Classify the A.A.

Classify the A.A.

Classify the A.A.
Classify the A.A.
Classify the A.A.
Classify the A.A.
Classify the A.A.
Classify the A.A.
Classify the A.A.
Classify the A.A.
Classify the A.A.
Classify the A.A.
Classify the A.A.
Classify the A.A.
Classify the A.A.
Classify the A.A.
Classify the A.A.
Classify the A.A.
Classify the A.A.
Classify the A.A.
Smallest A.A.
Branched A.A.
Helix Breaker
An Imino acid
A.A. Nomenclature:
A.A. Nomenclature:
A.A. Nomenclature:
A.A. Nomenclature:
A.A. Nomenclature:
A.A. Nomenclature:
A.A. Nomenclature:
A.A. Nomenclature:
A.A. Nomenclature:
A.A. Nomenclature:
A.A. Nomenclature:
A.A. Nomenclature:
A.A. Nomenclature:
A.A. Nomenclature:
A.A. Nomenclature:
A.A. Nomenclature:
A.A. Nomenclature:
A.A. Nomenclature:
A.A. Nomenclature:
A.A. Nomenclature:
A.A. Nomenclature:
Glycine
Valine, Leucine, Isoleucine
Proline
Proline
 9/15/2020
Central Dogma of Life
Genotype
Phenotype
Nucleic acids are made up of monomers of
Nucleoside
Nucleotide structure
Nucleotide monomers are linked together by…
Each nucleotide have distinct 5' end and 3' end and thus has…
Nucleotides are acidic by virtue of
DNA structure: the 2 strands are… in direction
DNA structure: the 2 strands are… in that A always with T and G always with C
*DNA structure: Chargaff's rule (only applied to double stranded, nucleic acid molecule
Nitrogen containing base having 1 ring in their structure
Nitrogen containing base having 2 rings in their structure
Purine Nucleus Sources: N3 and N9
Purine Nucleus Sources: C4, C5 and N7
Purine Nucleus Sources: C2, C8
Purine Nucleus Sources: C6
Purine Nucleus Sources: N1
Pyrimidine Nucleus Sources: N1, C4, C5, C6
Pyrimidine Nucleus Sources: C2
Pyrimidine Nucleus Sources: N3
Nucleoside di- and triphosphates are high energy compounds because of
Forms of DNA: model DNA discovered by watson and crick
Forms of DNA: 11bp per turn; right handed, short and stout; less pronounced grooves
Forms of DNA: 10bp per turn; right handed, long and slender; pronounced grooves
Forms of DNA: 12 bp per turn; left handed, bases seem to ZIGZAG
Forms of DNA: dehydrated form of B DNA
Forms of DNA: occurs in G-C sequences
Disruption of H bonds and stacking of bases, resulting in the "melting" of the double hel
Melting of base pairs results in Increased absorbance
Denaturation is achieved by…
Types of DNA structre closed circular
Types of DNA structre linear
DNA packaging
*parts of a nucleosome except
DNA is negatively charged (due to phosphate)
histones is positively charged (lysine and arginine)
DNA-histone interaction
1 chromosome = 1 DNA molecule
Chromosome structure
Chromosome structure
products of transcription
RNA structure
mRNA function
*START codon
n-terminus to the c-terminus
*STOP codon
Genetic Code Characteristics: multiple codons coding for the same amino acid
tRNA sructure
rNA structure
*23 s 5s=

A-site
P-site

DNA replication: Parental strands remain intact in two separate

daughter DNA and are hybridized with an entirely new
complementary strand
Conservative replication
Dispersive replication
Template/Non-coding/Anti-Sense
Non-template/coding/Sense
Human Genome

DNA polymerization 5' to 3' only at the tail end becuae the 3'OH is an absolute req for polymerication to workd
what mineral acts as a cofactor in DNA polymerization
Primer strand
DNA replication phases
oriC
Primase
Helicase
Single Strand Bidning protein
Leading Strand, needs primers, in the 5' to 3', polymerized by DNA pol III
Lagging Strand, needs primers, in the 5' to 3', polymerized by DNA pol III

