R. L.

THORNOCK An Experimental Study of Compressible

Associate Research Engineer,
Propulsion Research Unit,
The Boeing Co., Seattle, W a s h .
E. F. BROWN
Assistant Professor o f Mechanical
Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute a n d State University,
Blacksburg, V a .
Flow Through Convergent-Conical
Nozzles, Including a Comparison With
Theoretical Results
Despite the widespread use of convergent-conical nozzles as propulsion nozzles in turbo-
jet aircraft, little attention has been given to the effect of nozzle shape on their propulsive
performance. This paper presents the results of an experimental investigation in
which the effect of nozzle angle on the internal characteristics of the flow field and on
the propulsive performance of convergent conical nozzles was investigated. In addi-
tion, a theoretical solution is described which was developed as a part of this investiga-
tion. Fifteen, twenty-five, and forty-degree nozzles were tested at pressure ratios from
1.4 to 7.0. Measurements were made of the nozzle discharge coefficient, thrust coefficient,
local flow angle, and wall static pressure. The properties of the internal flow field were
seen to be affected by the nozzle angle and at pressure ratios less than the choked pressure
ratio by the pressure ratio as well. The results of the theoretical analysis substantiate
this behavior and are in reasonable agreement with the experimental data.

Introduction experimental investigation in which the effect of nozzle angle on

LI HE efficient operation of a turbojet aircraft depends
upon the careful design of its propulsion system. An important
component of t h e propulsion system is the exhaust nozzle which
is often of convergent-conical type. Consequently, it is re-
markable t h a t little data is available on the effect of nozzle shape
on the performance of convergent-conical nozzles. I n order to
provide this information, this paper presents the results of an
Contributed by the Fluids Engineering Division and presented
at the Winter Annual Meeting, Washington, D. C , November 28-
December 2, 1971, of T H E AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERS. Manuscript received at ASME Headquarters, June
23, 1971. Paper No. 71-WA/FE-3.
Copies will be available until September, 1972.
the performance and internal flow characteristics of convergent-
conical nozzles was examined [1], [2]. 1 T h e effect of nozzle
pressure ratio (ratio of nozzle total pressure to ambient pressure)
was also investigated and the value of t h e choked pressure ratio
was determined. In this paper the term choked pressure ratio
refers to t h a t pressure ratio greater than which the discharge
coefficient is constant.
The experimental data are compared with the results of a
theoretical solution which was developed as a part of this investi-
gation [3]. The theory provides an explanation for t h e fact
that choking was observed to occur experimentally at pressure
ratios greater than the critical pressure ratio. I n addition, t h e
theory permits the calculation of the nozzle performance and in-
ternal characteristics of the flow field. The results of t h e theo-
1
Numbers in brackets designate References at end of paper.

a =local speed of sound w == velocity p = density

=
discharge coefficient x -= axial coordinate, measured from \p = stream function
cD
O y =
thrust coefficient exit plane O) = transformed velocity
i =
imaginary unit V == radial coordinate, measured from $2 = complex potential function
k =ratio of specific heats (A == 1.4 center line
used here) a == nozzle angle (Mach angle in chara- Subscripts, Superscripts
M = local Mach number cteristic equations)
P = pressure e --= local flow angle a = approach section
R = nozzle throat radius M = = singularity strength TO = match state

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 retical calculations were found to be in good agreement with 1.00
the experimental data.
Nozzle performance was determined by measurements made
of the nozzle mass flow rate and thrust. The internal character-
istics of the flow field were determined from measurements made
of the local static pressure and local flow angle in the vicinity of
the throat and measurements made of the static pressure along
the nozzle wall.

