SELF WORK IN ENGLISH

GROUP :ISM -103

STUDENT : BAXSIYEVA FATIMA
TEACHER : BABAYEVA RAXSHAN
TURKEY

Turkey, country that occupies a unique geographic position, lying partly in Asia and partly in Europe.
Throughout its history it has acted as both a barrier and a bridge between the two continents.

Turkey is situated at the crossroads of the Balkans, Caucasus, Middle East, and eastern Mediterranean.
It is among the larger countries of the region in terms of territory and population, and its land area is
greater than that of any European state. Nearly all of the country is in Asia, comprising the oblong
peninsula of Asia Minor—also known as Anatolia (Anadolu)—and, in the east, part of a mountainous
region sometimes known as the Armenian Highland. The remainder—Turkish Thrace (Trakya)—lies in
the extreme southeastern part of Europe, a tiny remnant of an empire that once extended over much of
the Balkans.
The country has a north-south extent that ranges from about 300 to 400 miles (480 to 640 km), and it
stretches about 1,000 miles from west to east. Turkey is bounded on the north by the Black Sea, on the
northeast by Georgia and Armenia, on the east by Azerbaijan and Iran, on the southeast by Iraq and
Syria, on the southwest and west by the Mediterranean Sea and the Aegean Sea, and on the northwest
by Greece and Bulgaria. The capital is Ankara, and its largest city and seaport is Istanbul.

Of a total boundary length of some 4,000 miles (6,440 km), about three-fourths is maritime, including
coastlines along the Black Sea, the Aegean, and the Mediterranean, as well as the narrows that link the
Black and Aegean seas. These narrows—which include the Bosporus, the Sea of Marmara, and the
Dardanelles—are known collectively as the Turkish straits; Turkey’s control of the straits, the only outlet
from the Black Sea, has been a major factor in its relations with other states. Most of the islands along
the Aegean coast are Greek; only the islands of Gökçeada and Bozcaada remain in Turkish hands. The
maritime boundary with Greece has been a source of dispute between the two countries on numerous
occasions since World War II.

Cities in Turkey are for the most part of moderate size, though many have grown rapidly since the
1970s. The largest is Istanbul; though no longer the capital city, it remains the chief port and commercial
centre, attracting migrants from the entire country. With its suburbs along the Bosporus, Istanbul forms
a sprawling agglomeration with nearly 15 million inhabitants. The second largest city, Ankara, is of much
more recent origin. Prior to the establishment of the republic, it was one of many small provincial towns
in the interior, but its choice as the capital city has resulted in a long period of rapid growth. The third
largest city, İzmir, is the port and commercial centre for the prosperous Aegean coastal zone.

People
According to the Turkish constitution, the word “Turk,” as a political term, includes all citizens of the
Republic of Turkey, without distinction of or reference to race or religion; ethnic minorities have no
official status. Linguistic data show that a majority of the population claim Turkish as their mother
tongue; most of the remainder speak Kurdish and a small minority Arabic as their first language.

More than nine-tenths of the population is Muslim. Nevertheless, Turkey is a secular country. In a 1928
constitutional amendment, Islam was removed as the official state religion, and since that time the state
has found itself periodically at odds with religion. The armed forces have maintained a vigilant watch
over Turkey’s political secularism, which they affirm to be a keystone among Turkey’s founding
principles. The military has not left the maintenance of a secular political process to chance, however,
and has intervened in politics on a number of occasions.
TURKISH CULTURE AND ART
Turkish culture is unique in the world. Turkey may be the only country that contains every extreme of
Eastern and Western culture. Highlights some of the distinct characteristics and qualities of Turkish
culture and art. Come and discover the harmony in diversity.

Traditional Arts in Turkey

Marbling is the art of creating colorful patterns by sprinkling and brushing color pigments on a pan of
oily water and then transforming this pattern to paper. The special tools of the trade are brushes of
horsehair bound to straight rose twigs, a deep tray made of unknotted pinewood, natural earth
pigments, cattle gall and tragacanth. It is believed to be invented in the thirteenth century Turkistan.
This decorative art then spread to China, India and Persia and Anatolia. Seljuk and Ottoman calligraphers
and artists used marbling to decorate books, imperial decrees, official correspondence and documents.
New forms and techniques were perfected in the process and Turkey remained the center of marbling
for many centuries. Up until the 1920 s, marblers had workshops in the Beyazit district of Istanbul,
creating for both the local and European market, where it is known as Turkish marble paper.
Turkish Calligraphy (Husn-i Hat)
Turkish calligraphy is a unique artistic creation although calligraphy itself is not of Turkish origin.
Ottomans adopted it with religious fervor and inspiration, taking this art to its pinacle over a five
hundred year period. The literal meaning of the Turkish word for calligraphy (hat) is line or way. In
essence, Husn-i Hat comprises the beautiful lines inscribed with reed pens on paper using ink made from
soot.