DNA pol I will be digested by DNA pol 1 (5’-3’ exonuclease) and 3’ end will be extended by DNA pol 1 (5’-3’ polymera
movement of the replication fork
when replciation fork mees each other
DNA polymerase III
DNA polymerase III
DNA polymerase I replace primers with DNA
DNA polymerase I
Eukaryotic DNA replication
Prokaryotic DNA replication
Eukaryotic vs. DNA replication: Semi-conservative
Eukaryotic vs. DNA replication: Primer-dependent: Primase polymerizes primers
Eukaryotic vs. DNA replication: Primer-dependent: DNA pol alpha/Primase complex
polymerizes primers
Eukaryotic vs. DNA replication: parental strands serve as template
Eukaryotic vs. DNA replication: Single origin of replication
Eukaryotic vs. DNA replication: Multiple origins of replication
Eukaryotic vs. DNA replication: DNA polymerase III creates leading and lagging strand
Eukaryotic vs. DNA replication: DNA polymerases delta and epsilon create lagging and
leading strands repectively
Eukaryotic vs. DNA replication: Associated with supercoiling

: transcription and translation are coupled (RNA are preformed no phtysical separtion

Eukaryotic vs. DNA replication: Associated with supercoliing and telomere shortening
Topoisomerase I
Topoisomerase II
fluroquinolones will work on actively dividing cells on gyrase
Telomere shorter= the older you are; but some cells have telomerase which are able to synthesize
where telomerases are active?
not all DNA can be genes, but all genes are DNA
inhibits mycobacterial RNA polymerase
Promoter region/TATA box/Pribnow box/ GC box/ Hogness Box
informative sequence
Terminator sequence
Hairpin loop
Rho independent protein
Promoter region
Enhancers
Informative sequence:
Informative sequence:
Terminator
*Types of Eukaryotic RNA Polymerases: RNAP I-
*Types of Eukaryotic RNA Polymerases: RNAP II-
*Types of Eukaryotic RNA Polymerases: RNAP III-
Post-Transcriptional Processing
Post-Transcriptional Processing: Addition of 7-methylguanosine cap
Post-Transcriptional Processing: Splicing
Post-Transcriptional Processing: Addition of PolyA tail
Transcriptional control: Acetylation of nucleosomes
Transcriptional control: Methylation of CpG islands
Transcriptional control: Activators and repressors binding to promoters, operators
and/or enhancers
Transcriptional control: Alternative splicing
mRNA
tRNA
rRNA
Major steps in Translation: Pre-initiation
Major steps in Translation: Initiation
Major steps in Translation: Elongation
Major steps in Translation: Termination
Mutation mechanism (small scale): Replication slippage; repetitive sequence
Mutation mechanism (small scale): Mutation by UV light; adjacent thymine bonds=> cy
Mutation mechanism (small scale): Mutation by chemical agents;
Types of mutation: Substitiution
*Transition
*Transversion
silent
missense
nonsense
Types of mutation:Deletion: Frameshift
Types of mutation: Insertion
DNA repair system: Base excision
DNA repair system: Nucleotide excision
DNA repair system: Mismatch repair ID between Old (Methylated~Marking as the correct one) and New template vi
Chemotherapeutic agents and their targets in the CELL CYCLE: Methotrexate/ 5-FU/ Hy
Chemotherapeutic agents and their targets in the CELL CYCLE: Bleomycin
Chemotherapeutic agents and their targets in the CELL CYCLE: Paclitaxel/ Vincristine/ V
Chemotherapeutic agents and their targets in the CELL CYCLE: Cyclophosphamide/ Cispl
CELL CYCLE: G0 Phase
CELL CYCLE: G1 Phase
CELL CYCLE: S Phase
CELL CYCLE: G2 Phase
CELL CYCLE: M Phase
Process in which chromosome is duplicated; occurs during S phase in the nucleus
Transfer of information found in a DNA molecule to the base sequence of a ssRNA mole
Converts the information in the RNA base sequence to the amino acid sequence of a
Control of cell cycle is accomplished at checkpoints between various phases by strategi
MOA of Daunorubicin and Doxorubicin… affecting DNA replication
9/16/2020
the application
of Molecular Biology, Biotechnology and
Molecular Genetics to the understanding of
human health, and diagnosis and treatment
of disease.
Enzymes derived from bacteria; Highly specific; Recognise and cleave DNA at specific
words read the same backwards