Nozzles and Instrumentation

T h e tests were conducted on nozzles of 15, 25, and 40-deg
cone-half-angle. The nozzles which consisted of a convergent
truncated cone preceded by a constant diameter approach section
have an exit diameter of 3.0 in. and an approach section di-
ameter of 5.79 in. Unheated air was used as the working fluid.
A valve in the pipe supplying the plenum to which the nozzles
were attached permitted variation of the total pressure. The
total pressure and the total temperature were measured up- 2 3 4 5 6
stream of the nozzle approach section with an eleven tube total PRESSURE RATIO , Pr / PM
head rake and a chromel-alumel thermocouple, respectively.
Fig. 1 Experimental and theoretical discharge coefficients
The nozzle mass flow rate was measured with an orifice, or in some
cases, an ASME long radius flow nozzle, located in the pipe
supplying the plenum. The nozzle thrust was measured by a reference nozzle were the same as those of the conical nozzles.
strain-gage type load cell mounted on a support at the rear of the The discharge coefficient, sonic line position (obtained from static
plenum. The nozzles were constructed such t h a t a splitter plate pressure measurements), and the static pressure along the nozzle
could be inserted between the nozzle halves in order to measure wall were measured with the splitter plate in position. Likewise,
the local static pressure in the vicinity of the throat. The the discharge coefficient and wall pressures were measured with
splitter plate was 0.06 in. thick and contained 128, 0.014-in. the plate removed and compared with those in the presence of the
pressure taps at 0.25 and 0.125-in. intervals. The splitter plate plate. These comparisons revealed at most a 0.5 percent de-
was constructed by sandwiching 0.026-in. steel tubing between crease in the discharge coefficient and no measurable change in
two stainless steel sheets which were held together with epoxy wall pressure due to the presence of the splitter plate. In addi-
cement. The finished splitter plate was produced by grinding tion, it was found t h a t the measured position of the sonic line
and lapping the surfaces of this assembly. The local flow angle was in excellent agreement with the sonic line predicted by the
was measured with a small wedge-nosed yaw probe which was theoretical solution of Hall [4]. The effect of the splitter plate
constructed from two sections of 0.026-in. steel tubing brazed was thus considered negligible.
together side by side. The yaw probe was positioned by a re-
The value of the discharge coefficient obtained in the previous
motely controlled carriage which was mounted downstream of
tests provided a good check on the accuracy of the flow measur-
the nozzle. A series of spirally arranged 0.013-in. pressure taps
ing system since the discharge coefficient of the reference nozzle
were drilled in the upper half of the nozzle to permit the measure-
was known to be 0.993 (for pressure ratios greater than 2.0) from
ment of the static pressure along the nozzle wall.
the work of Smith and Matz [5]. Preliminary tests of the
reference nozzle resulted in a discharge coefficient of 1.008, thus
indicating t h a t the flow measuring system was improperly cali-
Testing Procedure brated. Consequently, the measured mass flow rate was multi-
The nozzles described above were tested at pressure ratios plied by the ratio 0.993/1.008, and this correction factor was
of 1.4 to 7.0, with the nozzles exhausting directly into the at- used in the remainder of the tests.
mosphere. All pressure measurements were made with strain
The yaw probe was calibrated by placing it in a small transonic
gage type pressure transducers which were connected to the
wind tunnel and rotating it to various angular positions with
nozzles with plastic tubing through remotely controlled cut-off
respect to the flow direction and recording the corresponding
and indexing valves. The indexing valves permitted up to 48
pressure differential across the two pressure taps. This procedure
pressure taps to be sequentially connected to a single pressure
was carried out for Mach numbers from 0.8 to 1.1, and from this
transducer, thus minimizing the number of pressure transducers
data a curve of pressure differential divided by dynamic pressure
required. The cut-off valves were located between the nozzle
versus probe angle was plotted and used as the calibration curve.
and the indexing valves and were used to isolate the indexing
The calibration curve was found to be linear between probe
valves from the nozzle during the indexing process.
angles of + 1 0 to —10 deg, and not greatly dependent on
In order to examine the effect of the splitter plate on the nozzle Mach number.
flow field, a series of preliminary tests were conducted using a
reference nozzle in place of the conical nozzles. The reference
nozzle was a convergent nozzle with a circular-arc wall contour Results and Discussion
of 5.449-in. radius. T h e exit and approach diameters of the In addition to a presentation and discussion of the experimental

-Nomenclature

S = denotes integration along differentiation with respect differentiation with respect

sonic line to x or y to co or 8
xx, xy, yy = denotes second order partial I, II = characteristics of first and
T = total conditions (except for
differentiation with respect second family
CT) to x and/or y <*> = jet boundary conditions
x, y = denotes first order partial coco, 88 = denotes second order partial * = critical conditions

