MOTION DESIGN GUIDE

LINEAR BEARING
DEFINITIONS

Sponsored by:
brought to you by:

Sponsored by:
nbcorporation.com
www.linearmotiontips.com
www.opto22.com
LINEAR BEARING DEFINITIONS DESIGN GUIDE

Linear bearings include mechanical components that allow relative motion

between two surfaces — with one surface supporting the other and minimum
friction between the two. The two basic types of linear guides include plain and
rolling element … with the same general function but vastly different design
and performance characteristics.

In this Design Guide, the editors of Design World explain basic linear-bearing
terminology and detail the most common linear-bearing types …. as well
general ways to quantify the performance and capabilities of linear bearings for ▼
sizing, selection, and installation. Deep dives on crossed-roller slides, accuracy
DANIELLE COLLINS
and preload, linear bushings, and ball splines are included in future Design Senior editor
Guide installments.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
▼

Introduction.....................................................................................................3

Plain and rolling-element linear bearings.......................................................4

▼
Construction of rolling-element linear bearings.............................................5 LISA EITEL
Executive editor
Recirculating ball linear guides.......................................................................7

Summary of needle roller linear bearings.......................................................8

Basics of telescoping linear bearings...........................................................10

Quick summary of air bearings.....................................................................11

What is L10 life and why does it matter?.....................................................14

Sponsored by:
© Copyright 2019 WTWH Media
www.wtwhmedia.com I marketing.wtwhmedia.com I www.designworldonline.com I www.linearmotiontips.com
@designworld /DesignWorldNetwork @linear_motion
www.nbcorporation.com
INTRODUCTION

L
inear-motion devices incorporating ball and roller elements include plain bearings, ball
bushings, recirculating roller bearings. Confusing matters is the fact that industry uses
many linear-motion terms interchangeably … and many terms such as linear guides are
so generic that they can refer to any one of several different products.

While the plain-bearing guide taxonomy has less variability in terminology and specification,
ball and roller linear guides have quite a lot. So let’s review all these terms that are used to
identify, describe, and specify them.

In many though not all cases, the term linear guide indicates a standalone guide rod, ball
slide, or mechanism solely for guiding loads. In contrast, many manufacturers use the terms
linear slide and linear rail to indicate a linear-motion guide element that is incorporated into
an integrated build complete with mechanical drive. The term linear stage generally implies
a design has guided elements as well as some mode of mechanical linear actuation and
reinforced body — often sans inclusion of the motor.

Motorized rails (more commonly called linear actuators) abound — though the distinction
here is that there are countless linear actuators sold sans any guided element. That’s useful for
OEMs aiming to employ some specialized linear guide or omit it altogether.

Taxonomy variations don’t apply to just product descriptions: Design types and technical
features are also called different names depending on the component manufacturer.

Shown here is an EXRAIL linear guide from NB Corp.

Sponsored by:

3 I www.linearmotiontips.com

www.nbcorporation.com
 Plain and rolling-element
▼

linear bearings

P
lain bearings are the simplest type of linear guide, relying
on sliding contact between two surfaces. Their construction
can be boxway, dovetail, or shaft and bushing. Boxway
bearings are able to carry the highest loads, while dovetail
designs require less precise machining and assembly. Plain
bearing bushings are simple to manufacture and install, but their
unsupported shafts give them limited load capacities and make
them vulnerable to deflection.
While metal surfaces provide the highest stiffness and load
capacities, plain bearings can also be made of plastics or
composites for high corrosion resistance and inherent lubricating
properties. It’s important to note that sliding contact should always
be between dissimilar materials, with one element being harder than
the other. This allows wear to be concentrated in the softer element.
Plain bearings have a high coefficient of friction, typically 0.05 to
0.1, when compared to rolling-element bearings. But unlike rolling
elements, they can withstand shock loads and vibrations without
significant damage to the surfaces. Plain bearings are also less
sensitive to contamination and rarely experience catastrophic failure.
In contrast, rolling-element linear guides add balls or rollers between
the two bearing surfaces. Rolling-element bearings can be recirculating
(profiled rail bearings or linear bushings or linear bearing guides) or
While plain linear bearings can be made from a wide variety
of materials, profile-rail rolling-element bearings come in the
most diverse track geometries and raceway arrangements. Track
geometry defines how the rolling elements make contact with the
raceways. Profiled rail track geometries can be:
• Circular arc — which provides lower friction or
• Gothic arch — which gives higher moment capacities.
In addition, the arrangement of the raceways on the profiled rail can
be either face-to-face or back-to back. The face-to-face arrangement
has equal load capacities in all directions, while the back-to-back
arrangement gives greater torsional moment capacities.
Determining the life of rolling element linear guides is done by
calculating the L10 bearing life — a theoretical but statistically
formulated prediction of the distance the bearing can travel before
it reaches its fatigue life. The L10 life is based on the type and
magnitude of loading, although environmental factors such as
shocks, vibrations, and contamination can reduce the life of rolling
element bearings.
CIRCULAR ARC CONTACT VERSUS GOTHIC ARCH CONTACT
CIRCULAR-ARCH PROFILES GOTHIC-ARCH PROFILES
HAVE TWO POINTS OF CONTACT. HAVE FOUR POINTS OF CONTACT.