DNA propagation: Cell based aka cloning

DNA propagation: Cell based aka cloning steps: 1)Recombinant DNA production
DNA propagation: Cell based aka cloning steps: 2)Transformation
DNA propagation: Cell based aka cloning steps: 3)Selection
DNA propagation: Cell based aka cloning steps: 4)Propagation and purification
DNA library

DNA propagation: Polymerase chain reaction:

DNA propagation: Polymerase chain reaction steps: 1) DNA denaturation
DNA propagation: Polymerase chain reaction steps: 2) DNA primer annealing
DNA propagation: Polymerase chain reaction steps: 3) Primer extension by Taq polyme

PCR medical applications

DNA sequencing: Sanger's method aka chain termination requiring: DNA template,
primer, DNA polymerase, dNTPs as substrate and dideoxynucleotide (chain
terminator)

Blotting Techniques: Southern blot aka DNA blot

Blotting Techniques: Analysis of
Blotting Techniques: Analysis of
Blotting Techniques: Analysis of
Blotting Techniques: Analysis of
Blotting Techniques: Gel for separation
Blotting Techniques: Gel for separation
Blotting Techniques: Gel for separation
Blotting Techniques: Gel for separation
Blotting Techniques: Probe
Blotting Techniques: Probe
Blotting Techniques: Probe
Blotting Techniques: Probe

Blotting Techniques:

before PCR, southern blot was used primarily for Gene discovery and mapping,
evolution and
development studies, diagnostics and forensics
trisomy 21
VNTR aka microsatellilte
DNA microarray
Flow of genetic information (DNA replication then to RNA via transcription or vice versa via reverse transcription wh
Genetic make up
Expressed Gene
Nucleotide
base + sugar
base + sugar + phosphate group
3' (hydroxyl), 5' (phosphate) phosphodiester bond
polarity
their phosphate group
antiparallel or opposite
complementary
amt of A = amt of T & amt of C = amt of G; hence total purines = total pyrimidines
Pyrimidines: C, U, T
Purines: A, G
amide N of Glutamine
Glycine
N^10 formyl H4 folate and N^5 N^10 formyl H4 folate
CO2
Aspartate
Aspartate
CO2
amide N of Glutamine
hydrolytic energy assoc. with the acid anhydride bonds
B DNA
A DNA
B DNA
Z DNA
A DNA
Z-DNA
Denaturation
Hyperchromic effect
Heat, alkaline pH, & chemicals eg. Formamide and urea
bacteria and in our mitochondira
eukaryotic DNA
histones- H2a, h2b, h3 and h4 form octameric core by which dna will coil aorund it forming a nucleosome
H1- linker DNA; does not participate in nucleosome

ionic interaction

centromere central part

 telomere end part
mRNA, tRNA, rRNA are the focus in field of med
single stranded, linked by phosphodiester bond which is easliy destroyed because its not stable
template for polypeptide synthesis
AUG= methionine
peptidyl transferase synthesizes peptide bond ftom
UAG, UGA, UAA

single stranded that forms h bond on its self creating a cloverleaf appearance; D loop= ; T loop= contains a thymidin
ginger like structure
50S+ =70S
40S+60S=80s
entry for all a.a. except methionine

Semi-conservative replication
entirely new daughter strands
parental strands are separated and mixture of old and new strands

Nuclear Genome 3,000Mb + Mitochondrial Genome=16.6kb

70% extragenic DNA + 30% gene sequences; of which 10% codes for protein and 90% are not coding
light staing euchromatin
dark stanig heterochromatin
te req for polymerication to workd
Magnesium will attracted to the oxygen of the phosphate group: 3'OH performs a nucleophilic attack

initiation -> Elongation -> Termination

origin of replication in e.coli

unwound the DNA

prevent reannealing of the ssDNA
continuous, growing towards the replication fork
discontinuous, yielding okazaki fragments, growing away from the replication fork
Replication fork
e extended by DNA pol 1 (5’-3’ polymerase)
bidirectional
termination
5' to 3' polymerase activity
3' to 5' exonuclease acitivity= proofreading function- ensure fidelity of replication
5'-3' polymerase activity
 3' to 5' exonuclease acitivity= proofreading function- ensure fidelity of replication
multiple rigins of relications; occurs at s phase ; rsults in 4n chromoseme number
one single origin,
Eukaryotic/Prokaryotic
Prokaryotic