MINIATURE WORK

This is the name given to the art of producing very finely detailed, small paintings. In Europe in the
Middle Ages, handwritten manuscripts would be decorated by painting capital letters red. Lead oxide,
known as 'minium' in Latin and which gave a particularly pleasant colour, was used for this purpose.
That is where the word 'miniature' derives from. In Turkey, the art of miniature painting used to be
called 'nakis' or 'tasvir,' with the former being more commonly employed. The artist was known as a
'nakkas' or 'musavvir.' Miniature work was generally applied to paper, ivory and similar materials.

The miniature is an art style with a long history in both the Eastern and Western worlds. There are
those, however, who maintain that it was originally an Eastern art, from where it made its way to the
West. Eastern and Western miniature art is very similar, although differences can be observed in colour,
form and subject matter. Scale was kept small since the art was used to decorate books. That is a
common characteristic. Eastern and Turkish miniatures also possess a number of other features. The
outside of the miniature is usually decorated with a form of embellishment known as 'tezhip.' A paint
similar to water colour was used for miniatures, although rather more gum arabic was used during the
mixing process. Very thin brushes made from cat fur and known as 'fur brushes' were used to draw the
lines and fill in the fine detail. Other brushes were employed for the painting itself. White lead with gum
Arabic added was applied to the surface of the paper to be painted. A thin coat of gold powder would
also be applied to the surface to make the various colours transparent.

The oldest known miniatures were done on papyrus in Egypt in the 2nd century BC. Handwritten
manuscripts decorated with miniatures can then be observed in the Greek, Roman, Byzantine and Syriac
periods. With the spread of Christianity, miniatures began to be used to ornament the Bible in
particular. The development of the art came towards the end of the 8th century. In the 12th century,
miniatures ceased to be directly linked in form to the text they were decorating, and also ceased to be
exclusively religious in tone, with secular examples appearing. Beautiful and splendid miniatures
continued to be created in Europe until the development of the printing press. After that time, they
were more usually used in the form of portraits on the backs of medallions. After the 17th century, the
application of miniatures toivory began to spread. Later still, as interest in the art of the miniature began
to fall, it continued as a traditional art form among a small number of artists.

Great importance was attached to the miniature during the Seljuk period. Seljuk miniature was
considerably influenced by Persia, on account of their close relations with that country. They also
produced Abdüddevle, who painted a portrait of Mevlana, and other famous miniaturists. In the
Ottoman Empire, the Seljuk and Persian influence continued up until the 18th century. During the time
of Sultan Mehmet the Conqueror, a miniaturist by the name of Sinan Bey made a portrait of the sultan,
and also trained another artist called Baba Nakkas during the reign of Bayezid II. In the 16th century, the
artists Nigari, known as Reis Haydar, Naksi and Sah Kulu won considerable renown. During that same
time, Aka Mirek of Horasan, a student of Bihzad, was called to Istanbul and made 'basnakkas' or chief
artist. Mustafa Çelebi, Selimiyeli Resid, Süleyman Çelebi and Levni were the best known miniaturists of
the 18tth century. Of these, levn' constituted a turning point in Turkish miniature painting. Levn' moved
beyond the traditional conception of the art and developed his own unique style. Under the influence of
the renewal movements in the 19th century, Western art also began to affect the art of miniature
painting. The miniature slowly began to give way to contemporary art as we understand the concept
today. However, it still survives as a traditional art in Turkey, in the same was as it does in the West.

Iznik Tiles And Ceramic Art Of Turkey

Iznik is a lovely walled town on the shores of Lake Iznik. This is the ancient Nicea, named after Nikaia,
wife of Lysimakhos, one of the rulers who inherited the empire of Alexander the Great. As an illustrious
city unter the Greeks, Romans and Byzantines, who knows which plays were performed at Iznik's Roman
theatre now being excavated, and which famous historic figures passed through its four gates, today
known as the Istanbul, Gol, Yenisehir and Lefke gates. Early in the 13th century the Seljuk Turks ruled
the city briefly following which Iznik became the setting for major events in Byzantine history for
another century. The city finally came under Turkish sovereighty again, this time for good in 1331 during
the reign of the second Ottoman Sultan Orhan Gazi.

