0

Energy and Minerals Regulatory

Commission (EMRC)

Code of practice

Personal Monitoring during Activities

Resulting of External and Internal
Exposure
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1. Basic Terms and Abbreviations

Monitoring – a set of measurements of the quantities characterising exposure, radiation field or

radionuclides as well as the evaluation of measurement results for the purpose of exposure
regulation.

Approved dosimetry service – a body who performs readouts and explanation of the values that
are registered by personal dosimeters as well as the other evaluation of external exposures at own
responsibility, or the body who performs radioactivity measurement in human bodies and in
biological samples, evaluation of internal exposure which allows the annual effective dose and
committed dose to determine (hereinafter referred to as "personal dosimetry service").

Personal doses – a general term for the quantities characterising external and internal exposures
of individuals, especially effective dose, committed effective dose and committed equivalent dose
in individual organs and tissues; personal doses are measured by personal dosimeters.

Internal exposure – exposure of a person to ionizing radiation from the radionuclides that are
present in his or her body, usually as a consequence of radionuclide intake by ingestion or
inhalation.

External exposure – exposure of a person to ionizing radiation sources placed outside the body
of person.

Equivalent dose HT – the product of the radiation weighting factor wR and the absorbed dose DTR
averaged over organ or tissue T due to ionizing radiation R, or the sum of such products if the
ionizing radiation field is composed of more than one type of radiation or more than one energy.

Effective dose E – the sum of products of tissue weighting factors wT and the equivalent dose HT
in exposed tissues or organs T.

Collective effective and/or equivalent dose S – the sum of effective and/or equivalent doses to
all individuals in a certain group.

Committed effective dose E() and/or committed equivalent dose HT() – the time integral of
effective dose rate and/or equivalent dose rate over the period  from radionuclide intake; unless
otherwise specified, the period is 50 years for radionuclide intake for adults, and up to age 70 years
for radionuclide intake for children; collective committed effective doses and/or collective
committed equivalent doses are defined similarly.
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Dose equivalent H – the product of the absorbed dose in a point of tissue and the quality factor
Q, which expresses a different biological efficiency for different kinds of radiation.

Personal dose equivalent Hp(d) – the dose equivalent in a point of tissue under body skin at a
depth of d.

Intake – radionuclide activity that enters a human body from the environment, usually by ingestion
or inhalation.

Conversion factor of intake – the coefficient that gives the effective dose per a unit intake;
conventional values of the conversion factors for ingestion iing, and/or inhalation iinh that are
calculated on the basis of the standard models.

Used abbreviations
QAP – Quality Assurance Programme
FD – film badge dosimeter
TLD – thermo luminescent dosimeter
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2. Exposure General Principles of Personal Dosimetry during Activities

Resulting in Exposure
Monitoring includes not only measurements of the quantities characterising radiation field and the
dosimetry-related quantities, but also the interpretation and evaluation of exposure of exposed
workers and other individuals. The scope of the monitoring, evaluation and verification of the
relevant quantities, parameters and other facts important from the perspective of radiation
protection shall comply with the scope and method of the given practice, i.e. management of
ionizing radiation sources or activities resulting in exposure.

The personal monitoring system, as part of the system of radiation monitoring at ionizing radiation
source workplace, serves for the monitoring of personal doses and the fulfillment of the
requirements of individual exposure limitation, the demonstration of the optimization of radiation
protection, the monitoring of deviations from normal operation and the monitoring of safe
operation of such workplaces.

2.1. Limits for Exposed Workers

A dose limit is defined in the GSR Part 3 as “The value of the effective dose or the equivalent dose
to individuals from controlled practices that shall not be exceeded.” The limits on effective dose
for occupational exposure apply to the sum of effective doses from external sources and committed
effective doses from intakes in the same period.

For simultaneous external and internal exposures, the total dose should be considered. If the values
of personal dose equivalents were close to limit values, they shall be converted to an effective or
equivalent dose using the approved methods of the authorized dosimetry services.

Observance of limits by workers performing activities for more than one licensee in parallel. The
limits set for exposed workers shall relate to the sum of all doses from all exposure pathways and all
radiation activities which the exposed worker performs individually or simultaneously for one or more
licensees of ionising radiation source management, or he or she also performs as an independent licensee
for ionising radiation source management.

The method of evaluating the total doses received by worker shall be defined in the monitoring
programme.

If a worker terminates his or her work with ionising radiation sources for one licensee and starts
his or her employment for another licensee, where he or she shall also work with ionising radiation
sources, this new employer shall verify whether or not this worker previously worked with ionising
radiation sources. If this worker previously worked with ionising radiation sources, his or her
employer should request an extract of his or her doses for at least five last years. These should be
confirmed by his or her previous employer.

The start of the averaging period shall be coincident with the first day of the relevant annual period
after the date of entry into force of the Standards, with no retroactive averaging.
The equivalent dose limits for the skin apply to the average dose over 1 cm2 of the most highly
irradiated area of the skin. Skin dose also contributes to the effective dose, this contribution being
the average dose to the entire skin multiplied by the tissue weighting factor for the skin.”
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Separate limits are specified for apprentices of age 16–18 who are training for employment
involving exposure to radiation, and for students of age 16–18 who need to use sources in the
course of their studies as listed in table 1.

The licensee shall inform female workers of reproductive capacity about the risks to a foetus posed
by exposure to ionising radiation. A pregnant woman who has notified her employer about her
pregnancy has the right to be transferred to work that does not imply exposure to ionising radiation
during the remaining time of pregnancy.