non-recirculating linear bearings in the form of some cam roller guides

or crossed-roller slides. Recirculating designs allow unlimited motion
along the length of the guide rail or shaft, where non-recirculating
designs are limited in stroke by the length of the bearing.

A significant advantage of rolling-element linear guides is their

low coefficient of friction, which is typically 0.005 to 0.01. Because
they’re made of bearing steel, they have much higher load
capacities and can be preloaded for very high rigidity. Preload,
however, increases friction and must be taken into account when
sizing rolling element linear guides.

Profiled rail track geometries can be either circular arc

LINEAR-BEARING DESIGNS BASED ON SLIDING CONTACT
or Gothic arch.

Plain bearing linear guides can be boxway,

dovetail, or shaft and bushing design.
BOXWAY PLAIN BEARING DOVETAIL PLAIN BEARING BUSHING PLAIN BEARING

Sponsored by:

4 I www.linearmotiontips.com

www.nbcorporation.com
 Construction of rolling-element
▼
linear bearings
W
hile the construction of linear bearings that employ
balls for friction reduction isn’t a technical specification,
it is typically referenced in manufacturer catalogs. That’s
in part because the various linear-bearing construction
options have a significant effect on performance.
To review, raceway arrangement refers to where and how the
load-bearing balls sit on the profiled rail. There are two raceway
arrangements: face-to-face and back-to-back.
The face-to-face arrangement is often called the X arrangement
because the contact lines between the balls and the raceways point
inward, making an X inside the profiled rail. This arrangement gives
the assembly equal load capacity in all directions but reduces its
ability to handle moment loads.
The back-to-back arrangement is also called the O arrangement
because the contact lines point outward — making an O around the
rail. This design gives a longer moment arm and allows the bearing
to withstand high moment loads.
Raceway geometry determines the number of contact points
FACE-TO-FACE RACEWAY:
SHORT MOMENT ARM
a a
This is a face-to-face raceway
arrangement for linear bearings.
5 I www.linearmotiontips.com
between the ball and raceway and affects the bearing block’s
friction and load capacity.
Circular arc geometry produces two-point contact between the ball
and the raceway. This gives the assembly a lower friction coefficient
and smoother running characteristics.
Gothic arch geometry provides four-point contact between the ball
and the raceways, resulting in higher moment load capacities …
but also higher friction. More specifically, the Gothic arch design
provides two contact points on the ball and two contact points on
the raceway.
MORE DETAILS ON ROLLING-CONTACT OPTIONS
Rolling-element linear systems need little force to initiate motion.
In addition, friction-force variations due to speed are minimal, so
these systems can position loads with small and precise steps. The
low friction also lets these systems move at high speeds without
BACK-TO-BACK RACEWAY:
LONGER MOMENT ARM
This is a back-to-back raceway
arrangement for linear bearings.
Sponsored by:
www.nbcorporation.com
 MOTION DESIGN GUIDE I LINEAR BEARING DEFINITIONS

(continued)
Construction of rolling-element linear bearings

generating too much heat. That minimizes wear to help

machinery maintain a level accuracy for much of the linear
RECIRCULATING AND NON-RECIRCULATING LINEAR BEARINGS
system’s operating life.