The 17th century Ottoman traveller Evliya Celebi gives a detailed account of the town in his Chronicles.
In his typical lively style, he describes its setting on the flat plain to the east of the lake, its walls,
mosques and other monuments, shops and trade. After mentioning its vineyards, orchards, market
gardens shaded by cypresses and olive groves, he continues, "Its china bowls, plates and jugs are greatly
valued. All the decorated wall tiles in the land of the Ottomans are made in the city of Iznik. Words are
incapable of describing the tiles ornamented like chameleons which are produced." While the events of
political history, however important, are recalled only sporadically, art set its stamp on daily life so that
its memory remains vivid. The chinaware of Iznik, an art which began here in Byzantine times and
reached its zenith under the Ottoman Turks, is a striking example, and the potteries of Iznik played a
central role in the town's destiny. During the Byzantine era the pottery of Iznik was similar to that made
in many other regions of Anatolia but soon after the Turkish conquest, Iznik ware developed a distinctive
style. Moreover production expanded significantly, as the potteries were turned virtually into imperial
tile works manufacturing vast quantities of wall tiles for the Ottoman palaces, mosques and other
monumental buildings which embellished the four corners of the empire.
In addition to tiles, the town's potteries continued to produce china ware for sale to the public as well as
the palace. Large quantities of dinnerware were required on such occasions as circumcision ceremonies
for the royal princes, such as in 1582 when festivities lasting 52 days and nights were held to celebrate
the circumcision of Murad III's son Mehmed. When the 397 valuable Chinese porcelain dishes in the
palace proved insufficient, 541 Iznik plates, bowls and dishes were purchased.

The blue and white Chinese porcelain and celadon ware which poured into the markets of the Near East
from the 14th century onwards became extremely popular among the wealthy who could afford such
precious objects. Iznik's potters had to compete to survive, and they did so by imitating the Chinese
designs from Yuan and early Ming porcelain, of which abundant examples were available. This was not
difficult, since they were already acquainted with many Chinese motifs which had earlier influenced
Timurid art. They began to turn out plates and dishes similar to the much admired Chinese porcelain,
and before long had not only mastered these designs but began to give them new forms according to
their own tastes. The result found favour not only within the Ottoman Empire but beyond, and some of
the Iznik ware which has survived in Europe provides evidence that the Iznik potteries received orders
from various European countries, such as articles bearing royal arms. Blue and white plates, bowls,
lamps, candlesticks and other items made in Iznik during the 15th century are decorated in the style we
now call Baba Nakkas, consisting of scrollwork and floral designs, which was popular during the reign of
Sultan Mehmed II (1451-1481). During the reign of his son Bayezid this style gradually began to change,
with the incorporation of knotted interlacing and Chinese cloud bands. When Sultan Selim I (1512-1520)
conquered Tabriz, craftsmen from that city brought to Istanbul made their own contributions to
Ottoman Turkish art. Among these diverse craftsmen weresixteen painters, one of whom, Sah Kulu,
introduced the Saz style into Ottoman art.This was undoubtedly one of the most significant innovations
in Ottoman decorative art. Not long after Sah Kulu began to work at the Ottoman palace workshops, in
the early part of Suleyman the Magnificent's reign (1520-1566), the influence of his style begins to
appear on Iznik tiles. Other distinctive designs of this era are those of the so-called Golden Horn wares
consisting of spiral scrolls deriving from the tugra (imperial cipher) of Suleyman the Magnificent, and
motifs borrowed from Chinese porcelains.Turquoise was added to the traditional Iznik palette of blue
and white from the 1530s onwards. Iznik's potters developed a style which diverged significantly from
that of the court decorators, and more over began to enrich their repertoire with human and animal
figures and ship motifs. It must be remembered that apart from wall tiles made to order for the court,
the potters made china plates, bowls, ewers, cups, vases, candlesticks, lamps and many similar articles
for public consumption, and for these the potters created their own designs. Drawing upon the new
styles developed by the great court painters they designed new patterns of their own. From the 1540s
onwards, mauve and purple also appear in Iznik designs, followed by green and the exquisite coral red
unique to Iznik ware. These were used in the naturalistis floriate designs introduced into decorative art
by the great 16th century master illuminator Kara Memi.
In addition to a wide range of flowers, pomegranates, artichokes and tree motifs occur in the
compositions of this period. The finest Iznik pottery was produced during the reign of Suleyman the
Magnificent and up to the end of the 17th century.The tiles and other pieces were exuberantly
decorated with hyacinths, tulips, carnations, roses, and stylised floral scrollwork known as hatayi,
Chinese clouds, imbrication, cintemani (a design consisting of three spots and pairs of flickering stripes),
and geometric patterns.

The Turkish Ministry of Culture proclaimed 1989 as Iznik Year, and numerous events and activities
relating to Iznik pottery were held. Iznik has a special place in the history of Turkish art, and thanks to
the efforts of Turkish Airlines and Turk Ekonomi Bankasi Iznik Year became Iznik Years. Researchers are
continually discovering more about e beautiful type of ceramics, whose designs are enjoying a new wave
of popularity.