Journal of Basic Engineering DECEMBER 1 9 7 2 / 927

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 results, a comparison will be presented of the experimental data I.OOr
3 ^
with the results of a theoretical solution which was concurrently
o
developed. The theoretical solution is unique in its ability to 0.99-
yield a solution in only a few minutes of calculation time on a r-

digital computer and yet fully take into account t h e nonuniform

>• \
0
character of the flow in the vicinity of the throat. Since this 0.98-
work is not readily available in the referenced literature a brief
description is given here before proceeding to a discussion of the 0.97- 0 REFERENCE <k N
experimental results. o 15°
The theoretical analysis employs a matching procedure in A 25° 0 \ /
0.96- )
which the solution for the local flow angle in the throat is com- • 40o \S
bined with the solution for the form of the jet. The solution for ANALYSIS , 0 ° -
0.95 1 cO-
the local flow angle in the throat employs the tangent-gas ap-
proximation and requires the value of an experimentally deter- 25°-
40°- I
mined parameter called the match Mach number. I t is assumed 0.94
that the working fluid is a perfect gas, t h a t the flow is inviscid
and adiabatic, and t h a t the nozzle is operating at a given super-
critical pressure. The theoretical solution permits prediction
Fig. 2 Experimental and theoretical thrust coefficients
of the nozzle performance and the internal characteristics of the
flow field for any nozzle angle and any (supercritical) pressure
ratio. A complete description of the theoretical solution can be
found in the Appendix.
The measured and predicted discharge coefficients for the 1.4

nozzles tested appear in Fig. 1. The discharge coefficient is ^y

defined as the actual mass flow rate divided by the mass flow
rate of an ideal (one-dimensional) nozzle having the same throat
area and operating with the same working fluid and at the same £ 1.0
~/l
pressure ratio as the actual nozzle. The discharge coefficient
can be seen to decrease with increasing nozzle angle and increase 3 0.8
Kx
with increasing pressure ratio for pressure ratios less than the
Q
<E
( -
critical value, (1.89 for air). I t is apparent, however, t h a t above § 0.6 \ \ \
a certain value of the pressure ratio, the discharge coefficient is < \
constant. For ideal nozzles, t h a t is, nozzles in which the flow
is one-dimensional, this value of the pressure ratio, the so-called
choked pressure ratio, is equal to the critical pressure ratio. As 0.2
MACH = 0.4 0.6 0.81 i.o\ l2
\ 'A 1.61

can be seen in Fig. 1, however, the choked pressure ratio for

convergent-conical nozzles is significantly greater than the critical
pressure ratio. This contrasting behavior is a result of the non-
uniformity of the flow in the throat of convergent-conical nozzles.
In an ideal nozzle, as a result of the uniform flow in the throat,
the sonic line at the critical pressure ratio is straight and spans
the exit plane of the nozzle. Thus characteristics which have
intersected the jet boundary and are thus capable of transmitting
disturbances resulting from changes in the nozzle pressure ratio
are unable to reach the sonic line. Consequently, at the critical
pressure ratio the region upstream of the sonic line is isolated
from increases in the nozzle pressure ratio, the discharge coeffi-
cient remains constant, and the nozzle is said to be choked. At
the critical pressure ratio in a conical nozzle, however, the flow
field in the throat of the nozzle is nonuniform, and thus the sonic
line is curved and lies slightly upstream of the nozzle exit plane
near the nozzle lip and considerably downstream of the exit
plane near the centerline. The theoretical analysis shows that
for pressure ratios less than the choked pressure ratio it is possible
for characteristics which have intersected the jet boundary to
reach the sonic line. Thus the effects of a change in the nozzle
pressure ratio are transmitted to the region upstream of the sonic
line and the discharge coefficient changes accordingly. As the
nozzle pressure ratio is increased, however, fewer of the char-
acteristics which have intersected the jet boundary reach the
sonic line, until at the choked pressure ratio, none of these char-
acteristics reaches the sonic line. T h e flow field upstream of the
sonic line is then isolated from the effects of further increases in
the pressure ratio, and the nozzle is said to be choked. The
theoretical choked pressure ratio is plotted in Fig. 1 as a dashed
line. Its value increases with increasing nozzle angle and is in
good agreement with the experimental results.
In Fig. 2 the thrust coefficient is shown for the 15, 25, and 40-
deg nozzles, and compared with the thrust coefficient of the
°'° -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6
J
0.8 1.0
AXIAL COORDINATE, X/R
Fig. 3 Lines of constant M a c h number for a 40-deg nozzle at a pressure
ratio of 4 . 0
reference nozzle which has a circular-arc wall contour and a re-
sulting exit-plane wall angle of zero deg. The thrust coef-
ficient is defined as the thrust of the actual nozzle divided by
the thrust of an ideal convergent-divergent nozzle operating at
the same pressure ratio and passing the same amount of mass
flow as the actual nozzle. T h e conical nozzles exhibit a higher
value of thrust coefficient than the reference nozzle with
the difference apparently increasing with increasing pressure
ratio. The theoretical results which are also shown in Fig.
2 predict an increase in performance with increasing nozzle
angle, a trend not clearly shown in the experimental data. I t is
felt that with more care taken in the measurement of the thrust
coefficient this trend could be experimentally discerned. A
similar trend has been noted in tests at England's National
Gas Turbine Establishment [6].
Typical results for the static pressure measurements taken in
the throat region are shown as lines of constant Mach number
in Fig. 3 for a 40-deg nozzle and a pressure ratio of 4.0. T h e
local Mach number was obtained from the isentropie relationship
between the measured local static and upstream total pressure.
The strongly nonuniform character of this flow field is well illus-
trated by the fact t h a t the sonic line lies almost a half nozzle
radius downstream of the nozzle exit plane. The sonic lines for
all three nozzles at a pressure ratio of 2.5 are shown in Fig. 4
and compared with the theoretical results. I t can be seen that
a t constant pressure ratio, the sonic line moves downstream

