NERVOUS SYSTEM o conveys input into the CNS from sensory

receptors in the body (receptors – spinal cord –

brain)
Motor/Efferent Division
o conveys output from the CNS to effector
(muscles and glands)
 Somatic Nervous System
o Voluntary
o Conveys output from the CNS to skeletal
muscle
 Autonomic Nervous System
o Involuntary
Neural Activity
o Conveys output from the CNS to smooth
Organ and Division of the Nervous System
 Central Nervous System (CNS) muscles, cardiac muscle, and glands
o Brain and Spinal Cord  Sympathetic Nervous System
o Fight or Flight
 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
o all nerves o Increase heart rate
 Parasympathetic Nervous System
 Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
o Rest and digest
Central Nervous System (CNS) o Decrease heart rate
consists of:  Enteric Nervous System
 brain – 85 billion neurons o An extensive network of over 100 Million
 spinal cord – 100 million neurons neurons confined to the wall of the
 CNS possess many different kinds of incoming gastrointestinal (GI) tract
sensory information
 CNS is a source of thought, emotions, and memories. Function of the Nervous System
1. Sensory
 Most signals that stimulate muscles to contract and
glands secrete originate in the CNS.  Sensory receptors detach internal
stimuli such as an increase in blood
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) pressure, on external stimuli, this
sensory information is then carried into
 consists of all nerves, tissue outside the CNS
the brain and spinal column through
Components:
cranial and spinal nerves.
 Nerve
2. Integrative
o twelve pairs of cranial nerves – emerge from
 Nervous System processes sensory
the brain
information by analyzing it and making
o thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves – emerge
decisions for appropriate responses, an
from the spinal cord activity known as Integrative
 Sensory Receptors 3. Motor Function
o examples of sensory receptors include touch  The Nervous system may effort as
receptors in the skin, photoreceptors in the appropriate motor response by
eye, and olfactory (smell) receptor in the activating effectors (muscle and glands
nose. through CNS nerves. Stimulation of ……
CRANIAL NERVES Cells of Nervous System
1. Neuron
 Classified according to function or direction
and impulse
 Sensory Neuron
o Conduct impulses to the spinal cord
and brain also called afferent
neurons
 Motor Neuron
o Away from brain and spinal cord to
muscle and glands; also called
efferent
 Interneuron
o Conduct impulses from sensory
neurons to motor
o Central or connecting neuron
2. Glia (neuroglia)
 Support cells, bringing the cells of nervous
tissue together structurally and functionally
PNS is divided into:  3 Types
Sensory/Afferent Division  Astrocytes
o Star-shaped
 o Cells that anchor small blood
vessels to neurons
 Microglia
o Small cells that move in inflamed
brain tissue carrying on
phagocytosis
 Oligodendrocytes
o Form myelin sheaths (speed up
conduction of signals) on axons in
the CNS (Schumann cells from
myelin sheaths in PNS only)
 Glioma
o Tumor
o Eg. Oligodendroglioma
a) Astrocytes
 Star shaped cells that anchor small blood
vessels to neurons
 The largest and most numerous of the
neuroglia
 There is 2 types
1. Protoplasmic Astrocytes
 For signal
 Grey matter
2. Fibrous Astrocytes
 More branching
 White matter
 Function
1. Contains microfilament that give
them considerable strength, which
enables them to support neurons.
2. Process of Astrocytes capillaries
isolate wrapped around blood
neurons of the CNS from various
potentially harmful substances in
blood by secreting chemicals that
contain maintain the unique
characteristics of endothelia cells of
capillaries. Endothelial cells create
blood brain barrier
3. In the embryo, astrocytes secrets
chemical that appear to regulate the
growth, migration and The Neuron
interconnection among neurons in  A nerve fiber is a general term for any neuronal
the brain. process (extension) that emerges from the cell body
4. Astrocytes help to maintain the to a neuron
appropriate chronic environment for  Most neurons have 2 kinds of processes:
the generation of nerve impulses o A multiple dendrite
they regulate the concept… o a single axon
5. Astrocytes may also play a role in  Dendrite receive signals
learning and memory by influencing  The cell body integrates signal
the information of neural synapses  The axon transmit action potential
b) Microgial  The myelin sheath makes the signal travel faster
 These neuroglia are small cells and slender  Synaptic terminal transmit signals
processes that give off numerous spine like
 Function as phagocytes- eat foreign cells
c) Oligodendrocytes
 These resemble Astrocytes but smaller and
contain fewer processes
 Are responsible for forming and maintaining
the myelin sheaths around CNS axons

