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p e%DkMk ;"5!
µ AO<., Dm eHp 5!
e.r\m kf5C\m.
$q !kM e[ppfAH. <%<
.pt ;"l ipπ4 !
s‚%! µ AOl $qPkpfAH;
 ; HlP5%!, "tt%!,
X µ A rn., 2B! µ7D
eApfAH: µn"5 tχ elm
ap e=5 % 4 em %<5
ey.!, 8!l in.p e=5 %D
.r;H eXNkpt <2m.
imµ7D. a /=5 %rkχ5p
<. !Ol . 55Hm
a7p 5!H%! amm. in.
a7p  am; .;.
8"k;"\ a"ptr%!
r-я!X5k tχ aA<
Ak~kfA!; <%\m i2H
af;" π .;H"5! rl
D;sf (π/ Xm 6p <H
<) "$;Hp tfAr.
mUs a=k O / Ap
eHp4 k%y;
e.M;H kfAH. in.; e.Mp ,
a  rk 8"k;Hk! uNpk
. <2e% . X%kM
/N;HfAH. t rkm µ.Pl
aχ5l 8tχ5"; .k
p/A%l, aχ5l 8"k; .p
eA%l, a  ‘8?m rk%y
o[C %kpt t rk%y’
%/A%l, µ.;H rk; .
ki;. µ75H; in.p t rk
a a. e/= 5 a;H u!75y
urnH u"; e.Cf9m, je!l
rkp   % il. o
µ.5;"l a <. Ol ,
ikDm µ75H efA .9rk
µ75. µ7DkM aH Xm % it4
elfAH. µ.;H a pCf
a.;"l t rk a
<.NH /N r4χO
2<6t;"l ep7 Xn<.Ne%A
π4 ! iCM e[pp9l .
in.p π4 ! 5;. %rks 1852_l
e[pπ a./Mp "kfAr. .%H
i5k95l e µ.l.;
.;H95\kM j/ %rks 1848_PnH
1851  O! %em tχ
82 $;" ”"5!
a-; .; .%H a7p 5yk
efAr. %/A el4
n.rpC\m << iCMm
a 5 <. ! a-; .;
e.M;H p.< a %fAH;
8in. .;H95l uk
2<6t;.\m N /=5
e[5 ƒ!;.\m iH
oUtpt7kfAH.
a /=5 π4 ! .p; e.y
e[ppfAH; µ.;H a,
µ.;H rk;" 8tχkM;
<. 5! in. ap e=5 %D,
/N YOl u!H ep7?
µ.;Hp tχ <Hm
okpt rkC? 5
<54 5! e5l µ!\m
a"l j/m %N.l?m a.
$6%µm e!? in. ap
e=5 %D mn.%yp t
rkm ey5 <275 ~ 5 ?
µ.;H µ.5;Hk< u$;.!
%;"5;H a a"m mπ
µ75tχO ki4χk ;"l
<.=5.Mm. a" rkµm
Zn.4 < !m in. ap
e=5 %9 i=5 %5. i
aCC. µ.;H rkm iv9
aCC? 8O%Om
e.rl i 6kpt7p .
%rkm eCelm .%H all
"m; "m; e.$5p;HfA!r.
ove e.YO a-µm
in. i 6pπ ! e.;
e.Dm epDm Z„π;Hk
tfAH. e.Y rkm
e %5! en. a-;"
Oy in. i 6pπ !k 2=5;
e.$nH efAH. e!< . aH
in. i 6pπ .9rk i5;
. % 5p /=5 <tt 
avD %y4 "Ol
$nHefAH, 8!l Mt7
µ.;H я!X5 "
a=5 %O 6%< atχ5m
6%< i. ! %NkfA!r;
alH i-CB a" atχ5%y
i. !p ‘eHp 5y’ o;Hk
e2 a<.<"l u$5 X µ A
µ7D 4 ey5; .=9fAr.
a" rkµm Zn.4 < !m
µ.;H4 µ.5;" uPl
l\95y a %n. _in.4
µ.5; .p πn"m
ut  %l <./N9kpt
l\95y a %n. . in.p
l\9 i4µ.5;"
rC; .m ‘eX$;Hk "6A7kfAH’.
o l\95y a %n.<.
ae-m ;H aя.;HkM
%t<% u$5 o .k M6; .k
M=p.Me%N a" tr%!
r- я!X5;"l ./<H <<4χ
m D;sf.4 n.rp.m
HfAH. %rkχ5; . ivN "$;Hp
tH, ‘.5p Hp’ e-m
; .k 52 j";"5 ;.m
Z55e%! Z„π;H, a .4 χC$;H
-k4 ey"m, 2m <t.
ak<y <uP; .
iYD;" in. a/r?kM
Dm 8.5%OpH BA%<
9Cf!\m, n<.;HkM i=
iH o t< 8Mm.