928 / D E C E M B E R 1972 Transactions of the ASME

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 1.2
——' 1 D
40°NOZZLE ErM.O
03
(

N
1.0
A /
on \NALYSIS
c 15° fcl
0.8 % en a
UJ i 25° o ^ i;3.o
i 40° UJ A /
<c o
l0.6 ^ ' CD SYMBOL PT/Pm
cc
o O 2.0 O N
o A 3.0
»0.4 \ \ \ D 4.0
< o \ O^=2.0
< •W 0.2 0.4 0.6
<£ 0 . 2

0.0
P r /F . = 2.5

0.0 0.2 0.4OBJ 0.6

w
AXIAL COORDINATE , X / R
0.8 1.0
RADIAL COORDINATE, Y/R

Fig. 6 Experimental and theoretical flow angles near the exit plane of a
40-deg nozzle (x/R = 0.167)

Fig. 4 Experimental and theoretical sonic lines for various nozzle angles
at a pressure ratio of 2.5
ment near the centerline, diverge as the distance from the center-
line increases. This is at least partially due to the fact that the
yaw probe, calibrated in a uniform flow, was inaccurate in the
strongly nonuniform flow near the nozzle lip.

Conclusions
The results of experimental measurements of the performance
and internal flow characteristics of convergent conical nozzles
have shown that, for a given value of nozzle pressure ratio, the
discharge coefficient decreases, the thrust coefficient increases,
and the sonic line moves downstream with increasing nozzle
angle. For a given nozzle angle, the discharge coefficient in-
creases and the sonic line moves upstream with increasing pressure
ratio until the choked pressure ratio is reached. Above this
pressure ratio, whichis a function of nozzle angle, the discharge
coefficient is constant and the sonic line is fixed. The theoretical
discharge and thrust coefficients as well as the sonic line position
are in reasonable agreement with the experimental data.
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 Further investigation should be made over a wider range of
AXIAL COORDINATE , X / R nozzle angles and pressure ratios and should include effects of
varying the approach to exit diameter ratio. Such tests have
Fig. 5 Experimental and theoretical sonic lines at various pressure ratios recently been initiated by The Boeing Company [7, S]. The
for a 25-deg nozzle
data presently available reinforce the conclusions drawn in this
paper.