 The “axon hillock” is where the axon joins the cell
body.
 The “initial segment” is the beginning of the axon.
 The “trigger zone” is the junction between the axon
hillock and the initial segment.
Two Types of Direction/ Movement of Structures in
Nervous System
1. Anterograde
 Cell body → axon terminal
 ex. Action Potential
2. Retrograde
 Axon terminal → Cell body
 ex. Endocytosis of AcH
Classification of Neuron
 Structural
 neurons are classified according to the
number of processes extending from the cell
body
 Functional
 neurons are classified according to the
direction in which the nerve impulse (action
impulse) is conveyed with respect to the
CNS
Structural
1. Multipolar
 usually have several dendrites and one axon
dominant in CNS.
2. Bipolar
 one main dendrite and one axon
 found in retina of eye, olfactory and inner ear
3. Unipolar
 have dendrite and one axon fused together to
form a continuous process that emerges from the
cell body
Pseudounipolar- Bipolar during embryonic stage
Some neurons are named for the histologist who first
described them
1. Purkinje Cell
 Cerebellum
2. Pyramidan Cells
 Cerebral Cortex of the brain
Functional Classification of neurons
1. Sensory neurons/ Afferent neurons
 either contain sensory receptors at their distal
ends (dendrite) or located just after sensory
receptors that are separate cells
2. Motor neurons/ Efferent neurons
 Convey action potentials away from the CNS to
effectors (muscles and glands) in the periphery
(PNS) through cranial or spinal nerve
3. Interneurons or association neurons
 Mainly located within the CNS between sensory
and motor neurons. Interneurons integrate
(process) incoming sensory information from
sensory neurons and then elicit a motor response
by activating the appropriate motor neurons. Most
interneurons are multipolar in structure.
Electrical signals in neurons: An overview
Two Electrical Signal
1. Graded Potentials
 (described shortly) are used for short distance
communication only
2. Action Potentials
 allow communication over long distance within
the body
o Muscle Action Potential
o Nerve Action Potential/ Nerve Impulse
 Self-propagating wave of
electrical disturbance that
travels along the surface of a
neuron membrane or action
potential
Mechanism
 At rest, the neuron’s membrane is slightly positive
_ the outside – polarized- from a slightly excess
of NA+ on the outside
  A stimulus triggers the opening of Na+ channels
in the plasma membrane of the neuron
 K+, Na+, Ca+ = ions
 Inward movement of Na+ depolarizes the
membrane by making the inside more positive
than the outside at the stimulated point; the
depolarization has already triggered the next
section of membrane ti depolarize, thus
propagating a wave of electrical disturbances
(depolarization) all the way down the membrane.
Ion Channels
 When ion channels are open, they allow specific ions
to move across the plasma membrane down their
electrochemical gradient concentration (chemical
difference plus an electrical difference).
 Ions move from areas of higher concentration to areas
of lower concentration - the “chemical” (concentration)
part of the gradient.
 Ion channel open and close due to the presence of
gates.
 The gate is part of a channel protein that can seal the
channel pore shut or move aside to open the pore.
4 TYPES OF ION CHANNEL
1. Leak Channels
 The gates of leak channels randomly
alternate between open and close positions
 Plasma membranes have many more
potassium ion (K+) leak channels than
sodium ion (Na+) leak channels, and the
potassium ion leak channels are leakier than
the sodium ion leak channels.
 Thus, the membrane's permeability to K+ is
much higher than its permeability to Na+.
Leak channels are found in nearly all cells,
including the dendrites, cell bodies, and
axons of all types of neurons.
2. Ligand-gated Channel
 Open and close in response to the binding of
a Ligand (chemical) stimulus.
 A wide variety of chemical ligands, including
neurotransmitters, hormones, and particular
ions, can open or close ligand-gated
channels.
 Ligand gated channel are located in the
dendrites of some sensory neurons such as
pain receptors and in dendrites and cell
bodies of interneurons and motor neurons.
3. Mechanically gated channels
 Opens or closes in response to mechanical
stimulation in the form of vibration (such as sound
waves), pressure (such as touch), or tissue
stretching.
 The force distorts the channel from its resting
position, opening the gate.
 Examples of mechanically gated channels are
those found in auditory receptors in the ears, in
receptors that monitor stretching of internal
organs, and in touch receptors in the skin.
4. Voltage Gated Channel (Ca+)
 In the generation and conduction of action
potential in the axons of all types of neurons
Action Potential
 Impulse is a sequence of rapidly occurring events
that decrease and reverse the membrane potential
and then eventually…
Two Main Phase
Depolarizing
 negative membrane potential becomes less
negative, reaches zero and then becomes positive.
Repolarizing
 The membrane potential is restored to the resting
state of -70mV.
After hyperpolarizing phase
 The membrane potential temporarily becomes more
negative than the resting level.
 the voltage-gated K+ channels remain open and the
membrane potential becomes even more negative
Two Important voltage gated channel
 The first channel that open the voltage gated Na+
channels, allow Na+ to rush into the cell which
causes the depolarization phase.
 Voltage gated K+ channel open allowing K+ to flow
out, which produces the repolarizing phase.
An action potential occurs in the membrane if the axon of a
neuron when depolarization reaches a certain level termed as
threshold.
Subthreshold Stimulus
 below
 a weak depolarization that cannot bring the
membrane potential to threshold
Threshold Stimulus
 a stimulus that is just strong enough to depolarize the
membrane to threshold
Suprathreshold Stimulus
 above
 a stimulus that is strong enough to depolarize the
membrane above threshold. Each of the action
potentials caused by a suprathreshold stimulus has
the same amplitude (size) as an action potential
caused by a threshold stimulus
-70 mV = resting
-60 mV = sub (no action potential)
-50 mV = to anchor potential threshold
-30 mV = suprathreshold (many action potential)
30 mV = maximum
Resting State
 All voltage gated Na+ and K+ channels are closed
 small build-up of negative inside
Some neurotransmitters
Four basic response operation brain is highly complex containing many
 Determine type of stimulus specialized region.
 Signal the intensity of a stimulus Hindbrain
 integrate responses from many sources  Medulla – controls autonomic functions
 initiate and direst operations  Pons – controls sleep stages
 Cerebellum – coordinates movement, stores some
1. Determine type stimulus motor memory
 wiring patterns in the brain determine the
type of stimulus Midbrain
 Areas of the brain dedicated to specific  reticular formation
sensory signals are connected to nerves that  the traffic cops of the
connect to specific sensory organs. brain
 “Cross-sensory” effects: a poke in the eye  filters sensory input,
produces stimulates the optic nerve, which allows us to
producing visual effects. concentrate
2. Intensity of stimulus  Filtering can be affected
 Intensity = frequency of action potential by higher thoughts
3. Integration of stimuli
 Convergence = Signals may arrive through
many neurons, but may all pass their signal Forebrain
to a single connecting neuron.  Thalamus: relay station
 Such cells may be “decision-making” channeling sensory
association neurons that may determine an information.
appropriate output.  Limbic system: basic
4. Directing Operations emotions, drives, and
 Neural pathways consists of: behaviors.
o Sensory neurons  Cortex: higher thought
o Association neurons, which receive
signals from many sources Limbic System
o Motor neurons  Hypothalamus: master controller of the endocrine
o Effectors: muscles, glands system.
 Amygdala: sensations of pleasure or fear, recognition
Reflexes of fear in others.
 The simplest neural pathway is the reflex arc.  Hippocampus: formation of memories.