Eukaryotic
Eukaryotic/Prokaryotic
Prokaryotic
Eukaryotic
Prokaryotic

Eukaryotic
Prokaryotic

Prokaryotic

Eukaryotic

are able to synthesize

cancer cells, germ cells

Rifampicin

G-C rich region + PolyA tract; Some termination require Rho ! Not the same as UAG/UGA/UAA
GC has self-complementarity
3rd party- more common than PolyA tract

EXONS
INTRONS

transcribes rRNA except 5S rRNA

transcibes mRNA
transcribes tRNA and 5S rRNA

proper positioning in the the translation later on

 Determines amino acid sequence
Catalyzes peptide bond formation
Brings amino acid
attachment of amino acid /charging

mRNA translocation
Stop codon is reached
nucleotide expansion
whne DNA is misread=> mutation

e.g. substituion in sickle cell

e.g. Xeroderma pigmentosum=> Cancers

as the correct one) and New template via Methlyation
S-Phase
G2 Phase
M Phase
Non cell-cycle specific
For cells that have stopped cycling (eg. Muscle and Nerve cells), a special state
Period of cellular growth
DNA synthesis
Cellular growth after DNA synthesis; Replicated Dna is checked for errors
Mitotic phase- cell divides to form 2 daughter cells
DNA Replication
Transcription
Translation
Cyclin and Cyclin-dependent kinases
intercalating bet DNA bases->interfering with acitivity of topoisomerase II
Molecular medicine is
Restriction endonucleases
palindrome

sticky ends - when encountered complementary strand would reanneal

recombinant DNA
Recombinant DNA replicating within
host cell

In-vitro DNA amplification; Method of

amplifying a target sequence of DNA up
to 600bp;Requires DNA polymerase enzyme to
remain stable
at high temperature (Taq polymerase); In-vitro;
Done in 30 cycles of 3 steps; >1Billion DNA
copies are produced

Taq polymerase thermophilus aquaticus

artificial/DNApreformed
PCR versus DNA replication

Investigate a potentially defective DNA

sequence
• Diagnosis of diseases in which a specific
mutational site is in question (monogenic
disorders)
• Primers spanning the site are used
• Amplified DNA can de sequenced or
compared
with normal reference control
monogenic disorder ff mendelian pattern of inheritance
Autosomal dominant
Autosomal recessive
ddNTP no 3'OH so nothing to attached with
Sanger had 2 Nobel prize: sequenced insulin and DNA

Analysis of DNA utilizing complementary

radioactive DNA probe; Method to isolate and
identify a DNA sequence of
interest in a complex mixture; takes about 4
days; purpose of baking-> DNA denaturation
Southern

no. 1 most common cause of mental retardation

variable number of tandem repeat
reverse transcription which would then be translated into a PROTEIN)

a nucleosome
oop= contains a thymidine!!; anticodon loop= the ones that hybridizes with the codon; adaptor molecule; acceptor arm is at the
r molecule; acceptor arm is at the 3' end
 9/16/2020
Lipids
saturated
cis double bond wil cause kink making them far from one another hence liquid at room temp and lower melting poi

… can convert. Unsaturated FA to Saturated FA

hydrogenated fa cause longer shelf life
hydrogenation can covnert unsat to sat or trans FA straight configuration
fatty acids are numbered
*sources of essential FA
TAG

Saturated vs. Unsaturted:Less compact

Lower melting point
Liquid at room temp

Compact
Higher melting point
Solid at room temp

*Chemical characterisation of fats: Milligrams of KOH required to

neutralise
the free fatty acids in 1 g of the oil or fat.