Manufacturers produce rolling-contact guides in several

variations. The differences are in rolling element shape
(ball or roller); rolling element size; whether the rolling
contact is two or four-point; conformity of ball contact; NON-RECIRCULATING
ROLLING ELEMENTS
whether the design has two, four, six or some other
number of rolling-element rows; contact angle; and how
the rolling-element rows are arranged — in an X or O
configuration. RECIRCULATING
ROLLING ELEMENTS
All these design factors determine load capacity, rigidity
and friction. For example, O-shaped arrangements can
withstand higher torque than X arrangements. In general,
the number of load-bearing rolling-element rows influence
load capacity … so more rail rows mean more load capacity
and rigidity. However, more rows make systems more
In non-recirculating linear guides (left) the bearing housing contains
complex and costly. Here are more details on these rolling-
rolling elements that move a finite distance along the base. In
contact options: recirculating linear guides, the rolling elements recirculate through the
bearing housing, so the bearing can travel an infinite distance — limited
Rolling elements are either linear rollers or balls. Because only by the length of the guide rail or shaft.
the rolling elements recirculate in recirculating rolling-
element guides, they have a nearly infinite stroke length.
They are available on flat guide ways and guide way rails.
Flat guide ways are available in single or double row rolling
elements. Guide way rails are often square rails.
SUMMARY OF SLIDING-CONTACT RAIL GEOMETRIES
Non-recirculating roller type units have limited stroke
length. Flat guide ways are dominant here and have One feature of sliding carriage-and-rail setups is that
either a grooved race compatible with crossed rollers, or manufacturers typically incorporate a ground groove in
non-grooved race, which uses cage and roller-type rolling rectangular track geometry — to serve as a working surface.
elements. Such rails come in one of three shapes.

Recirculating elements (ball or roller bearings) between the
rail and the bearing block enable precise linear motion.
The coefficient of friction with roller-element-based
systems is much less than with slide based linear motion
guides … about 1/50th that of non-recirculating systems.
Ball-type rolling element units are also subdivided into
recirculating and non-recirculating types. The flat guide
ways here typically use double row recirculating rolling
elements. The guide way rail can be either round or
square. If the raceway is not grooved, the rolling element
is typically a linear ball bushing. If the raceway is grooved,
the unit usually uses a ball spline.
For square rails, the raceway is usually grooved.
Rails with a boxway shape or square shape are simplest. Square
rails excel at carrying large loads without a lot of deflection.
Manufacturers often preload square rails, and most linear
systems based on square rails do not self-align. Square rails
often have a smaller envelope size; the boxway rails handle the
highest loads in all directions.
Rails with a dovetail shape (or twin rail) have male geometry
that securely engages female saddle geometry. That boosts
stability and load capacity, even in unusual orientations or
applications with unsteady loads.
Round rails deflect less under load. In addition, systems based
on round rails are inherently self-aligning so are easier to install
than other options.

For ball-type rolling element units that are non- No matter the type, rails come in myriad sizes and lengths.
recirculating, the flat guide ways are grooved and use
linear ball guides. The guide ways are round rail, without a
grooved raceway, and use stroke bearings.
Sponsored by:

6 I www.linearmotiontips.com

www.nbcorporation.com
 Recirculating ball
▼

linear guides

ROUND RAIL BEARINGS

T
here are two main types of recirculating-ball linear guides — AND PROFILE RAIL GUIDES
one that rides on round shafts and one that rides on profiled
rails. Because both types are based on recirculating balls, the
terminology used to refer to them is very similar and often
overlaps. Here’s a breakdown of the most common terms that are used
for each one:

Round shaft recirculating ball guides are also referred to as linear

bushings, ball bushings, bushes, or just by the generic name ball
ROUND RAIL
bearing. While ball bearing is the least descriptive and accurate, it is
one of the most commonly used terms … and when used in the context
of linear guides, it is probably referring to a round shaft bearing. Round-
shaft versions are the original linear recirculating ball guides and are still
widely used in applications with lower loads and forces or where the
environment is extremely harsh.

Profiled rail recirculating ball guides are also referred to as guide rails,
linear guides, LM guides, or profiled rails.

In these systems, the guideway has a generally square shape and is

specially machined so that the load-bearing elements (either balls or
rollers) run in tracks on the rail. Profiled rail recirculating guides have
higher load capacities and greater rigidity than round shaft versions
and are used in all types of applications, from simple pick-and-place to
semiconductor equipment and machine tools.

Shown here is a
profiled rail bearing PROFILE RAIL
as well as round
shaft linear bearing.

Profiled-rail linear guides are also called

guideways or just profiled rails depending on
the context, manufacturer, and industry.