If a pregnant woman is not transferred, the work shall be planned in such a way that the equivalent
dose to the foetus is as low as reasonably achievable and so that it is unlikely that the dose to the
foetus will exceed 1 mSv during the remaining time of pregnancy provided pregnancy has been
established.

The effective dose limits specified in this schedule apply to the sum of the relevant doses from
external exposure in the specified period and the relevant committed doses from intakes in the
same period; the period for calculating the committed dose shall normally be 50 years for intakes
by adults and shall be up to age 70 years for intakes by children.

Dose limits in exceptional circumstances

The dose limits as given in Table 1 are exceeded if this is required for a special task. For this kind
of planned exposure, the work shall be performed during a limited period of time and within a
specified working area and must be performed only by volunteer workers in category A. Prior to
this work, licensee shall provide information about the risks related to the work and about the
necessary protective and preventive measures to be taken.
A radiation dose received in connection with specially planned exposure shall not be an obstacle to future
work with ionising radiation unless otherwise prescribed in the single case.

Emergency exposure

In connection with rescue work in emergency situations, the dose limits stipulated in these
regulations do not apply. Such rescue work must be performed only by volunteers if the effective
dose from this work is estimated to exceed the annual limit (50 mSv). Women of reproductive
capacity may participate in rescue work only if they personally can rule out the possibility of their
own pregnancy.
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Table.1: Dose limits given in the Radiation protection regulations GSR Part 3 Pg 132

Limiting quantity Exposed workers Apprentices and students

Public
(aged over 18) (aged between 16 and 18)
20 mSv averaged over 5
consecutive years, subject to
Effective dose 6 mSv 1 mSv
a maximum of 50 mSv on a
single year;
Equivalent dose 20 mSv averaged over 5 year
for the lens of the and 50 mSv in one single 20 mSv 15 mSv
eye year.
Equivalent dose
for the skin,
500 mSv 150 mSv 50 mSv
hands, forearms,
feet, ankle

2.2. Categorization of Exposed Workers and Workplace area

Each individual subject to occupational exposure is an exposed worker. For the purpose of
monitoring and medical supervision, exposed workers shall be classified into category A or
category B depending on a measure of risk to health caused by ionising radiation and based on the
expected exposure under normal operation including predictable malfunctions and deviations from
normal operation, except the exposure as a consequence of a radiation incident or accident.

Category A workers shall be those exposed workers who are liable to receive an effective dose
greater than 6 mSv per year or an equivalent dose greater than 3/10 of the exposure limit for lens
of the eye, skin and extremities.

Individual monitoring of exposure to external radiation must generally be arranged in at least one
month. The following duties involving use of radiation (category A):

1. Medical or veterinary X-ray examinations when radiation is used regularly or repeatedly in a

controlled area
2. Radiotherapy and the performance of quality control measurements on radiotherapy equipment
3. Nuclear medicine treatments and care of patients who have undergone such treatments, except
in the case of patients treated with radiopharmaceuticals emitting beta radiation only
4. Handling of unsealed sources:
• If the activity of gamma radiation sources handled at any one time exceeds 100 MBq
• If the activity of beta radiation sources (of maximum energy exceeding 300 keV) handled at any
one time exceeds 10 MBq
5. Industrial radiography, except in cases of sealed installation
6. Installation, repair and servicing work involving a risk of exposure to radiation
7. Work with particle accelerators
8. Other duties involving the use of radiation sources when individual monitoring is required by
the terms of a safety license or on some other grounds
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Category B workers not belonging to category A. For workers belonging to category B,

surveillance of doses shall be performed to such an extent enabling demonstration that the
classification in category B is correct.

1. X-ray examinations, when the X-ray equipment operator is in a separate control room that is
well shielded and has not been classified as a controlled area.
2. Mammography examinations
3. Dental X-ray examinations (panoramic imaging and imaging on an intra-oral image receptor),
where performed at the dental surgery
4. Measurement of bone mineral density
5. Work on premises using well shielded radiation appliances or sources, where access to the
radiation beam is barred, for example radiometric appliances in industrial facilities
6. Handling of unsealed sources:
• if the activity of gamma radiation sources handled at any one time is less than 100 MBq
• if only beta radiation sources of maximum energy less than 300 keV are handled

Both category A and B workers shall be equipped with personal dosimeters.

In compliance with the legislation, for category A workers, the following shall be ensured

- Provision with, regular replacement and evaluation of personal dosimeters, in accordance with
the monitoring programme
- Immediate replacement and evaluation of personal dosimeters in case of a suspicion or
occurrence of a radiation incident,
- Acquaintance of workers with the results of dose evaluation from their personal dosimeters,

Workers should be acquainted with the results of their personal monitoring.

Classification of areas
Two types of area may be defined: controlled areas and supervised areas

Controlled area
Registrants and licensees shall designate as a controlled area any area ... in which specific measures
for protection and safety are or could be required for:

a) Controlling exposures or preventing the spread of contamination in normal operation;

b) Preventing or limiting the likelihood and magnitude of exposures in anticipated operational
occurrences and accident conditions.

Controlled area: A workplace where the workers may receive any of the annual radiation doses greater
than 6 mSv per year or an equivalent dose greater than 3/10 of the exposure limit for lens of the eye, skin
and extremities or from which radioactive contamination that is significant from a radiation protection
point of view could be spread to nearby spaces shall be defined as a controlled area.
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Controlled area shall be delineated and access to it restricted to authorised persons, by which is
meant persons who have been sufficiently trained with respect to:

1. The risks that the work in a radiation environment may imply,

2. The radiation protection measures to be taken, and
3. The local instructions that apply to the controlled area.

Temporary visitors may have access to a controlled area only if accompanied by an authorised
person.

