What is light?

Light is a radiation or a form of energy that our eyes can detect. Light enables us to view our surroundings.
Light travels from one place to another in a straight line.

Figure 1: Light always travels in straight line

For instance, if you look at the flame of a candle with a straight pipe we can easily view the candle. However, if
we bend the pipe we cannot view the candle and the light coming through it because it is blocked.

Reflection of Light
 Whenever light hits an object it is either absorbed or reflected back.
 Reflection of light can be defined as the phenomenon of an object throws back the light that falls on
it. Hence, the reflection of light changes its path.
 A mirror is generally any shiny surface that can reflect back light.
 A mirror that has a plane surface is called a Plane Mirror.
 A mirror that is curved, it either bulges in or out, is called a Curved Mirror.

Figure 2: Reflection of light by plane mirror

What is an image?

Figure 3: Image of Candle Formed by a Mirror

 As a mirror reflects light, an image of the object that is in front of the mirror is formed on it.
 The image of an object can be defined as the impression of the object created by the light on the
mirror.
 The distance between the image and the mirror, and the object and the mirror always remain the
same.
 If we increase or decrease the distance between the object and the mirror, the distance between the
image and the mirror also increases or decreases, respectively.
 However, the size of the image formed on the mirror can vary with respect to the distance between the
object and the mirror.
 If the distance between the object and the mirror increases, the size of the image decreases and vice-
versa.
 An image is said to be erect if the image is formed the same side up as that of the object.
 The image will be called Inverted if it is formed upside-down compared to the object.

Figure 4: Inverted Image of a Candle

Left-right inversion of the image

Figure 5: Left-right inversion of the image

The image formed by the mirror is always left-right inverted. This means that the right side of the object
appears as the left side of the image, and the left side of the object appears at the right side of the image.

Why the word ‘AMBULANCE’ is painted on an ambulance left-right inverted?

 Figure 6: Ambulance

This is because of the left-right inversion of the image on a mirror. The word ambulance written as left-right
inverted would, therefore, be read easily by the driver of the vehicle ahead of the ambulance in its rearview
mirror. The rear view mirror will again invert the word left-right wise.

The Laws of Reflection of Light

 Incident Ray - The light ray that falls on the reflecting surface is called an Incident Ray.
 Reflected Ray –Tthe light ray that gets reflected back from a reflecting surface is called a Reflected
Ray.
 Normal - It is a line that is perpendicular to the reflected plane at the point of incidence of  Incident
Ray.

Figure 7: Incident Ray, Reflected Ray and Normal

Figure 8: The Two Laws of Reflection

Types of Reflection
Depending upon the surface of the reflecting object, the reflection of light can vary.

 Diffused Reflection or Irregular Reflection: In this type of reflection, the light rays that fall on the
surface are reflected back in different directions irregularly. This generally happens in the case of an
irregular or roughly surfaced object.
 Regular Reflection: In this type of reflection, the light rays that fall on the surface of the reflecting
object reflect back in a particular direction. The reflected rays are always parallel to each other. This
generally happens in case of a smooth and shiny surface.

Figure 9: Types of Reflection

 Spherical Mirrors
Spherical mirror, as the name suggests, has a sphere-like shape. It appears as if it is a part of a sphere. There
are two types of spherical mirrors:

 Concave Mirror - It is a spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is curved inwards.

 Convex Mirror - It is a spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is curved outwards.

Figure 10: Concave and Convex Mirror

The Image formed by a Concave and Convex Mirror
An image can be of two types:
Real Image Virtual Image

The real image is formed when the light rays reflect and meet at the A virtual image is formed when light rays reflect and diverge from the
same point. same point.

It can be viewed on a screen. It cannot be viewed on the screen.

It is always inverted. It is always erect.

Formed by Concave mirror Formed by Convex, Concave and Plane Mirrors

Figure 11: Formation of Real Image by Concave Mirror

 Figure 12: Virtual Image by Plane Mirror
The image formed by a concave mirror has the following properties:
 It can either be real or virtual.
 It can either be inverted or erect.
 It can have the same size as that of the object, a larger size that of the object or smaller size than that
of the object.

The image formed by a convex mirror has the following properties:

 It is always virtual.
 It is always upright (erect).
 It is smaller in size as that of the object

Applications of Concave Mirrors:

 Satellite dishes use a concave mirror to gather all the signals and reflect them on a certain point.
 Dentists use a concave mirror to reflect light on a particular tooth.
 Shaving Mirrors are concave in shape.
 Headlights of a car have a concave mirror so that we can reflect back light straight on the path.
 Torches also use concave Mirrors.

Figure 13: Concave Mirror Used in Torch

Applications of Convex Mirrors
 The rear view mirrors are convex mirrors as they provide a wider view of the road behind.
 Security mirrors near an ATM are convex so that the user can detect easily if anyone else is watching
from behind or not.