Sponsored by:

7 I www.linearmotiontips.com

www.nbcorporation.com
 Summary of needle roller linear bearings
▼
M
ost engineers are familiar with rotary needle roller
bearings — often called simply needle roller bearings.
These are used extensively in automotive and industrial
power transmission applications due to their compact
size and high load-carrying capability.
But needles rollers aren’t just for rotary bearings. They also find use
in linear bearings as well.
For linear bearings, needle rollers were first incorporated into
non-recirculating linear guides, but manufacturers have recently
introduced recirculating profiled rail guides with needle roller
bearings to meet ever-increasing demands for rigidity and
smoothness of motion.
So how do needle rollers differ from traditionally sized cylindrical
rollers? The key difference between cylindrical rollers and needle
rollers is the roller’s length-to-diameter ratio. To be categorized as a
needle roller, the roller’s length must be at least 3 times its diameter.
In fact, needle rollers can have a length-to-diameter ratio between
3:1 and 10:1, whereas cylindrical rollers have a length-to-diameter
ratio of less than 3:1.
The traditional load-carrying components in linear bearings —
both recirculating and non-recirculating types — are either balls
or cylindrical rollers, both of which provide high load capacity, low
friction, and good rigidity for linear motion applications. But just
8 I www.linearmotiontips.com
as cylindrical rollers offer a “step up” in performance over balls —
especially in terms of load capacity and rigidity — needle rollers
offer even better performance than cylindrical rollers in
some respects.
In radial bearings, one of the main reasons for using needle rollers
is their compact size, but in linear bearings, the main benefits of
needle rollers over balls or cylindrical rollers are even higher load
capacities and better rigidity. This is because when needle rollers
are used, the load is distributed among smaller and more numerous
rollers — each of which has a larger contact area than a cylindrical
roller due to the needle roller’s longer length. This reduces the
pressure per roller and allows the bearing to carry higher loads. Less
load per roller also means less deformation and higher rigidity. In
fact, the rigidity of a needle roller linear bearing can be up to 50%
higher than that of a cylindrical roller version.
For recirculating profiled rail bearings, needle rollers also provide
smoother motion in two regards. First, needle rollers have higher
dynamic (running) friction than balls or cylindrical rollers. Although
higher running friction is, in some applications, a negative trait,
in the case of high-load, high-rigidity linear guides, the increased
running friction can be a benefit since it serves to dampen vibrations
due to external forces. Plus with the load dispersed over more
rollers, vertical pulsation of the bearing caused by motion of the
rollers is also reduced.
Needle rollers provide
linear bearings with
higher load capacity and
higher rigidity than balls
or cylindrical rollers in the
same or smaller footprint.
Image courtesy NB Corp.
Sponsored by:
www.nbcorporation.com
 MOTION DESIGN GUIDE I LINEAR BEARING DEFINITIONS

(continued)
Summary of needle roller linear bearings

Rotary needle bearings can be made with or without a

cage. In contrast, the vast majority of recirculating and
SMALLER ROLLERS SMOOTH LOAD-BEARING TRANSITIONS
non-recirculating linear bearing designs contain the
needle rollers in a cage. The cage prevents skewing MORE VIBRATION
and misalignment, ensures the needle rollers are evenly
loaded, and prevents de-rating of speed capabilities.
In addition, for non-recirculating designs, cages are
offered with anti-creep or cage control mechanisms to
ensure the cage remains in its centered position.

Because needle roller linear bearings use a higher

count of rollers than ball or cylindrical roller designs,
there is less space inside the bearing for lubrication to
be retained. Therefore, proper lubrication can be even
LESS VIBRATION
more critical with needle roller linear bearings than
with ball or cylindrical roller versions.

In non-recirculating linear bearings, needle roller

designs fit applications that require higher load
capacities and better rigidity within the same (or
similar) dimensions as traditional ball or cylindrical
Smaller rollers (and more of them)
roller versions. In recirculating profiled rail bearings,
mean smaller pulsations due to the
needle roller designs meet application demands rollers’ movement.
— often found in the machine tool industry — for
extreme rigidity and the smoothest motion possible.

Sponsored by:

9 I www.linearmotiontips.com

www.nbcorporation.com
 Basics of telescoping linear bearings
▼
P
rofiled rail and round shaft linear bearings excel in
applications that require long stroke lengths in a fixed
footprint. But if the design calls for a bearing that can retract
to move away from the process or to allow access to a
working area, a fixed rail or shaft won’t do. In these applications,
telescoping bearings can provide high load capacity and high
rigidity in a retracting footprint.
For many people, the term telescoping bearings brings to mind
drawer slides — as those found in our kitchens and offices. But
industrial applications that require telescoping motion are common,
and manufacturers produce telescoping slides with high rigidity in a
wide range of material and coating options for harsh industrial use.
In fact, telescoping bearings offer partial, full, and over-extension
stroke options. It’s key for design engineers to identify the extension
needed and not just go with the longest possible (or practical) stroke
option. Here’s why: Partial extension refers to an extension length
less than the closed length – typically 50 to 65% or better in select
cases. Full extension means the extended length is equal to or 100%
of the closed length. Over-extension means the bearing’s extended
length is greater than its closed length — up to 150% in most cases.
Telescoping rails also come in dual-stroke or double-stroke
configurations, which allow the load to be moved in both directions
while maintaining the same closed length. One problem with this
configuration is that the intermediate element does not always
return to its closed position. To counter this, some manufacturers
include a driving disk in the intermediate element to bring the
assembly back to the correct position.
Telescoping linear rails are often mounted on their side, as they can
withstand higher loads that way: Radial load capacity is greater than
the axial capacity.
Static load capacity tends to be more critical than dynamic capacity
STATED LOAD — DYNAMIC OR STATIC
Mx
Mz
10 I www.linearmotiontips.com
because the nature of telescoping applications is to execute a move
and remain in that position for an extended time.
Minimizing deflection is paramount though: Aluminum rails excel in
lightweight designs, and stamped steel is an economical choice, but
with limited load capacity and ability to withstand vibrations and shock.
Cold-rolled steel is another economical option … but then the balls
riding the rails are harder than the rail and slider — ultimately resulting
in pitting and denting of the raceways. So hardened cold-rolled sliders
and raceways (while costlier) are recommended. They avoid the above
issues and allow preload for greater rigidity and less deflection.
When employing telescoping linear rails, the load’s center of gravity
should be placed as close to the mounted rail as possible. It should
also be centered about the moving element to allow for even load
distribution among the balls. Load calculations are normally made
assuming that the load is properly distributed.
Like a profiled rail bearing, the primary function of a ball cage in a
telescoping bearing is to maintain ideal ball separation — ensuring
a more even distribution of the load. Without a ball cage, the balls
could gather at one end or the other of the stroke, limiting the
overall stroke available. Note that the ball cages in telescoping
bearings are typically stamped steel … so unlike those in profiled rail
bearings, they do not reduce noise.
Some final tips: When sizing a telescoping bearing for continuous
duty, be sure to use the proper life calculation and the dynamic
load capacity. Some manufacturers publish load and deflection
specifications based on the slides being used in pairs (as they often
are), while others declare the load capacity per single rail.
Also some manufacturers provide static load capacities and
calculations rather than dynamic capacities and formulas. Make an
effort to understand how the slides are rated and what specifications
the manufacturer is providing.
Shown here are the
components of a telescoping
linear bearing. Load
C 0rad placement is an important
factor in deflection.
My Be sure to understand
C 0rax whether a stated load
is dynamic or static and
whether it’s based on a single
rail or a pair of rails.
Sponsored by:
www.nbcorporation.com
 Quick summary of air bearings
▼
B
earings are often thought of as mechanical rolling or sliding
elements, but linear (or rotary) bearings can also use a thin
film of pressurized air to support a load. With no mechanical
elements to generate friction or heat, air bearings are ideal
for applications that require extremely high precision and stiffness.
Pressure generation and air delivery: Depending on how pressure
is generated, air bearings are classified as either hydrodynamic or
hydrostatic.
Hydrodynamic air bearings depend on relative motion between the
bearing surfaces to generate pressurized air.
In contrast, a hydrostatic air bearing relies on an external supply
to deliver pressurized air — or other gas. Because they can
maintain an air gap even when there is no relative motion between
the bearing surfaces, virtually all air bearings used in industrial
applications are hydrostatic.
The gaseous medium used for air bearings is typically compressed
air, which is readily available in most industrial plants and processes.