A controlled area shall be marked with signs stating that it is a controlled area and the kind of
radiation sources located within the area.

Supervised area
“Registrants and licensees shall designate as a supervised area any area not already designated as
a controlled area but for which occupational exposure conditions need to be kept under review,
even though specific measures for protection and safety are not normally needed.

“Registrants and licensees, taking into account the nature, likelihood and magnitude of exposures
or contamination in the supervised areas:

a) Shall delineate the supervised areas by appropriate means;

b) Shall display approved signs, as appropriate, at access points to supervised areas;
c) Shall periodically review conditions to assess whether there is any need for further measures for
protection and safety or any need for changes to the boundaries of supervised areas.”

A workplace that is not a controlled area as mentioned in previous section but to which these
regulations apply shall be defined as a supervised area.

A supervised area shall be marked with signs stating that it is a supervised area and what kind of
radiation sources are located within the area.

The licensee shall in controlled and supervised areas perform:

1. Measurements of external dose rates where it is not clear that the field of radiation is
geometrically limited, marked or otherwise well known, and
2. Checks of the concentration of activity in the air and on surfaces that might be contaminated if
there are radioactive substances in the workplace that might contaminate the surroundings.

Work environments shall be monitored using suitable methods with respect to the kind(s) of
radiation present, energies and the physical and chemical properties of radioactive substances. The
results of monitoring shall be recorded and, if necessary, enable the estimation of individual doses.
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2.3. Requirements for Monitoring Programme– Part1 and 2: Personal Monitoring

2.3.1. General Principles for Creating Monitoring Programme
Monitoring is measurements related to the assessment or control of exposure to radiation and
radioactive materials. The monitoring programme shall involve the monitoring under normal operation,
the monitoring for predictable deviations from normal operation as well as the monitoring during radiation
incidents and radiation accidents. It mainly contains:

a) Definition of quantities to be monitored.

b) Instructions for the evaluation of measurement results.
Reference levels and the overview of appropriate action or measures to be applied.
c) Specification of the methods, scope and frequency of measurements.
Specification of the types of equipment used for measurement.

Depending on the type of practice, the monitoring shall be proposed and established as:
Systematic, continuous - it is connected with the given practice; it shall confirm that the working
conditions remain safe, in compliance with the requirements laid down in the licence,

Periodic - it is repeated within specified periods and is also aimed at confirming that the working
conditions remain safe, in compliance with the requirements laid down in the licence,

Operative - it is carried out during a certain activity in order to evaluate and ensure acceptability
of this activity from the perspective of limitation system and terms and conditions defined in the
licence.

If the arrangement of workplace, sources, methods and/or the conditions of ionising radiation
source management and/or monitoring methods are changed, the monitoring programme shall be
updated.

Each of these types can be subdivided on the basis of the location of monitoring:

a) Personal monitoring is taken to mean measurement by equipment worn by individual workers,

or measurement of quantities of radioactive materials in or on their bodies, and the interpretation
of such measurements.
b) Workplace monitoring comprises measurements made in the working environment;

2.3.2. Personal Monitoring

Personal monitoring shall serve for the determination of personal doses by monitoring,
measurement and evaluation of individual external and internal exposures, the external exposure
is assessed by personal dosimeters and the internal exposure is assessed by using direct and indirect
method. The details of the programmes will be influenced by the type and energy of the radiation
and the radionuclides involved. For any worker who is normally employed in a controlled area, or
who occasionally works in a controlled area and may receive significant occupational exposure,
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individual monitoring shall be undertaken where appropriate, adequate and feasible. In cases
where individual monitoring is inappropriate, inadequate or not feasible, the occupational exposure
of the worker shall be assessed on the basis of the results of monitoring of the workplace and on
information on the locations and durations of exposure of the worker.

For any worker who is regularly employed in a supervised area or who enters a controlled area
only occasionally, individual monitoring shall not be required but the occupational exposure of the
worker shall be assessed. This assessment shall be on the basis of the results of monitoring of the
workplace or individual monitoring.

The nature, frequency and precision of individual monitoring shall be determined with
consideration of the magnitude and possible fluctuations of exposure levels and the likelihood and
magnitude of potential exposures.

Licensee involving ionising-radiation shall ensure that monitoring of individual doses is

performed for all workers belonging to category A and B.

If there is an unexpected change of the dose registered for a worker takes place, the reason shall
be investigated by licensee.

If a measurement shows that a worker has received a personal dose equivalent in one month
corresponding to:

1. An effective dose higher than 6 mSv, or

2. An equivalent dose to the lens of the eye higher than 6 mSv, or
3. An equivalent .dose to the hands, forearms, feet, ankles or the skin higher than 150 mSv, the
licensee and service provider shall report the dose to the regulatory body and state the reason.

Immediately following an event that may be suspected of having led to abnormally high individual
doses, the licensee shall report the event to the regulatory body. The dosimeter of the persons
involved shall be evaluated immediately.

External exposure
Measurements of individual doses shall be performed with personal dosimeters from a service
provider for individual dose monitoring which is approved by regulatory body. Personal
dosimeters shall be appropriate for the practice conducted and the kind(s) of radiation present. The
readings must not be affected by agents other than ionising radiation during normal use.

The monitoring of external exposure by personal dosimeters shall be ensured for all category A
and B workers as well as for persons intervening during radiation accidents or natural disasters in
compliance with an on-site emergency plan unless otherwise stated in the terms and conditions of
the license and in the approved monitoring programme.