 This involves one or more sensory neurons,

association neurons in the spine, and motor
neurons, which carry out the reflex entirely before Cortex
the brain is aware of the response.  Various areas control sensory processing, motor
control, thought, memory.
What is the effector in the familiar knee jerk reflex? THE  Wiring is plastic: people blind from birth, for example,
QUADRICEPS MUSCLES use parts of the visual cortex to process auditory
signals.
This involves one or more sensory neurons, association  Frontal - motor
neurons in the spine and motor neurons which carry out the  parietal - sensory
reflex entirely before the brain is aware of the response.  occipital - vision
 Temporal - memory
The Complex Brain
 The
mammalian
 • Many traditions, including psychology, separate
“brain” from “mind.”
• What we perceive as “mind” (thought, will, self-
Left brain, right brain? perception) does produce evidence of brain activity in
 While there is some specialization to each brain scans.
hemisphere, the idea has been oversimplified.
• That “brain” influences “mind” is well-established; but
 The left brain controls the right half of the body; the
some evidence shows “mind” can influence “brain”; as
right brain controls the left half of the body.
cognitive therapy for depression can physically
 However, “right brain” or “left brain” functions such as
math, language, etc. produce activity on both sides of change the brain.
the brain, and processing of these may be different in • Neurology is a very young science, and there is still
different people (males vs. females, novices vs. much to learn about the brain-mind connection.
experts, etc.).
The part of the brain that makes sense of the information in
your textbook is: CEREBRUM

The specific part of your cerebrum that makes sense of your

textbook is: FRONTAL LOBES

After you learn to type, you no longer have to think about it.
What part of your brain is responsible for this? CEREBELLUM

The brain receives signals from the outside via: SENSORY

NEURONS

Memory
 How humans form memories is poorly understood.
 “Working memory” appears to be distinct from long-
term memory. There may be short-term memory as
well, things remembered for a few days. Is this
because the memory disappears, or because it
cannot be retrieved?