However, any moisture in the air supply can develop into condensation
as the air transitions from high pressure to atmospheric pressure,
resulting in corrosion on the bearing surfaces.
When the quality of supplied air is a concern and corrosion would be
detrimental, another gas (typically nitrogen) can be used in place of
compressed air. This is often the solution for clean room environments.
Preload on an air bearing: Adding preload to an air bearing
increases stiffness and helps maintain a constant air gap. As air
bearings are loaded, the air gap gets smaller and the pressure in the
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN (ROTARY) HYDRODYNAMIC BEARINGS
AND HYDROSTATIC BEARINGS
STATIONARY
BEARING HALF
FLUID-FILLED VOLUME
(CONCEPTUALLY STYLIZED)
ROTATING HALF
FLOATS ON AIR CUSHION
HYDRODYNAMIC
HYDROSTATIC
COMPRESSED AIR SUPPLY
11 I www.linearmotiontips.com
air film rises — both of which contribute to higher stiffness. There
are four common methods for preloading air bearings: by adding
weight, through magnetic attraction, through vacuum, and by using
two opposed air bearings.
The simplest method for creating preload in an air bearing is to use
a weight that is heavier than the load to be applied. This makes the
air gap smaller, which increases the system stiffness. The drawback
of the weight method of preloading is just that — it adds mass to
the system. It is also suitable only for horizontal applications — not
inclined or vertical orientations.
Magnetic attraction between the moving and stationary parts
can also induce preload. But most air bearings are made of non-
magnetic material, so this method requires that that a magnetic
material be added to both bearing surfaces.
A third way to induce preload is to add a vacuum to the bearing
surface, which creates a pressure differential and causes the external
atmospheric pressure to exert force on the bearing. However, this
method is only useful if a vacuum source is available and practical to
install.
The most common preloading method is to configure two air
bearings opposite each other. Because stiffness is additive, an
assembly preloaded in this manner will have double the stiffness of
a single bearing. Another benefit is that the errors on either bearing
will be averaged, resulting in much higher accuracy than other
preload methods can achieve.
The drawback to using opposing bearings is that the load capacity
In a hydrodynamic bearing,
relative motion between the
surfaces generates pressure.
In a hydrostatic bearing,
pressurized air is delivered by
an external supply.
Sponsored by:
www.nbcorporation.com
 MOTION DESIGN GUIDE I LINEAR BEARING DEFINITIONS
(continued)
Quick summary of air bearings
AIR BEARING OPERATION
AIR FED THROUGH AIR FED THROUGH
POROUS MEDIA SHAPED ORIFICE
will be reduced by approximately half. This method also requires
additional space and doubles the mass of the bearing components.
Compensation and media types for air bearings: In addition
to preload, another factor that affects an air bearing’s stiffness is
compensation, which is the method by which airflow into the air gap
is controlled. Compensation works to create a restriction of airflow
thru the orifice and into the gap, before the restriction of the gap
itself. By creating a reserve pressure at the orifice, pressure can be
increased in the gap, which gives the bearing stiffness.
Gas can be delivered through one of two bearing types — those
with orifices or those made from porous media. In an orifice bearing,
pressurized air is supplied through precisely sized holes placed
on the bearing surface. These holes are typically combined with
grooves to distribute the pressurized air evenly across the bearing
face. The drawback of orifice delivery is that air loses pressure and
creates pressure gradients in the air gap as it expands away from the
orifice or groove.
Porous media air bearings allow air to be supplied through the
entire surface of the bearing, due to millions of holes in the porous
material. However, porous media are much more difficult to clear if
they become clogged by oil vapor or other contamination.
Load capacity for air bearings: Theoretically, the load capacity of
an air bearing is simply the input pressure times the surface area.
However, pressure is not equal over the bearing surface. As mentioned
above, as air exits the orifice, it expands and creates pressure
gradients. In addition, there is unavoidable leakage of air around the
edges of the bearing.
As a rule of thumb, the average pressure under the bearing surface
is typically 50% of the supply pressure. In other words, air bearings
12 I www.linearmotiontips.com
Gas can be fed through orifices or
through a porous media.
are generally about 50% efficient. (Bearings with more area near their
edges, relative to their overall surface area, will be less efficient.) Load
capacity is determined by the surface area of the bearing, the input
pressure, and the bearing’s efficiency: Load capacity = Surface area x
Input pressure x Efficiency.
In fact, one of the primary benefits of air bearings is the elimination
of friction-induced wear and heat generation. Their lack of
mechanical contact also eliminates the need for lubrication, reduces
particle generation, and produces much less noise than rolling or
sliding bearings. With no recirculating elements, air bearings can