For category A workers, a monitoring period for the evaluation of a personal dosimeter shall be
one month. This provision means that a one-month monitoring interval is uniformly determined
for work carried by category A worker in the controlled area. This approach is fully in compliance
with the international recommendations and in the case of measurement exceeding the determined
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reference levels, ensures the possibility of early investigation of an event and removal or remedy
of identified deficiencies. This is based on an assumption that workers have been properly
categorized and that the scope of delineation of a controlled area has been justified.

For category B workers, monitoring period for the evaluation of a personal dosimeter shall be three
months.

If an individual dose cannot be measured, for example due to a dosimeter breakdown, or if an error
in dose determination is suspected, then the radiation dose must be estimated by calculation, for
example based on measurements taken for monitoring of working conditions or on measurements
concerning other monitored workers.

A new monitoring period must begin at once for a worker who has notified her pregnancy so that
the dose to the foetus can be monitored. A pregnant worker may not continue to perform the duties
of a category A worker.

Placement of personal dosimeter:

Personal dosimeter shall be worn on the front left part of chest (reference point). If a protective
shielding apron is used, the dosimeter shall be placed on the apron and in exceeding the determined
reference level set out in the monitoring programme, the effective dose is corrected to a value
which corresponds to attenuation by the apron.

The following indicative corrections may be indicated for the values measured on such aprons:
When using an apron with an equivalent of 0.25 mm Pb approximately 3 - 4 times lower
When using an apron with an equivalent of 0.35 mm Pb approximately 4 - 5 times lower

This conversion shall apply provided that the effective radiation energy is in the range from 30 to
60 keV (the most commonly used effective energy in radio diagnostics, i.e. approximately 60 – 80
kV, filtration 2.5-3 mm Al).

The conversion to an apron shall be made by a radiation protection officer or the conversion may
be made in cooperation with the approved dosimetry service. The determined reference level for
conversion shall relate both to a one-time dose and to a summary dose for a certain period.

For workers who use a protective apron and the values of doses measured on the apron are
repeatedly higher than 20 mSv, the regulatory body may require to wear two personal dosimeters
- one on the apron and one under the apron - in order to more accurately evaluate the personal
effective doses. These are mainly physicians carrying out interventional examinations or
interventions – cardiologists, angiologists, surgeons, etc. The effective dose for two dosimeters is:

𝐸 = 0.5𝐻𝑤 + 0.025𝐻𝑁

E represents the effective dose, Hw represents personal dose equivalent at waist or chest under
apron and HN represents personal dose equivalent at neck outside the apron.
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Cases when supplementary dosimeters should be worn:

If the dosimeter placed at the reference point does not permit an estimate of an effective dose and
an equivalent dose in organs and tissues for which the limits have been determined, a worker shall
be provided with another dosimeter which due to either its properties or its position can determine
such an estimate.

If the dosimeter does not measure all kinds of radiation which may occur at the given workplace,
the worker should be provided with another dosimeter to remove this deficiency. This situation
arises, for example, when there is the possibility of the occurrence of fast neutrons, which neither
film badge nor thermo luminescent dosimeter registers and, therefore, he or she shall be provided
with a supplementary neutron dosimeter, again in a one-month period.

Internal exposure
Employers shall ensure that workers who may be exposed to radioactive contamination, including
workers who use protective respiratory equipment, be identified and shall arrange for appropriate
monitoring to the extent necessary to demonstrate the effectiveness of the protection provided and
to assess the intake of radioactive substances or the committed doses, as appropriate.

Typical methods of individual monitoring for intakes are direct method i.e. whole body counting,
organ counting (such as thyroid or lung monitoring) and indirect method i.e. analysis of samples
of excreta. Sampling of the breathing zone with personal air samplers is also used.

Individual monitoring for internal dose assessment should be used when the internal dose may be
significant. Wherever possible, the intake of radioactive material should be assessed using in direct
or in indirect measurements, or by monitoring with personal air samplers. The major technical
factors that should influence the decision to undertake routine individual monitoring for internal
radiation are the expected levels and likely variations of the intakes, and the complexity of the
measurement and interpretation procedures comprising the monitoring programme.

To secure the necessary accuracy and precision, individual dosimetry should be performed,
whenever possible, by an approved dosimetry service. The regulatory body should give
consideration to the establishment of a national accreditation procedure as a basis for the approval
of dosimetry services.

Examples of situations in which experience has shown that it is necessary to give consideration to
routine individual monitoring for internal exposure include the following:

(a) Handling of large quantities of gaseous or volatile materials, for example tritium and its
compounds in large scale production processes, in heavy water reactors and in luminizing;
(b) Processing of plutonium and other transuranic elements;
(c) Mining, milling and processing of thorium ores, and the use of thorium and its compounds
(which can lead to internal exposure due both to radioactive dusts and to thoron (220Rn) and its
progeny);
(d) Mining, milling and refining of high grade uranium ores;
(e) Processing of natural and slightly enriched uranium, and reactor fuel fabrication;
(f) Bulk production of radioisotopes;
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(g) Working in mines and other workplaces where radon levels exceed a specified action level;
(h) Handling of large quantities of radiopharmaceuticals, such as 131I for therapy;
(i) Maintenance of reactors, which can lead to exposure due to fission and activation products.

Routine internal exposure monitoring is that conducted on a fixed schedule for selected workers.
Internal exposure monitoring has several limitations that should be considered in the design of an
adequate monitoring programme.

In mining areas having above average domestic exposure due to radon. All workers should undergo
bioassay measurements before commencing work with radioactive materials, in order to determine
a ‘background’ level.

Fixed (static) air samplers or personal air samplers (PASs) may be used to determine the
concentration of airborne radioactive material, which can be combined with standard or site
specific assumptions about the physicochemical form of the material and the breathing rate and
exposure time of the worker to estimate inhalation intakes.