*Chemical characterisation of fats: Milligrams of KOH required tо

completely saponify l00 g of the oil or fat.

*Chemical characterisation of fats: Grams of iodine that combine

with 100 g
of oil or fat. Indicates degree of unsaturation of а fat or oil.
Phospholipids are amphiphatic
*phsophatidylserine
*phosphatidylcholine
sphingolipid vs glycerophospholipid

Flip Flop apoptosis phosphatidylserine in theouter leaflet a marker

*glycosphingolipid cerebroside vs ganglioside
*glycosphingolipid cerebroside vs ganglioside
phosphosphingolipid vs sphingoglycolipid
*Cyclopentanopenanthrene ring

cholesterol prevents the cell membrane prevent the cell membrane

from being too soft when temp is too high and prevents
crystallization when temp is too low
lipoproteins
lipoproteins
lipoproteins
lipoproteins

9/17/2020
FA are stored as… in adipocytes
What promotes TAG mobilization in adipocytes
FA oxidation occurs in…
FA oxidation occurs in 3 steps
Why called b-oxidation
*4 reactions of b-oxidation
*what are the 3 ketone bodies
excessive acetyl coA
ketone bodies can be used by two organs as metabolic fuel
where are odd numbered FA found
odd number 7 acetyl 7 nad 7 fadh2 and 1 propionate=>
oxidation of unsat FA
FA synthesis occurs
acetyl coA will enter TCA when energy is needed, excess will be stored
two main enzymes in FA synthesis
two main enzymes in FA synthesis
FA synthesis stags

β-oxidation vs. Biosynthesis of FA

β-oxidation vs. Biosynthesis of FA
β-oxidation vs. Biosynthesis of FA
β-oxidation vs. Biosynthesis of FA
β-oxidation vs. Biosynthesis of FA

Cholesterol Synthesis steps

cholesterol is an unsaturated alcohol(?)
HMG CoA reductase
*lanosterol
* cholesterol is NEVER used a source of energy
vitamin d structure has lost the second ring of cholesterol by simple uv light exposure

CAH
Bile acids
cholesterol to bile acd
cholestyramine -> promote excretion and helps dec blood cholesterol
 functional group is the COOH
most are solid at room temp because no double bond
another hence liquid at room temp and lower melting point

High Temp
2. High [H2]
3. vacuum

ht configuration
delta num and omega num

storage form of lipids

detects all free FA

detects all FA free and those attached to TAG

iodine is absored in the double bond, in the presence of fat becomes decolorize indicating presence

impt component of the membrane inner leaf let

outer leaflet

gangster!ganglioside

both spingosine back bone

structure of cholesterol

Prevent extremes-- whether too fluid, or too

firm-- in cell membrane consistency
 TG and cholesterol esters internally; Phospholipids
externally; Apoprotein

Apo B and A acquired intestine

Apo E and Apo C acquired in circulation

triglyeride
low carb and low insulin conc (hypoglycemia) and inc epi(when active)
liver and skeletal mucles
1) activation of FA in cytosol 2) Transport into mitochondria and 3)β-oxidation in mitochondrial matrix
oxidation of the b-carbon always loss of hydrogen and electron-> captured by FAD
Oxidation hydration oxidation cleavage
acetoacetate, acetone, B-hydroxybutyrate
would yield ketone bodies
brain and heart ???
some plants and marine organisms

cytosol in liver, adipocytes, mamamry gland of pregnatn and lactating mother

will be stored
FA synthase and acetyl coa carboxylase
co factros biotin mn mg
Loading of precursors via thioester derivatives 2)Condensation of precursors 3)Reduction, dehydration and reductio
acyl carrier protein impt in FA synthase

