.
13. Define kinematic viscosity.
14. Find the kinematic viscosity of oil having density 981 kg/m3. The shear stress at a point in
oil is 0.2452N/m2 and velocity gradient at that point is 0.2/sec.
15. Determine the specific gravity of a fluid having 0.05 poise and kinematic viscosity 0.035
stokes.
16. Find out the minimum size of glass tube that can be used to measure water level if the
capillary rise is restricted to 2 mm. Consider surface tension of water in contact with air
as 0.073575 N/m.
17. Write down the expression for capillary fall.
Page | 23
18. Explain vapour pressure .

19. Two horizontal plates are placed 1.25 cm apart. The space between them is being filled
with oil of viscosity 14 poises. Calculate the shear stress in oil if upper plate is moved
with a velocity of 2.5 m/s.
20. State Pascal’s law.
21. What is mean by absolute and gauge pressure and vacuum pressure?
22. Define Manometer and list out its types.
23. Define centre of pressure and total pressure.
24. Define buoyancy and centre of buoyancy.
25. Define Meta centre.
26. Define Hydro static Pressure.
PART – B
1. Calculate the capillary effect in a glass tube of 4.5 mm diameter, when immersed in (a) water
(b) mercury. The temperature of the liquid is 20o C and the values of the surface tension of
water and mercury at 20o C in contact with air are 0.073575 N/m and 0.51 N/m respectively.
The angle of contact for water is zero that for mercury 130 o. Take specific weight of water as
9800 N/m3.
2. If the velocity profile of a liquid over a plate is a parabolic with the vertex 202 cm from the
plate, where the velocity is 120 cm/sec. calculate the velocity gradients and shear stress at a
distance of 0, 10 and 20 cm from the plate, if the viscosity of the fluid is 8.5 poise.
3. The dynamic viscosity of oil, used for lubrication between a shaft and sleeve is 6 poise. The shaft is of
diameter 0.4 m and rotates at 190 rpm. Calculate the power lost in the bearing for a sleeve length of
90mm. the thickness of the oil film is 1.5 mm.
4. If the velocity distribution over a plate is given by u=2/3 y – y2 in which u is the velocity in
m/s at a distance y meter above the plate, determine the shear stress at y = 0 and y = 0.15 m.
5. Derive Pascal’s law.
6. Derive expression for capillary rise and fall.
7. Two large plane surfaces are 2.4 cm apart. The space between the gap is filled with glycerin.
What force is required to drag a thin plate of size 0.5 m between two large plane surfaces at a
speed of 0.6 m/sec. if the thin plate is (i) in the middle gap (ii) thin plate is 0.8 cm from one
of the plane surfaces? Take dynamic viscosity of fluid is 8.1 poise.
8. Calculate the capillary rise in a glass tube of 2.5 mm diameter when immersed vertically in (a) water
(b) mercury. Take surface tension = 0.0725 N/m for water and = 0.52 N/m for mercury in contact
with air. The specific gravity for mercury is given as 13.6 and angle of contact of mercury with glass =
130o.
9. A U - Tube manometer is used to measure the pressure of water in a pipe line, which is in
excess of atmospheric pressure. The right limb of the manometer contains water and mercury
is in the left limb. Determine the pressure of water in the main line, if the difference in level
of mercury in the limbs of U tube is 10 cm and the free surface of mercury is in level with over
the centre of the pipe. If the pressure of water in pipe line is reduced to 9810 N/m2,
Page | 24
Calculate the new difference in the level of mercury. Sketch the arrangement in both cases.
10. Calculate the total hydrostatic force and location of centre of pressure for a circular
plate of 2.5 m diameter when immersed vertically in an oil of specific gravity 0.8 with its top edge
1.5 m below the oil.
11. A rectangular plate 2.5m x 3.5 m is submerged in water and makes an angle of 60°
with the horizontal, the 2.5m sides being horizontal. Calculate the total force
on the plate and the location of the point of application of the force, when the top edge of
the plate is 1.6m below the water surface.
12. A rectangular plate 1.5 m x 3 m is immersed in an oil of specific gravity 0.82 such that its
upper and lower edge is at depths 1.5 m and 3 m respectively. Determine the total pressure
acting on the plate and its location.
13. In an open container water is filled to a height of 2.5m and above that an oil of Specific
gravity 0.85 is filled for a depth of 1.4 m. Find the intensity of pressure at the interface of
two liquids and at the bottom of the tank.
14. The pressure Intensity at a point is 40kPa. Find corresponding pressure head in (a) water (b)
Mercury (c) oil of specific gravity 0.9.
15. a)Calculate intensity of pressure due to a column of 0.3m of (a) water (b) Mercury (c) Oil of
specific gravity 0.8. Also express the same in absolute units.
b)Convert the following absolute pressure in to gauge pressure: (a) 110kPa (b) 7.3 kPa (c) 17
m of water (d) 860 mm of Mercury.
16. a)Convert a pressure head of 10 m of water column to kerosene of specific gravity 0.8 and carbon-
tetra-chloride of specific gravity of 1.62.
b)Determine (a) the gauge pressure and (b) The absolute pressure of water at a depth of 9 m from
the surface.
Page | 25