A personal air sampler (PAS) placed on the worker’s lapel or protective headgear can collect a
sample that is representative of the activity concentration in air which the worker has inhaled,
except in cases where the sample comprises only a few particles. Air concentration measurements,
combined with assumptions about breathing rates and volumes and measured exposure times, can
be used to estimate the intake.

2.3.3. Workplace Monitoring

“Registrants and licensees, in co-operation with employers if appropriate, shall establish, maintain
and keep under review a programme for the monitoring of the workplace under the supervision, if
so required by a Regulatory Body, of a qualified expert and a radiation protection officer.”

The licensee shall in controlled and supervised areas perform:

1. Measurements of external dose rates where it is not clear that the field of radiation is
geometrically limited, marked or otherwise well known, and
2. Checks of the concentration of activity in the air and on surfaces that might be contaminated if
there are radioactive substances in the workplace that might contaminate the surroundings.

Work environments shall be monitored using suitable methods with respect to the kind(s) of
radiation present, energies and the physical and chemical properties of radioactive substances. The
results of monitoring shall be recorded and, if necessary, enable the estimation of individual doses.

In many circumstances involving exposure due to radionuclides, workplace monitoring will be

needed. Monitoring procedures may be introduced to demonstrate satisfactory working conditions
or in cases where individual monitoring is unable to provide adequate protection of the worker.
Such workplace monitoring may also be appropriate when levels of contamination are low, for
example in a research laboratory using small quantities of radioactive tracers.
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External exposure
In many cases, workplace monitoring is used to provide an upper limit of the equivalent dose
received by workers so that no further restrictions on movement within the workplace are needed.
In these cases it is assumed that a person will be located for the entire working time in that part of
the workplace where the dose equivalent rate is highest. However, for the purpose of dose
assessment and records, realistic estimates of occupancy should be obtained and used. In those
cases where dose rates may vary significantly with time, occupancy in the workplace should be
recorded, so that periods of occupancy can be applied to the relevant dose rate to assess exposure.

Measurements of individual doses shall be performed with individual dosimeters from a laboratory
for individual dose monitoring which is approved by the Regulatory body. The monitoring period
shall be either one month or four weeks for category A and 3 months for category B.

An individual dosimeter shall be appropriate for the practice conducted and the kind(s) of radiation
present. The readings must not be affected by agents other than ionising radiation during normal
use.

Internal exposure
In workplaces where there is a risk of intake of radioactive substances into the human body or
where there is a risk of skin contamination, monitoring shall be performed in a way that is
appropriate for the radionuclide(s) and kind of work in question.

The dose from internal exposure shall be determined by estimating the intake of activity. The
committed effective dose shall be determined with the aid of the dose coefficients for each nuclide.

At the workplaces with a possibility of internal occupational exposure, radionuclide intakes and/or
committed effective doses caused by internal exposure of individual workers shall usually be
determined by radionuclide activity measurements in a worker’s body or the worker’s excretes and
activities shall be converted to an intake by means of respiratory and digestive tract models and by
the kinetics of appropriate elements.

The need or otherwise for individual or area monitoring for internal exposure will depend on the
amount of radioactive material present and the radionuclide(s) involved, the physical and chemical
form of the radioactive material, the type of containment used, the operations performed and the
general working conditions.

For some radionuclides, individual monitoring may not be feasible because of the radiation type(s)
emitted and the detection sensitivity of monitoring methods, and reliance must be placed on
workplace monitoring. Conversely, for some other radionuclides such as tritium, individual
monitoring may be more sensitive than workplace monitoring.
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For new operations, individual monitoring is likely to be needed and should be considered. As
experience in the workplace is accumulated, the need for routine individual monitoring should be
kept under review. Workplace monitoring may be found to be sufficient for radiological protection
purposes.

2.3.4 Determination of Reference Levels for Personal Monitoring

Reference levels shall be defined in the monitoring programme, which are the critical values or
criteria defined in advance for certain procedures or measures; they are usually derived from the
limits set for exposed workers (e.g. of 20 mSv/year).

The reference levels are:

a) Recording levels.
b) Investigation levels.
c) Intervention levels.

Recording levels are such reference levels upon the exceeding of which the values shall be
recorded and filed. The recording levels for personal monitoring are usually be defined as one
tenth of the fraction of the annual limit and monitoring methods shall be chosen in such a way that
the minimum detectable activity of a radiation protection quantity measured shall be lower than or
equal to the recording level defined in this way. About 0.17 mSv for monthly monitoring periods.
A result smaller than the recording level may be discarded and treated as zero in assessing the dose
or intake.

Investigation levels are such reference levels for which their exceeding lead to an investigation of
causes and possible consequences of the deviation of monitored quantity in radiation protection.
The investigation levels during personal monitoring are usually be defined as three tenths of the
exposure limit or as the upper limit of normally occurring values.

Intervention levels are such reference levels for which their exceeding require to perform thorough
investigation and to commence or introduce the remedial measures to change the deviation of a
quantity monitored in radiation protection.

The reference levels can be defined for monitoring the values in the course of the year in the
personal dose equivalent quantity Hp(10) and Hp(0.07).

The recording level for the evaluation of the results of personal monitoring depends on the type of
used dosimeter and on the approved method used by the relevant dosimetry service.

The investigation level is usually defined as 3/10 of limits, i.e. 0.5 mSv for effective dose at
monthly intervals of measurement and 6 mSv/year.