1 Acetyl CoA to Mevalonate

2 Mevalonate to 2 Activated Isoprenes
3 Condensation of Isoprenes to form Squalene
4 Squalene to Four-Ring Steroid Nucleus
 regulated step in chle synthesis involving: •
Repression of transcription
• Control of degradation
• Covalent modification.
Where first 2 are for long term control and the last is for
short term control
rendered active when inc intake of carbs(insulin
desphosphorylates hmg-coa reductase)
immediate precursor to cholesterol

by simple uv light exposure

zona glomerulosa salt , fasciculata sugar, reticularis sex
androstendione does not stay in the adrenals forever it travels to the gonads (?)
low levels of cortisol-> inc ACTH-> production will shifted to inc prod of testosterone ->masculizing effect
ring is preserved addition of carboxyl functional and hydroxyl group, when A.A. is added -> bile salt
7 a hydroxylase chenocholic acid and cholic acid
cholesterol
ndrial matrix

, dehydration and reduction

asculizing effect
 9/17/2020
the more branched ends the more nonreducing ends the more efficient glycogneloysis is
glycogen
starch (amylopectin) does not have a protein particel on its center vs glycogen
starch (amylose))
branching chain a 1,6
a 1,4 glycosidic linkages

glycogen function in liver

glycogen function in muscle

Glycogen synthesis
what enzyme synthesizes a-1,4 link producing linear chain in glycogen
what enzyme breaks a-1,4 link and synthesizes a-1,6 producing branch
insulin is hihg glycogen synthesis is hihg when blood glucose is low glucagon is up and/or epi is increased (?)
Glycogen synthase phosphorylation is inhibited
by insulin (GSIP)

To mobilizing glycogen, three enzymes are

required:
*The end product of glycogenolysis is glucose 6-phosphate and SOME
free glucose

Liver contains glucose 6-phosphatase. Muscle does not have this

enzyme.
WHY?
The liver releases glucose to the blood to be taken up by brain and
active muscle. The liver regulates blood glucose levels. The muscle
retains glucose 6-phosphate to be use for energy. Phosphorylated
glucose is not transported out of muscle cells

pompe
Cori Debracnhing
Anderson Branching
Muscle Mcardle
Glycolysis

*hexokinase in other tissues; glucokinase in the liver

*phosphfructokinase
*pyruvate kinase
krebs cyle 8steps

*succinyl coa to succinate another substrate level phosphorylation

ETC

*Gluconeogenesis
Glucose

metabolites feed into

*all A.A. can feed into gluconeogenesis EXCEPT
both glucogenic and ketogenic
irreversible steps in glycolysis which will be bypassed in glycolysis for
gluconeogenesis
glycolysis/gluconeogensis counterpart ensymes
how will OAA get out of MT

gluconeogenesis is energetically expensive to cells of hepatocytes

liver is the primary gluconeogenic organ
cori cycle exchange of glucose and lactate regualted by
glucagon/insulin
Alanine cycle
hmp shunt/phospho…/PPP

imptance of ribose
G6p will go to glycolysis if the cell needs energy and if enough energy and need to build thigns it will now go to HM
regulation of ppp is determined by metabolic need
what activated hmp

glycolysis or HMP shunt?

glycolysis or HMP shunt?
glycolysis or HMP shunt?
glycolysis or HMP shunt?
A.A. Metabolism is PURE MEMOrization

PKU
pathway occurring in MT and cytosol

fro
regualtion of UREA cycle
*positive allosteric activator of carbamoyl phosphate synthase I
blood urea
blood urea

toxic effect of ammonia

Treatment for hyperammonemia

*Glucogenic or ketogenic
amino acids
*Biosynthesis of
catecholamines
*Biosynthesis of serotonin
and melatonin
*Biosynthesis of histamine
*Biosynthesis of GABA
Hb

Hb synthesis

hydrophobic bonds between a1b1 and bet a2b2

o2hb dissociation curve- sigmoidal curve
Conformational states of Hb [SS]
ore efficient glycogneloysis is

center vs glycogen

The synthesis and breakdown

of glycogen is regulated to maintain
blood glucose levels.

The synthesis and

breakdown of glycogen is regulated to
meet the energy requirements of the
muscle cell.
1) Formation of UDP-Glucose 2)Formation of Glycogenic core 3)Enlargement of glycogen particle
Glycogen synthase
debranching enzyme
is low glucagon is up and/or epi is increased (?)