Untt 1 Fluid Properties

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Untt 1 Fluid Properties

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SATHYABAMA UNIVERSITY

School of Mechanical Engineering SME1202 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

UNTT 1 FLUID PROPERTIES

S.I unit of density is kg/m3.

2.SPECIFIC WEIGHT (or) WEIGHT DENSITY (w ):

3. SPECIFIC VOLUME (ʋ):

4. SPECIFIC GRAVITY (s):

When two layers of a fluid, at distance ‘dy’ apart, move

Newton's Law of Viscosity:

Surface Tension on Liquid Droplet:

Surface Tension on a Hollow Bubble:

Expression for Capillary Rise:

Let, h = height of the liquid in the tube. Under

The weight of liquid of height ‘h’ in the tube = (Area of tube x h) x ρ x g

i. Ideal Fluid: A fluid, which is

Many other pressure units are commonly used:

Some Terms commonly used in static pressure analysis include:

Atmospheric, Gauge & Absolute pressure

Pressure Variation in static fluid

If fluid is homogeneous, ρ is constant.

Total Pressure on a Horizontal Immersed Surface

Total Pressure and depth of centre of pressure on a Vertically Immersed Surface

Moment of pressure on the strip about the free surface of liquid = x b dx X x = x² b dx

For Vertically immersed plane surfaces,

Total Pressure and depth of Centre of Pressure on an Inclined Immersed Surface

Area of the strip = b dx

Total pressure on the strip = w x sinθ X b dx

Moment of pressure on the strip about O = wl sinθ b dx x x = wx² sinθ b dx

Equating 1 & 2, P.h̅ = 𝑤 sin² 𝜃 Io

For inclined immersed surfaces,

M.I and Geometric Properties of some plane surfaces

Simple U tube manometer:

Pressure of liquid above datum in the left limb = Pressure of

Differential U-tube manometer

= [𝑠2 ℎ2 + 𝑠3 ℎ3 − 𝑠1 ℎ1 ] x 9.81 kN/m²

ρ - density of body; ρf – density of fluid

A solid body dropped into a fluid will sink, float,

Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies

Conditions of equilibrium of a floating and submerged body are :

Equilibrium Floating Body Sub-merged Body

Specific Weight, w = W/V = 45000 / 5 = 9000 N/m³ = 9 kN/m³

Density of oil, ρoil = 850 kg/m³

Given: Gap between plane and plate =6/2 = 3 mm = 0.003 m

Area of plate, A = 0.1 x 0.1 = 0.01 m²

Substituting the values,

Force, F opposing the movement of the shaft = shear stress x area

Case (i) When the plate is equidistant from the surfaces,

Given: Dia of Shaft, D= 300 mm= 0.3 m

Dia of glass tube, d = 5 mm = 0.005 m

Dia of glass tube, d = 5 mm = 0.005 m

Specific gravity of pipe liquid, S1 = 0.9;

Given Data: Refer figure

To find: Pressure in lower pipe-B, pB = ?

Area, A=2x3= 6 m² Area = 6 m²

Given: Circular plate; Dia. D = 3 m

Refer figure Specific weight of oil, w = Soil x ww

Given: Size of wood block = 5m x 3m x 1.2 m

Moment of inertia about Y-Y, I = 5 x 3³/12 = 11.25 m4

Size of the object = 1.75 m x 1.25 m x 2.25 m

Questions for practice:

1. Define fluid and fluid mechanics.

18. Explain vapour pressure .