It is recommended to define the investigation level (for 1 month) in the range from 0.5 to 1.0 mSv.
 15

The intervention level shall usually be defined at the level of the defined limit, i.e. 20 mSv. This
level may be selected as the intervention level for the monitoring period as well as for the annual
dose.

3 Personal Dosimetry Methods

3.1. External Exposure Monitoring

External exposure of individuals under normal conditions shall be monitored both by means of
personal dosimeters and on the basis of data provided by working environment monitors. As
already mentioned, the non-exceeding of occupational exposure limits shall be deemed to be
sufficiently demonstrated if the defined derived limits, expressed in easier to measure quantities,
are not exceeded. This assumption is realistic when the personal dosimeter calibrated in the given
quantity indicates the "required" energy and angular dependence, and the radiation field is
"sufficiently" homogeneous to make the dosimeter reading representative for individual exposure.

In principle, three ways of worker exposure and/or their combination may be expected in practice:

a) Dominantly in the chest – back direction; in most cases, worker at work faces the source of
radiation.
b) From the rear half-space; usually during the transportation of radioactive materials (driver –
load).
Plane or spherically through an isotropic field; activity in the field of scattered radiation, when the
orientation of worker towards the source changes.

The selection of the personal dosimeter depends not only on the type of radiation in the given
radiation field but also on the form of requested dosimetry information. The following types of
personal dosimeters are most often used in practice:

Photon dosimeters - giving information on Hp(10) in the fields of X- and gamma radiation.

Beta and gamma radiation dosimeters - giving information on Hp(0.07) and Hp(10) in the given
radiation field at the same time.

Complex dosimeters working on discrimination principle - giving information not only on Hp(10),
Hp(0.07), but also on the type of radiation, its effective energy and/or on the orientation of
individual in the field of radiation, etc.

Neutron dosimeters - giving information on Hp(10) in the radiation field of neutrons.

Extremity dosimeters - giving information on angular distribution of the radiation field and on the
magnitude of exposure (dose) to the given part of body (extremities, etc.).

In the radiation fields with the gamma radiation being the dominant component, it shall usually
suffice to measure the quantity Hp(10) by means of a simple personal dosimeter – the dosimeters
sensitive and energy independent in the given quantity in a broad energy range shall be used for
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this purpose – thermoluminescent, and photo luminescent dosimeters. A number of modern

electronic dosimeters can also ensure direct measurement of Hp(10) with energy threshold from
20 to 80 keV.

3.2 Internal Exposure Monitoring

The assessment of doses received by workers from intakes of radionuclides may be based on the
results of individual monitoring involving one or more of the following types of measurement:

(a) Sequential measurements of radionuclides in the whole body or in specific organs such as the
thyroid or the lung;
(b) Measurements of radionuclides in biological samples such as excretions or breath;
(c) Measurement of activity concentrations in air samples collected using personal air sampling
devices worn by the worker and representative of the air breathed by that worker.

For some radionuclides, individual monitoring based on measurements of activity in the body or
in biological samples may not be feasible because of the radiation type(s) emitted and the detection
sensitivity of the monitoring methods. In some situations, it may be necessary or preferable for the
assessment of doses received by individual workers to be based on the results of workplace
monitoring.

For workers engaged in industrial activities involving NORM, internal exposure from the
inhalation of 238U and 232Th decay series radionuclides in dust particles is often the dominant
pathway because of the inherently dusty nature of many such activities. In such workplaces:

(a) Air sampling, rather than biological sampling or whole body counting, is the best way of
assessing doses and providing the information needed for optimization;
(b) Particular attention should be given to the characterization of the airborne dust in terms of its
particle size distribution, its activity concentration (which may differ from that of the bulk
material), and the lung absorption class (es) of the radionuclides concerned.

The choice of measurement technique will be determined by several factors:

(a) The radiation emitted by the radionuclide;

(b) The biokinetic behaviour of the contaminant;
(c) The degree to which the contaminant is retained within the body, taking account of both
biological clearance and radioactive decay;
(d) The required frequency of measurements;
(e) The sensitivity, availability and convenience of appropriate measurement facilities.

A facility for individual monitoring should ideally be situated in a building remote from other
laboratories or operations giving rise to the emission of radioactive materials or penetrating
radiation which could interfere with measurements. The monitoring area for direct measurement,
containing shielded detectors and associated electronic equipment, would normally occupy a
ground floor or basement location in view of floor loading requirements. There should also be
waiting rooms for people coming for measurement, showers, toilets and rooms for the change of
clothes, and also separate rooms for collecting or handling excretion samples.
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The laboratory for excretion analysis should be constructed in much the same way as any other
radiochemical laboratory, but should not be also used for the analysis of other, high activity process
samples such as reactor coolant, in order to avoid any cross contamination. Precautions for the
handling of potentially infectious material have to be taken into account when planning space for
the handling or storage of collected but unanalysed excretion samples.

Factors Affecting Interpretation and Correctness of Personal Monitoring Results

The interpretation of personal monitoring results is based on the "conversion" of directly measured
quantities to quantities, in which the basic exposure limits are determined, i.e. to equivalent or
effective dose.

With such interpretation, the magnitude of errors will depend on the accuracy and correctness of
the given dosimeter (method) in determining the dosimetry-related quantity, in which it is
calibrated, and on the correctness of the procedure for interpretation of measured quantities to the
quantity, in which the exposure limits are determined.

Energy dependence. In the personal dosimetry, a major effort was given to the development of
personal dosimeter, which would be able to determine the given dosimetry-related quantity
independently of energy, i.e. correctly and sufficiently accurately estimate exposure of an
individual regardless of the type, in terms of energy distribution, of radiation field to which he or
she was exposed. Even though sophisticated systems, meeting at least partly this requirement, this
way experienced soon a number of restrictions mainly arising from that the quantities, in which
the response of dosimeters should be interpreted, changed.