Figure 14: Convex Mirror used in a Rearview Mirror

Lenses
A lens is a part of a reflecting material like glass or plastic but curved from both sides. Lenses are unlike mirrors
that have a reflecting surface only on one side. Depending upon its shape a lens can be categorized as:

 Convex Lens - A Convex Lens is curved outwards. It is thicker in the centre and narrows down at the
edges. It merges the light rays passing through it at a certain point. Therefore, it is also called
a Converging Lens.
 Concave Lens - A Concave Lens is curved inwards. It has wider edges and a thinner centre. It reflects
back the light that travels through it in different directions. Therefore, it is also called a Diverging Lens.

Figure 15: Convex Lens and Concave Lens

Images formed by Convex and Concave Lenses
A Convex lens forms an image that is:
 real
 inverted
 the image is large and appears close to the lens

A Concave lens forms an image that is:

 virtual
 erect
 small and appears far away

Figure 16: Image formed by Convex and Concave Lense

Sunlight
What is a Rainbow?

Figure 17: Formation of Rainbow

 A rainbow is a natural phenomenon in which the light rays of the sun are reflected and refracted by the
water droplets present in the atmosphere.
 A rainbow appears as an arc on the sky that contains a band of seven colours – Red, orange, yellow,
green, blue, indigo and violet.
 This also means that the white light of the sun contains seven coloured lights in it that separate out
due to refraction (called a Spectrum of Lights). This spectrum of white light can be seen in the following:
o Rainbows
o Soap bubbles
o Surface of a CD
o Prisms

Figure 18: Spectrum of White Light through a Prism

Newton's Disc

Figure 19: Newton's Disc

 The Newton’s disc can be obtained by dividing a disk into 7 partitions and painting each of them with
the seven colours of the rainbow.
 When the disc is rotated at a fast pace in daylight all the colours tend to mix together and the disc
appears whitish in colour.

Why plants and animals need a transportation system?

 We know that all living organisms like plants and animals need food, oxygen and water so that they
can survive.
 These elements need to be delivered to their body parts so that they can function properly.
 Hence, all living organisms need a transport system in their bodies.

Human Circulatory System

Figure 1 Human Circulatory System

 The circulatory system is a transport system of the human body which consists of a network that
supplies food, water, oxygen and other substances throughout the body.
 The main parts of the circulatory system are:
o Blood
o Blood Vessels
o Heart

Blood
Blood is a red colour fluid that flows in our body through the blood vessels.

Functions of blood:
The blood acts as the medium of transportation of essential substances throughout our bodies such as oxygen
and nutrients. Blood carries oxygen from the lungs and transports it to different cells of the body.

The blood also carries waste material to the kidneys which then filters the blood. The small intestine digests the
food and absorbs its nutrients. These nutrients are provided to all the parts of the body through blood.

The blood also protects the body from losing blood by forming a blood clot at the place of injury.

The blood contains a special substance that helps in regulating the temperature of the body.

Components of blood - Blood can perform several functions because of different substances present in it.
Blood plasma – the liquid substance present in the blood is called blood plasma. Almost 55% of the blood is
blood plasma. The plasma facilitates the transportation of different substances throughout the body. The blood
plasma is made up of water, salt, fats, proteins and sugar.
Red blood cells (Erythrocytes) – They are present in ample amount in the blood (40% to 45%). They are red
in colour because they contain a special pigment called haemoglobin. The oxygen we take in binds itself with
the haemoglobin and hence reaches every cell of the body through the blood.
 White blood cells (Leukocytes) – They are present in fewer amounts (almost 1%) but perform a vital function
in the body. These cells fight against the germs present in the body.
Blood platelets – These are the cells that help in the formation of a blood clot and prevent the blood from
flowing out of the body due to an injury.

Figure 2 Components of blood

Blood Vessels
Our body contains tube-like structures called the blood vessels that help in the transportation of blood
throughout our body. Our body contains two types of blood vessels based on the function that they perform:

Arteries Veins

These blood vessels carry blood from the heart that contains oxygen into These blood vessels carry blood that is rich in Carbon
different parts of the body. dioxide from the body organs to the heart.
Arteries have thick walls as the blood pressure is quite high in these Veins do not have thick walls as the blood pressure is quite
blood vessels. low in them.
They are narrow so that the blood can flow quickly through them. They are slightly wider than the arteries.
They do not contain valves as the blood in arteries always flows in the They contain valves that prevent blood from flowing in
right direction due to the pumping of the heart. opposite direction.
Pulse
We know that the heart pumps the blood in the arteries. This continuous pumping of blood in the arteries
results in their rhythmic throbbing which is called Pulse.

Pulse rate
Pulse rate is defined as the number of pulse beats per minute. The normal pulse rate of human beings is 70 to
80 beats per minute.
 Figure 3 Checking the Pulse Rate
Pulmonary Artery
The pulmonary artery is a special blood vessel that connects the heart to the lungs. It takes blood that contains
less oxygen (deoxygenated blood) from the heart to the lungs. Hence, it is unlike all other arteries that carry
oxygen-rich blood.

Pulmonary Vein
The Pulmonary vein is a special blood vessel that connects the lungs and the heart. It carries oxygen-rich blood
from the lungs to the heart. Hence, it is unlike all other veins that carry oxygen-less blood.