π;H;" ki4χkMp π/
‹<p 27kMm e2~C
µ.;Hp tχ
5/=<Hm a"rk io
i5n"m e.rnH r4χ/N
em %5kpt \ n<.
nHH. M=p, Mt7 µ.;Hp
M"<5r e%DkM in. a %p
rm. eµ.
k;HkMk pt ar?kMk
€ip75O!r. 9O, χN
9 !ƒr, ~r
µ.<!$ <%l %tp M"<5kM
iv %p op9l "5!, a %"
yn. D%! u;"<5C
a;H, ar  %k?kM
<%<!y u5r;" kfAH. 1917
πp$ 27_kMp πAM n. 8N
%.Cl g59l X e/A .k
C12. µelm
µ-$ %5yk Np a/Nk<
akpt n. aCp .9
ipe[H <t?kMm13
e%…9kM?kMm <uPs
-tχ5r?kMµ$5 %!Cf
9t!. u2 %Ol 5kMm µkf5
qr";.m e .ke2 "\m
Xtm il . qr";.C  ‘aχ5l
Zr65   Bm  ’ o;"p <Dm,
aχ5l Zr65   Btp .
;.m µ7DNm   e.rnH o;"p
<t4 elDm. el
Y\m µ5/χ ekptH!
8!l %!C p frnH
e"l, a %4r,
H 65 %4r, r!r -eя!l
<A   p  .9
eN"l .%.m j/9l , aχ5l
Zr65  kk ;"k <27
9l ! ‘%!C p’ C€m
%NC€m eyH e.!H <%l
%tC\m €i %tC\m,
XeCMm, %;"5 aC;"\m s.
a\C\m X e/NH.
aCm ZND"l l<N Bt
<rnH 8pt Xm
m;"l in.p C€m %NC€m
Xn<.N. e< 8Mm. 1917
πp$ 27_kMm 8s 27_kMm
i pt 8N %.Cl
X e/N .4 r4 kM i=p
A <XkM k%y ivN
B=9m: qr";.C o;"p
<pt!, aC u;"<5C
9Z<5m µ7kptH, 9Z<5;"
<H Zin. ‘.N’ o χ %N
9Z<5C rm $ ey5pt!.
8!l a" rk i5n"m l<N
µ.;H, Mt7 µ.;Hk
tχ <5 (g5 u.6;"l
<t, <uPs -tχ5r,
e%…9kM 8f<5$ <5)
evDkM evD ‘%NC€’ eyH
epfA<., okpt
rkC?m a/= .  %O\
t rkµm µ.;H
µ.5m a !;HkMm .%kMµ
i6km 6 µ75.   % 5
avDkM avD HlP5%y
u6rnH efA!. 8< el
µ.;Hk tχ?m, 
я!X5%!, ‘tχ -я!X5%!’
tχ?CB, tχp t
rk; . e"r;H akMµ A
X7k  k  %5k
<275.fAH, n.m ey./!
i5n"; ., a.H ap
e=5 % p p;.
<275.fAH. Zi4χ in.p
<kM tχ 5 a a";HkM
9<.%y ‘aY;e.Y;"./!
k" a !; .m oN M954
eyH e?m7’ Zrpn.m eyfAH;
ap e=5 %  <%m
ey .5l, a. !; .r;H
eXNkM .<5, aY;H9 .<5
.!H M=k<yk e?m7
Zrn.m eyfAH.
in. 9m imµ AOl
e;H kp./M Y<P5H,
1848-_51- 8m 82l X e/A
Zi4χH e.r;. r4χp <k<
a=, iv2l f ;.
X µ A a-<% a=, .rk.
µ AO! 6 $5 8yD al.
evD 27py %rks /N
a-e%-m uN" yn.
a7p O< ZAr e ., .r;H
eXNkpm ap e=5 %DkMp
"y; <.Ap <H eH e-m
π4 ! 5 1852_l "tt%!