Radiation field. One of the below listed alternatives shall be selected depending on the purpose for
which the personal dosimeter shall be used:
For "clean" photon fields, or in those cases involving confirmation that no significant quantitative
change occurred in the dominant component of the radiation field, it is appropriate to use simple,
"energy independent" (properly power) compensated dosimeters (e.g. based on thermoluminescent
dosimeters).

Complex, multicomponent dosimeters shall be preferred in complex or, from the perspective of
individual exposure risk, significant radiation fields.

Calibration. Requirements were laid down over time, which should be met to ensure that the
personal dosimeter measures correctly and sufficiently accurately. In the first place, there should
be available a representative set of reference calibration fields and technical facilities allowing
dosimeter calibration and testing of:

Dosimeter response linearity and measurable range of dosimetry-related quantity.

Dependence of response to angular distribution of radiation field.
Dependence of dosimeter (its components) response to various kinds of radiation.
Dosimeter sensitivity to various physical and chemical influences.
Dosimeter response stability in time.
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List of name of dosimetry

A dosimeter is a small radiation detection device worn by an individual, used to measure doses
from ionizing radiation.

External Dosimetry
External dosimetry is the measurement of dose when the radiation source is outside of (or external
to) the body. Therefore, in terms of dose to humans, external dosimetry is concerned with radiation
that can penetrate the skin: beta, photon, and neutron radiation. Since photons and beta interact
through electronic forces (interactions between charged particles) and neutrons interact through
nuclear forces, their detection methods and dosimetry are substantially different.

Dosimeters are classified into two general categories, passive and active:
 A passive dosimeter produces a radiation-induced signal, which is stored in the device. The
dosimeter is then processed and the output is analyzed.

An active dosimeter produces a radiation-induced signal and displays a direct reading of the
detected dose or dose rate in real time.

Dosimetry for photon and beta radiation:

Passive dosimeters (Indirect reading)

1- Thermoluminescent dosimeters
2- Optically stimulated luminescence dosimeters

Active dosimeter (Direct reading)

Direct reading dosimeters: they display doses and dose rates while they are being used. Many
direct reading dosimeters have alarms that sound at preset doses and dose rates. The most
commonly used types display dose readings electronically and are composed of either a diode or
a GM detector.

In the preceding examples of non-uniform exposure where both the whole body and the extremities
are exposed to radiation, the dose from external sources of radiation may be measured with:
 A whole-body dosimeter worn on the trunk (to measure the effective dose as well as the equivalent
dose to the skin of the body); and

 Extremity dosimeters worn on the hands and/or feet (to measure the equivalent doses to
the extremities).

Dosimetry for neutron radiation

Two types of neutron dosimeters are personal neutron dosimeters (of which the most popular is the solid-
state nuclear track detector) and portable neutron survey meters.

1- Solid-state nuclear track detectors (albedo neutron dosimeters)

2- Portable neutron survey meters
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Internal Dosimetry
Internal dosimetry is the measurement of doses due to nuclear substances that have entered the
body by way of ingestion, inhalation or other means.

Internal dosimetry involves two steps:

1- The level of radiation inside a person’s body is estimated using one of three methods:

 in-vivo bioassay (direct measurement of radioactivity in the body)

 in-vitro bioassay (measurement of radioactivity in a person’s urine or feces)
 measurement of radioactivity in workplace air

2- The resulting internal radiation dose is calculated.

In-vivo bioassay (direct measurement of radioactivity in the body)

 Whole-body counters
 Lung counters
 Thyroid counters

In-vitro bioassay (measurement of radioactivity in substances excreted by the body)

 Measurement of tritium in urine

Measurement of radon decay products in workplace air

Required accuracy of measurement

According to ICRP 13 and ICRP 75, the uncertainty of determination of the quantity E and/or HT
should range from –33% to + 50% (95% confidence interval) for values at the level of annual
limits. In the area of recording level, the uncertainty ± 100% is allowed. According to ICRP 75,
the requirements laid down should be met for 19 of 20 measurements in verifying the dosimetry
service.

Stricter uncertainties of determination of Hp(10) are mostly determined for the area of
investigation and intervention levels (to ± 25%). The quality of personal dose equivalent
measurement within the approved dosimetry service shall be verified in on an annual basis.

4 Evaluation of Personal Doses for Outside Workers

The purpose is to ensure a comprehensive monitoring, evaluation and keeping of records of total
exposure of such outside workers.

The objective is to achieve system functionality and provide the outside workers with the same
level of radiation protection as provided to permanent workers
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5. Requirements for Registration and Communication of Personal Monitoring

Results into the System of the National Register of Occupational Exposure

5.1 Licensees' Record Keeping of Personal Doses

To record personal doses of monitoring workers, a licensee shall keep the following documents
and data:
a) First name, surname, date of birth
b) Birth registration number, if assigned and its holder has given his or her consent
c) Personal doses and other data to characterise the exposures of such workers as set out by the
regulatory body in the licence terms and conditions or approved by the regulatory body as a
part of the monitoring programme.

The above mentioned documents and data shall be kept throughout the time of performing the
work activity involving ionizing radiation exposure, and subsequently until the time when the
person attains or would have attained 75 years of age, however no shorter than 30 years after the
termination of the work activity during which the worker was subject to the ionizing radiation.

5.2 Keeping Records on Occupational Doses by Approved Dosimetry Services

Recording keeping for individual monitoring
An approved dosimetry service shall archive the data on personal doses for monitoring workers
for the minimum of 10 year following the year to which the data is related.