Capillaries
Small blood vessels are called capillaries. The arteries divide themselves into capillaries which then deliver
oxygenated blood to the tissues in the body. Then these capillaries take up the deoxygenated blood from the
tissues to the veins.

Figure 4 How Blood Circulates

The Heart
 The heart is an organ present in our body that pumps the blood in the blood vessels.
 It is located in the chest cavity.
 Its lower part is a little tilted towards the left.
 The heart is divided into four chambers with prevents the oxygen-rich blood from mixing with carbon
dioxide-rich blood.
 The Atria or upper chambers contain the blood with no oxygen.
 The Ventricles or the lower chamber of the heart contains oxygen-rich blood.
 The Atria and Ventricles both are individually divided within themselves into two chambers with the
help up of valves.
 From the left ventricle, the biggest artery of our body called aorta begins.
 The right Atrium of the body receives deoxygenated blood from the body through a vein called Vena
cava. Vena cava is the largest vein of our body.

Figure 5 Heart

Flow of Blood in Human Body

Heartbeat
 The muscles of the heart relax and contract continuously as it pumps the blood in the arteries. This
rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the heart is called a heartbeat.
 The stethoscope is an instrument that is used to listen to the Heartbeat of a person. It amplifies the
Heartbeat so that the doctors can monitor it and find out about the patient's condition.
 It contains two earpieces, a tube that connects them to a chest piece comprising of a sensitive
diaphragm.

Figure 6 Stethoscope
Do all animals possess a circulatory system?
 No, animals like Hydra and Sponges do not possess a circulatory system.
 These animals live in water and hence get food and oxygen from the water as it enters their bodies.
 As the water comes out of their bodies, it takes away the carbon dioxide and waste materials out of it.

Excretion in Animals
 The cells in animals release some waste products as they perform different functions.
 These waste products are toxic and hence they must be removed from the bodies of the living
organisms.
 The process of removal of waste products produced in the cells of the living organisms is called
Excretion.

The Excretory System in Human Beings

 Figure 7 The Excretory System

The excretory system is a system of organs in living organisms that undergo excretion. The excretory system
consists of different organs:

1. Kidneys – there are two organs called Kidneys present in our body. These Kidneys contain blood
capillaries that filter out the unwanted substances from the blood in the form of urine.
2. Urinary bladder – The urine produced by the Kidneys is stored in a bladder called urinary bladder.
3. Ureters – There are two tube-like structures which connect the Kidneys and the urinary bladder
together. They allow passage of urine from the kidney to the bladder.
4. Urethra – There is a muscular tube through which the urine moves out of the body.
Different organisms excrete different wastes:
 The major excretory product in humans is urea. The urine consists of toxic wastes (2.5%), urea (2.5%)
and water (95%).
 The way in which waste chemicals are removed from the body of the animal depends on the
availability of water. Fishes and aquatic animals excrete ammonia in the water.
 Birds, Snakes and lizards excrete semi-solid, white coloured uric acid.

Dialysis – Sometimes people use artificial Kidneys, that is, they get the blood purified artificially periodically. It
is called dialysis. They have to do so in a case of Kidney failure in which the Kidneys of a person are unable to
perform their function due to an infection or an injury.
How is sweat useful to us?
Sweat contains water and some salts and hence help in getting rid of toxic wastes from the body.

Also, as the sweat evaporates from our skin, it takes up our body heat and this makes us feel cool, especially
during the summer days.

Transportation in Plants
Transportation of Water and Minerals
 The roots of the plants absorb the essential minerals and water from the soil.
o The roots have hair like structures present on them.
o These hairs increase the surface area of the roots and hence allow more amount of absorption.

Figure 8 Absorption by Roots

 From the roots, the water and minerals are transported to other parts of the plant through special kind
of tissues called vascular tissues. There are two vascular tissues present in the plants:
 o Xylem – It is a vascular tissue that is responsible for transporting nutrients and water in the plants. The
root cells absorb water and minerals and transport it to xylem. Xylem carries it to other parts
unidirectionally without usage of energy.
o Phloem – It is a vascular tissue that transports the food produced by the leaves (source) to all parts of
the plant (sink) . This flow is bidirectional and utilizes energy. This is known as translocation.

Figure 9 Transportation by Xylem and Phloem

Transpiration
 Sometimes not all the water that plants absorb is used by them.
 Hence they need to get rid of the excess water in them.
 This loss of water in plants takes place through the process of transpiration in which the water
evaporates in the atmosphere through the stomata present on the leaves.
 Stomata are tiny pores present on the leaves that allow the movement of gases and water through
them.
 Transpiration results in absorption of water: As the water from the leaves evaporates, it generates
a suction pull in the plants that bring the water from the roots upwards.
 Transpiration helps in cooling down the plants: As the water evaporates, it utilizes the heat of the
pant and results in cooling of the internal temperature of the plant.
 Figure 10 Transpiration

Figure 11 Removal of Water through Stomata