with increasing nozzle angle. At a constant nozzle angle the APPENDIX

sonic line moves upstream with increasing pressure ratio. This
is shown in Fig. 5 in which the experimental and theoretical sonic
lines for a 25-deg nozzle are plotted for several values of the
pressure ratio. Once the choked pressure ratio corresponding to
a particular nozzle has been reached, the position of the sonic
line becomes fixed. This behavior is a result of the choking phe-
nomenon which was mentioned in connection with the discharge
coefficient. The constant value of discharge coefficient and
the fixed position of the sonic line are necessary consequences of
the unchanging character of the nozzle flow field upstream of the
sonic line a t pressure ratios exceeding the choked pressure ratio.
The theoretical position of the sonic line agrees fairly well with
the experimental results except at the centerline where, as a re-
sult of a deficiency in the method by which the local flow angle
in the throat was determined, the theoretical solution predicts
a cusp.
In Fig. 6, typical results for the measured and theoretical flow
angles a t x/R = 0.167 are shown for a 40-deg nozzle at pressure
ratios of 2.0, 3.0, and 4.0. The fact t h a t the flow angle even
relatively close to the centerline is significantly different from
zero is another indication of the nonuniformity of the flow field
in the throat of the nozzle. I t is apparent that the theoretical
and experimental flow angles which are in relatively good agree-
The theoretical solution which is given here is summarized
from reference [3]. The method employs a matching procedure
in which the solution for the local flow angle in the throat of the
nozzle is combined with the solution for the form of the jet.
The solution for the local flow angle is presented first.
The local flow angle in the throat is obtained from the solution
of a corresponding plane two-dimensional problem for which the
streamlines are assumed to be similar to those of the axisymmetric
problem. With this assumption it can be shown that such a re-
duction from axisymmetric to plane two-dimensional flow is
possible, since the flow angle at corresponding points in the two
flow fields is equal. Assuming t h a t the working fluid is a perfect
gas and that the flow is isentropic, the differential equation satis-
fied by the stream function of the plane two-dimensional problem
>(*)'*$*-
^A 2
+ a
t„ = 0.
Upon introduction of the hodograph transformation and the

Journal of Basic Engineering DECEMBER 1 9 7 2 / 929

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 tangent-gas approximation, this equation can be reduced to the
Laplace equation
1/;ww + 1/;00 = 0,
where
and subscript m refers to the match state which is assigned ex-
perimentally, as discussed below. A similar procedure (with
the added assumption of irrotational flow) can be followed to
show that the velocity potential also satisfies the Laplace equa-
tion. The solution for the stream function and potential function
which can be found by the method of singularities is, therefore,
4 Hall, 1. lVI., "Transonic Flow in Two-Dimensional and Axially-
Symmetric Nozzles," Quarterly Journal of Mechanics and A.pp/'ied
Mathematics, Vol. XV, Part 4, 1962, pp. 487-508.
5 Smith, P. E., and Matz, R. J., "A Theoretical Method of
Determining Discharge Coefficients for Venturis Operating at Critical
Flow Conditions," JOURNAL OF BASIC ENGINEERING, TRANS. ASME,
Series D, Vol. 84, No.4, Dec. 1962, pp. 434-446.
6 Herbert, M. V., Martlew, D. L., and Pinker, R. A., "The
Design-Point Performance of Model Internal-Expansion Propelling
Nozzles with Area Ratios up to 4," A.R.C. R.&M. No. 3477,1907.
7 Miller, M. P., Personal Communication, 1969.
8 McClung, C. D., "Test Data Heport~Parametric Test of
Conical Convergent Nozzles," Boeing Company Report T6-5614-1,
June 1970.

cosh 7!. (w - iO - woo) - cosh 7!. (woo - w a)

a a
new - iO) = J.' In ----------~=------
'If"
cosh - (w - iO - woo) - 1
a
The solution is then transformed numerically back to the physical
plane and lines of constant flow angle, called isoclines, are
determined.
Assuming that the nozzle is operating at a given supercritical
pressure ratio, the solution for the jet can be obtained with the
use of the characteristic equations of axisymmetric flow which can
be written as

r!J!
dx I,II
I = tan (0 =F a),

1 dw I tan 2 a tan Oldy

;;; dO I,n = =Ftan Ol + tan 0 =F tan ay dO'
Using standard numerical procedures these equations can be
combined with the solution for the local flow angle in the throat
to provide the position of the sonic line. The match Mach
number is then selected in such a way as to produce the best
possible agreement between the theoretical and experimental
sonic lines at the choked pressure ratio. The solution is then
completed by calculating the discharge and thrust coefficients
with the use of the following relationships

CD = ~2 Is y(sin Odx - cos Ody),

f,~ [ 1 + ~ Is y cos O(sin Odx - cos OdY)] ;;

where the subscript S indicates that the integration is to be

carried out along the theoretical sonic line, from the nozzle lip
to the center line.

References
1 Thornock, R. L., "Experimental Investigation of the Flow
Through Convergent Conical Nozzles," Boeing Company Report,
D6-20375, Sept. 1968.
2 Mourey, 'vV. L., "Test Data Report-Flow Characteristics
Including Sonic Line Determination for Four Convergent Nozzles,"
BoeiIlg Company Report T6-5478-1, 2, 3, Apr. 1968.
3 Brown, E. F., "Compressible Flow Through Convergent
Conical Nozzles with Emphasis on the Transonic Region," PhD the-
sis, University of Illinois, June 1968.

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