The approved dosimetry service shall submit the results of exposure evaluation in a form stipulated
under the terms and conditions of a license or agreed with the regulatory body to the respective
licensee and directly to the regulatory body as well:
a) Immediately after dosimeter evaluation due to an unplanned one-time exposure,
b) Immediately upon identification of an effective dose from external exposure in excess of 20
mSv and an equivalent dose from external exposure in excess of 150 mSv.

The approved dosimetry service shall inform the regulatory body within 1 month of a signature or
termination of a contract with a licensee authorized for ionizing radiation source management on
the performance of personal dosimetry at a given workplace.
Doses received by exposed workers of the category A in radiological emergencies shall be
recorded separately, without being added to the doses received in normal operation.

For each monitoring period, the record should comprise:

(a) A unique identification of the individual and the undertaking;

(b) The dose information for every monitoring period, i.e. for an annual period and/or for an
appropriate five-year period;
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(c) The results of dose assessments for external exposure and the method of assessment, including,
as appropriate:
(i) The personal dose equivalent for strongly penetrating radiation, Hp(10);
(ii) The personal dose equivalent for weakly penetrating radiation, Hp(0.07);
(iii) Other dose values, if appropriate, such as Hp(0.07) derived from extremity dosimeters, Hp(3)
for the lens of the eye, dose values from the use of multiple dosimeters (e.g. in the case of double
dosimetry with lead apron use), dose values calculated from simulations (e.g. doses received by
aircrew from cosmic radiation);

Because it is virtually impossible when evaluating the readings of personal dosimeters to

distinguish between photon and beta radiation, it is not sensible to attempt to identify (and report)
the beta and gamma components of Hp(0.07) separately. However, because the different types of
high-LET radiation have different quality factors, neutron doses should be recorded separately. It
should be remembered that photon, neutron and beta doses are to be combined to determine the
total personal dose equivalent.
(d) The results of dose assessments for internal exposure and method of assessment, including:
(i) The committed effective dose, E(50);
(ii) The values of the measured quantity (e.g. retention or daily excretion value) and details of the
models used for the assessment. Include results of whole body counting, thorax counting and/or
thyroid counting and the assessed committed effective dose;
(iii) If appropriate (e.g. in the case of overexposure), the committed equivalent dose to the most
highly exposed tissue, H(50);
(e) The notional dose substituting for missing values, artifacts or surrogates, for instance in the
case of lost or damaged dosimeters or samples

Record keeping for workplace monitoring

A retention period of 5 years is generally recommended for the records of workplace monitoring
and of the calibration of the workplace monitoring instruments by management.

Records documenting the designation and location of controlled and supervised areas should be
kept. Records should also be kept of radiation surveys, including the date, time and location, the
radiation levels measured, and any comments relevant to the measurements made. Records should
identify the instrument(s) used and the individual performing the survey. Even if workplace-
monitoring data are not used for dose assessment, they should be maintained for future verification
of workplace conditions.
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6. Procedures for Investigating the Causes of Higher Personal Doses

Possibilities of detecting higher doses. The regulatory body requires identifying and evaluating
situations when doses for individuals exceed one of the dose limit and/or pose an immediate threat
to health of exposed individual.
The results obtained within the exchange of personal dosimeters at regular intervals and/or during
their whole-year evaluation is one of the sources of information.

The type of the exceeding of dose for exposed worker is the second source of information – this
can involve an emergency occurred at the workplace or during source transportation. In case of
such a suspicion, personal dosimeters shall be immediately evaluated and a dosimetry evaluation
of the event shall be performed. At the same time, the licensee and the approved dosimetry service,
respectively, shall immediately inform the regulatory body of the exceeding of effective dose for
an individual from external exposure of 20 mSv and/or of the exceeding of committed effective
dose from internal exposure of 6 mSv. On the basis of this information, the regulatory body shall
fulfill its obligation by law to assess individual exposure, clarify the situation and evaluate the
investigation of the event.

In the case that the dose was evaluated as not real (the person was not exposed,.) source or
dosimeter contaminated with radionuclides), it shall not be included in the occupational exposure
of the worker. However, frequent repetition of cases due to mishandling require are inspection by
the regulatory body.

If it is confirmed that dosimeter reading indicates personal dose, the correction to shielding effect
of the protective apron, if used, should be made in the first place. The personal dosimeter should
be worn outside the apron. The conversion is not made automatically for all measured values. It is
made in compliance with the approved monitoring programme depending on the Pb equivalent of
used apron and radiation energy. A reasonable value from which the conversion is necessary
appears to be the value of 10 mSv, which equals to the converted personal dose of approximately
1 mSv provided that the apron with Pb equivalent of 0.5 mm is used and that the radiation energy
ranges from 60 to 80 keV. The relevant converted value shall be corrected in the central records
upon notification by the licensee. Care should be taken to ensure that the corrections are made for
one value only once. It can happen that in the course of the year, the value exceeds the determined
level thus being corrected and then exceeds this level again after the evaluation of annual personal
dose. In this case, only the non-converted part of personal dose should be corrected. The dose
exceeding 20 mSv and evaluated as personal dose as a consequence of emergency event shall be
recorded separately and shall not be included in the occupational exposure of the worker.

In principle, all doses exceeding the dose limit for exposed workers should be only a consequence
of emergency events. A license cannot be issued for the radiation activity during which the dose
limit could be exceeded under normal conditions.
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For all cases of personal or impersonal doses exceeding the maximum permitted level of 20 mSv,
the measure avoiding or reducing the probability of repetition of such exposures should be defined
as part of the investigation.