achieve higher speeds and accelerations than ball or roller bearings.
The fluid film in an air bearing serves to average out small-scale
errors, allowing air bearings to provide more accurate motion than
mechanical bearings. Because the fluid film fully supports the load,
in contrast to the point or line contact of balls and rollers, it also
enables high stiffness.
Air bearings are linear (or rotary) guides, and as such, are simply one
part of a complete motion system. For a drive mechanism, the most
common technology used in conjunction with air bearings is the
ironless linear motor, due to its high precision and stiffness. Ironcore
motors can also be used, but their inherent cogging effect can
generate unwanted errors.
Because of the tight tolerances required for air bearing operation,
components used in an air bearing system must be extremely
accurate. For example, bearings should be mounted on a precision
base — preferably granite, for its ability to be precisely machined
and its dimensional stability — with recommended flatness of 1
micron per 50 mm. All of this contributes to the extremely high
accuracy motion and stiffness that are the main features of an air
bearing system.
Sponsored by:
www.nbcorporation.com
 MOTION DESIGN GUIDE I LINEAR BEARING DEFINITIONS
(continued)
Common applications for air bearings
Air bearings are quite expensive but offer some advantages over
some mechanical bearings for niche applications requiring extremely
high precision. In addition, a growing number of manufacturers are
working to bring the cost of air bearings down with advances in
materials and manufacturing for the precision bearing surfaces.
To demonstrate how air bearings are becoming more common in
industrial equipment and processes, here are some of the benefits
they provide and the applications they serve.
High positioning accuracy and repeatability: Air bearings have
no mechanical contact and are virtually frictionless. This means they
do not experience stick-slip effects or hysteresis, allowing them to
achieve nanometer-level positioning accuracy and repeatability.
Applications leveraging these benefits include ultra-precision
machine tools and optical grinding.
Straight and flat travel: With linear air bearing guides any pitch,
roll, and yaw errors are virtually eliminated — as are tilt and wobble
errors with rotary air bearings. This is due in part to the surface
averaging effect, which occurs because an air bearing supports the
load along its entire length, in contrast to mechanical rolling element
bearings, which support a load only at the contact points of the balls
or rollers.
Applications leveraging these benefits include optical-inspection
equipment and medical-device manufacturing.
Precise force control: The frictionless nature of air bearings,
together with ironless linear motors or voice coils, create precision
stages that can operate as force generators or transducers, even
down to the milli-Newton (mN) level. Applications leveraging these
benefits include tensile and friction testing equipment.
Smooth constant velocity: With no rolling elements to cause
perturbations in motion, air bearings can maintain a highly
consistent, controlled velocity. Applications leveraging these
benefits include wafer scanning and digital printing.
Low particle generation: Because they have no contacting parts,
AIR BEARINGS ACCOMMODATE ROUGH SURFACES
AIR BEARING ROLLING-ELEMENT
BEARING
$$$$
BEARING SURFACE
13 I www.linearmotiontips.com
air bearings (and stages built with air bearings and linear motors)
produce virtually no particulates. And for use in the most stringent
cleanrooms, where nearly undetectable particle generation is
required, they can be operated with 99.9% pure nitrogen rather
than with air. Applications leveraging these benefits include
semiconductor wafer processing; medical device manufacturing; and
medical research and testing.
No change in performance characteristics over time: Friction
is highly non-linear … and reducing or eliminating it means that
settling times are shorter, as there is no need to wait for the
(relatively) slow servo loop to overcome the effects of friction. This
also means that the primary variables in performance become
the servo bandwidth, payload, and machine resonances, making
performance very stable and predictable over time. Applications
leveraging these benefits include semiconductor manufacturing and
equipment located in remote or difficult-to-access locations.
Virtually unlimited service life: Load, speed, acceleration, and
other application parameters do not affect the life of an air bearing.
In fact, the primary factor is wear due to contaminated air, which can
cause corrosion. For an air bearing stage driven by a voice coil or
linear motor, the cables and cable management – which are, in most
cases, easily replaced – become the limiting factor for wear and life.
Applications leveraging these benefits include processes that require
continuous operation or extremely high duty cycles.
Air bearings ARE COSTLY BUT average all the
imperfections of the surface across the length of
the bearing. In contrast, mechanical bearing travel
is influenced by TRACK-surface imperfections.
Air bearings are costlier than
other options but effectively
impart a surface-averaging for
consistent load bearing.
$$
Sponsored by:
www.nbcorporation.com
 What is L10 life and why does it matter?
▼