1.glycogen phosphorylase
2.debranching enzyme
3.phosphoglucomutase

primariyl affects heart CHF

 Breakdown of glucose to two pyruvate molecules
to release energy •Catabolic metabolism
•Aerobic/Anaerobic
•In cytosol in all organs
3 major stages1) Energy-investing stage 2)Lysis stage 3)Energy-harvesting stage

Key regulatory step in glycolysis

release GTP

lactic acid, amino acid, glycerols and propionate

LIVER and Kidney as they contain all the nezymed needed for gluconeogenesis sameas that for glycolysis except for
impt PREFERRED source of nervous skeletal
also important in Adipose as source of glycerol and Mammary glands assource of lactose
(some A.A./lactate)pyruvate to (Propionate/A.A. )oaa (fructose/glycerol)triose phosphates glucose
leucine and lysine
Phenyl, Iso, tryptophan and tyrosine

hexokinase/g6phosphatase; fpfk1/f 1,6-Bpase; Pkinase/ Pyruvate carboxylase and PEPCK

SS

other imptane asd from glucose remove lactate

increase glucose in special situations

Nadp-> Nadph; g6p->ribose

ist phase oxidative phase-> redugin equivalent and 5 carbon sugar; nonoxidative containe transketolase ()
occurs in cytosol
NADPH vs NADH
atp coa nad fad rna and dna
gh energy and need to build thigns it will now go to HMP shunt
i
NADP; building fat, building cells, if under oxidative streess consumed naadph much so
nadph, ribose, adp/amp(g6p should proceed to glycolysis)
increased atp hmp
increased citrate levels favor hmp or glycolysis ?
increased hmp favor hmp
increased glucagon favor glycolysis

Transamination of keto acids (Amino group comes from another amino acid and
transferred to a keto acid) •
Alanine - pyruvate.
• Glutamate- α-ketoglutarate.
• Aspartate- oxaloacetate
• Serine- 3-phosphogylcerate

Assimilation of free ammonia

• Glutamate
• Glutamine

• Modification of existing amino acidsCysteine: Cysteine

contains atoms donated by both
methionine (Sulfur) and serine (carbon skeleton).
Glycine: Serine is also converted to glycine by the removal
of its hydroxymethyl group.
*Tyrosine: Phenylalanine is hydroxylated to form tyrosine.
Proline: Glutamate is reduced and cyclized to form proline.
Asparagine: Asparagine is synthesized by the transfer to
the amide group of glutamine to the ß-carboxyl group of
aspartate
sometimes caused by def of dihydropterin reductase

ornithine. Aspecial type of A.A.

krebs bicycle, fumarate from urea enter krebs
urea from carbon dioxide, N from aspartate and ammonia (glutamate)

N- acetylglutamate
dec in hepatic failure but increase ammonia
inc in renal insuff dec excretion of urea
High ammonia depletes the TCA cycle of α-ketoglutarate → low ATP
→ COMA (a symptom of high ammonia levels).
1) carbon skeleton 2) trapping molecule 3) ORAL neomycin is given (in contrast for treating infection is given IV) bec

Leucine and lysine are purely ketogenic i.e. their catabolism

yields only acetyl-CoA.
• Four amino acids (isoleucine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, and
tyrosine) are both glucogenic and ketogenic.
• The remaining 14 amino acids are glucogenic.
tyrosine-> DOPA->Dopamine->NE-> Epi

trip to SM
histidine-> histamine
glutamate->GABA
iron beaaring protein main component of RBC; 1)carries o2 from lung minor fxn 2)remove co2, nad 3) act as buffer
majority synthesized at the polychromatophilic normoblast stage; regulated by 1)
and 2) SS
oxygenated with o2 relaxed state
ionic bonds between the a1b1 and a2b2 changes from r to t state
cooperative binding- binding of o2 to hb makes it easier for more o2 to bind
that for glycolysis except for three hexokinase/phosphofructokinase/pyruvate kinase

e transketolase ()
ating infection is given IV) because we want it act locally in GI to annihilate to kill the Microorgansim as they can contribute to t
ove co2, nad 3) act as buffer
gansim as they can contribute to the production of ammonia 4) Lactulose for evacuation to minimize absorption of nitrogen
nimize absorption of nitrogen