µ AOl i-m ar e[p%l
in."PnH e.$nH em.
in.p π4 ! 5 e[pπp "l
2./M <275 u2 %
9C  i!µm a-m
ape[H a;.9l . π/
., 1871_l . N
ipπ4 ! 5 Zi4χ Z\kMk
e2 n.H. 1852_l /N
9njƒ!p r O π l5/A
HlP5;H Z Xt µ7n.e.lm,
t rkp tχ5!H
‘aY;e.Y;"./! k"
a !; .m’ a a"; .
e"r;H ‘oN M954 eym’ ~O !
eXCf nH9tH eH ..
iC< o <9 elm: %rks 2
a-; .m ar 2o/A/¬m
ar n. n. µ7D m
eHpk eH $5? 1848_kMm
1851_kMm i pt rN
82! πenj / Ak
t7\m 9$! xr aCfl
a/ Ak 5?H $5? in.k
<9kMp "k µ/ µ, Xm
eCels B=5 o M=p 
Z !D;"k e2, πAM
u2 % p $qPp<m.
„<%r "e!t7 rAm "pkM$5
.%H µ- Ol eCels e["!r:
“…/N4 χAp ;. rkp
<tC <N eC<m9 πenj
Xt7l. ove . m iN"
µ7D   p7;H X e/N!;
8<, in.p <tCH i5k
 f ip<tC
 e.M;.kpm %=5
26µ aχ5l 7C <N
eC<m9 iCM ; e.!
u l M=kpt7kfA!.
%;"5 ;"l π;H;"
<n"%Dm, %N%r4χkMp π/
rp 7Z   a7p 5yk
e2 oNt µ75tχkM
e;HktDm "in. πenj X,
%em tχO<H π;H; .;
.r;"t <N en. ‹<pπ5 Xm
27. p/A avD ‚5
79l µ.;H 8"k; .
ZN9k e2H. . ‚kf n.
t rk%!H 8?m
µ.;H rk; . e"r;H X;Hm
<tm <eACMm 27. ukf
79l iCM r2H,’’ (km 4,
1907_8m 82p "p.)
iN"Ol BApH m
n..f9tH. je!l 1871_kMp
πAM πenjp t rkp
<t;"l <.kZ 
j/t7kfAH. iH p7p.<
ip.!\CB, iN" µ7D  
rkp <t; . X;"4 el"l
πenj X p<fA t rkp
tχOl µ-.6%y; "[m
;"5p i.!l il%/
<y99l .
Z/, ;e..H a/A27
iN"O\m i.H a/A27
e.k;"\m µ<!=5 XH
/ Ap eH9l r O<m.
a<. r4χp<kM i-m
e%HDm, .pt 7C\m,
! aCf\m X eN .k
2f<Am. oAm ‘X?%A
8tχ µ A’ M75 X\m
(πs, ae%$k, 9trnH),
µ75\m (π$t, xDkM
eяr%, i;.P, sn"<!95 X
µ.! ) r4χN .k
2f<Am. %NA;"l, µ.;H4
µ.5;" a7;.C en.
%/Aµ= aCp .94
‘%!C ’ 9Z<5µm %N
9Z<5µm eyH e2 l<N
µ.;H, Mt7 µ.;Hk
tχ <5 8tχ5";Hk!
<tm X eAk 2f<Am.
µ7, ‘Zr a"m’, a.
a"$! a %p, iom
i/= i5n"m em % ey5pt
uN"5kp .k 6m.
in.p <kM el µ.;H
a Xk! p $6%m
µ[HkMm eH!  e"l
Hm n<.l . µ.;H
uM a !;HkMm . 9<u%y
a %n. a<. r4χp <kM
a"9 !, Br %5!, e=D k
79l 1848_kMm- 1851_kMm i pt
rN 82l πχl Xn<.=!.
j";"5%!H_Cf r.!;",
πm%2 µ.;H j<k
me, j< µ.;Hm
a -j< µ.;H%y
r. p.m iH_ ‘ap
e=5 %D’ a.6%yp m
eN .m, µ75tχ Xl
%t= Mn. .n"m  ;.