RAIL (RACEWAY) MATERIAL DAMAGE

O
ne of the fundamental steps in selecting
a recirculating linear bearing, whether
profiled rail or round shaft type, is to
calculate the bearing life. But how is this
calculation derived ... and what does it mean in the real
world?

Bearing life for recirculating linear bearings, often

referred to as the L10 life, is a method of specifying
the travel that a bearing can achieve before it
reaches its fatigue life, which is the occurrence of the
first signs of flaking on the raceways or the rolling
elements. Shown here is fatigue failure of
a bearing raceway.
The term L10 is used (rather than say, L5 or L25)
because this is the distance that 90% of seemingly identical
bearings — operating under identical conditions — can travel is determined by the manufacturer in accordance with ISO 14728-
before fatigue occurs. In other words, the L10 life gives a 90% 1. The ISO standard defines dynamic load capacity as the load —
reliability that the bearing will achieve the specified travel. constant in magnitude and direction — at which the linear bearing
(ball or roller) can provide 100 km (100,000 m) of travel before
The calculation of L10 life for recirculating bearings with balls as
fatigue occurs.
the load-carrying elements, is given by:

Although standard L10 life is based on a

… and for recirculating bearings with rollers as the load-carrying reliability of 90% it is possible to specify
elements:
bearing life at a higher reliability level. Here,
the bearing life equation is multiplied by a
factor corresponding to the desired reliability.
Where L = bearing life (m)

C = bearing dynamic load capacity (N) Some manufacturers base the dynamic load capacity of their linear
recirculating bearings on a travel of 50 km (50,000 m). The ISO
F = applied dynamic load (N) standard acknowledges this difference and provides a dynamic
load rating conversion factor that should be used when comparing
bearings rated for 50 km with bearings rated for 100 km of travel.

Although the bearing life equation is relatively straightforward, In these cases, one of the following conversion methods should be
there are some nuances to determining bearing life of which applied:
design engineers should be aware. • multiply dynamic load capacity of the 100 km bearing by 1.26

First, the dynamic load capacity C of a recirculating linear bearing • divide dynamic load capacity of the 50 km bearing by 1.26

Sponsored by:

14 I www.linearmotiontips.com

www.nbcorporation.com
 MOTION DESIGN GUIDE I LINEAR BEARING DEFINITIONS
(continued)
What is L10 life and why does it matter?
To see how the 1.26 correction factor is derived, check out this article.
Second, the ISO standard specifies that the bearing life
applies to linear motion rolling bearings with contemporary,
commonly used material and manufacturing quality and under
conventional operating conditions — emphasis added.
In the real world, many applications operate in conditions with high
temperatures, shock loads, or other factors that will reduce bearing
life — for which the bearing-life equation does not account.
To adjust for these conditions, manufacturers provide factors that
either de-rate the dynamic load capacity or increase the applied
load, reducing the bearing life accordingly. For example, if a
bearing operates under heavy impacts or vibrations, the applied
load would be multiplied by a factor between 2.0 and 3.0.
many applications operate UNDER high
temperatures, shock loads, AND other factors
that reduce bearing life ... for which the bearing-
life equation does not account.
Depending on the manufacturer and bearing type, correction
factors may be provided for designs involving:
• Shock loads and vibrations
15 I www.linearmotiontips.com
Image courtesy NB Corp.
• Special mounting situations (such as two bearings used with
minimal spacing between them), shaft hardness (when it falls
below HRC58)
• High temperatures
• Short stroke applications.
Although the standard L10 life is based on a reliability of 90% it
is possible to specify bearing life at a higher reliability level. In
order to do this, the bearing life equation is multiplied by a factor
corresponding to the desired reliability. For example, the factor for
bearing life with 95% reliability, which is denoted L5, is 0.62.
So the bearing life equation for 95% reliability is given as:
The load on a linear bearing often changes during the course of
its life, or even during the course of one move cycle. In order to
accurately estimate bearing life under changing load conditions,
the mean equivalent dynamic load Fm is used.
In the ideal world, a bearing would be selected by testing it
under actual load conditions, but in the real world, this is almost
never practical.
Although bearing life calculations are statistical predictions, and
there are many factors that affect a bearing’s actual service life,
the dynamic load capacity ratings and life calculations provided
by ISO 14728-1 are well-proven and accepted across the linear
bearing industry.
Sponsored by:
www.nbcorporation.com
 Ultra Precise
With Reverse Seal Option

Linear Guides
Easily Pass Your
‘Multiple Choices’ Test
You have so many choices within each guide class –
the NB standards, unique guides.
• 2 lubricant systems with lubricant options.
• Reverse Seal and Fiber Sheet Option provide
maintenance free environments.
• Quick delivery from US inventory.
• Remarkable interchangeability.
• Myriad mix and match styles.
• 15mm to 69mm rail widths
• Extended block options.
• Choice of coating.

Fiber sheet lubricant

delivery makes guides
easier to maintain.*

Four ball circuits for

more load and accuracy.

Precision ground raceways provide

smoother ball movement.

Guide shown is from the SGL family *Optional fiber sheet

within the NB Slide Guide product line. shown installed.