M75 X\m t rk;HkM
e"y akMµ A X7k 
 %5f9t .e5t7 aC
a" rk, io i5n"m
µπ 27. aDkM
 .m M=p.Mm eH
e.yp !fH.
ap e=5 % 
‘aY;e.Yp./’ 1852_‹k t7\m
./<H op•7lp e$5 a9l
t rkp tχO ‘el
k"?m oN M9kp .’ <Xkf
u N X  <fAH e"l
‹5l .
aY;e.Ykpm ap
e=5 %9 i;"l t rkm
a%r;.p <H e!e . $s
mU a;"m 7pπ ! k
9C t7ktfA!.
7

1852 l ipπ
ipπ
pπ4 ! 5
%rks
%rks e;H
e;H ;
;.H*

%rks 1852 %r4 5 <."Ot

ey %5kM e["5 7.;"PnH
χ M"  1907_l <%$C Yu
–kt14 njχ Ol (%r 25, i.i 2,
km 164) eOtr. in.k 7.;"l
πA/N B χApkM$5 πm
µm aCfH:
“e !p eN;. , ./< .5
µ.5;"l rkC ip .<5,
a/= <5 <tm
X eN .<5 2π7;. e %
e !4 H. e!kM eXCm
µ!.< µ.;H
/=5r in. rkp
<t;" /N Ypt
r4χ 5m, µ.;Hp
e5r rkC? 5
e. a %pπ5 m
9$;"n.!r. X ey."l "5H
e!el π!/ A
Z„π;.H .:
(1) rkC ipH,
e?/;"O!H r4χO
M=pπt /Nk tC?
(historische Entwicklungsphasen der Produktion)
%t<% i 6n..Mm, (2) rkp
<tm t5%yp t rk4
r";HkM it4 elfAH, (3)
in.4 r"m el rkC?m
oYkp./Mm, rkl.
µ.5;"/M%! i k t<%
8Mm…’’
µ.., .%H <. !kMm
µ.;H rk;" µ<!=5
8in. χn. !5r? 5
<. !?kMµ π.!, a7p 
<Nt m, i2., a
/=5 .%H <. !O p
e m %rks i4e/<
e.; e.y e;H ;H
9fAr.
rkp <t<% %rkχ
<. !O\ π.! BAMe%!
a7k7 BAptm e[.ptm
fAH. iH .N. in.; .A!
;" 9 y %rkχ5m a7k7
n.rp. YOl "$;Hp
tpfAH, µ.;H
rk;.kM j/ 5 Cf<
ey5kpfAH. ep7e5Al,
rkp <t; .;Hm %rkl
<./N9kptH al, %rkkM
µ!< µ.;H rk;.l
<./N9kptH. eHk
BN Ol iH µ.;H
rk;HkM j/ 5 .;H<%. rkp
<t; . %tm aC€$p<r
%rkχ5"f 9"l ;
i!µm ar µ.;H4
χn. !, µ.;H aχ5l i/=
m?kM Z/<< ikk
Bm. %rkχ5; . rkp <t;
.;H;HkM apl elH
i;H.!H, %rkχ5; .k
MNkf; "$;Hp tHm
µ.;H rk;.kM j/A.yk
MNkMH<% 8Mm. rkp
<t; . aC€$p<. Z/%l
i. !p t rk4
r";Hk! aC€$pDm
9$;H4 elfAr %t<% %rkχ5"
8r. %rkχ5"kMm .6 Mt7
(%/Nm em) µ.;H"kMm
i O\ % kMm %DkMµ
<N i"l. aCfOkfAH.
%rkχ5; . e%y5< $nH
efA, a . aC€$kfA
e .4 <";Hp rk u ly
a %H iH<, in.p π4 ! 5
‹<pπ5 N o X µ Ap
π4 !5; e.Y rk;"
µ <XkM <Xr e2 n.<H,
el4 n.rp"?m
qr";."?m %t=, el
‘D;sf"?m B’
(qr";..;HkMm %rkχ5;HkMm
i <5 s<r ir)
t rk4 r"; .
Z$kMm <et
a/"Dm Mt7 µ.;H
я!X5"Dm .m % Z„π;Hk
e2"l 95pπl . 1918 8s7l,
a.H in.p ;.;" µ.l "p
e5f eXC;HkMp π/
en. D;sfO π%!
t rk4 r"m,
%rkχ5; .k Mt7 µ.;H
YOl "$;Hp t./Mm, nj%y
a .4 el9l aC€$;H9t4
e5Pl 9t xm 5 %kMm
apt%!<.r e;Hk t
(t rkp tχm xP
D;sfm, e;ef;, %s<,
1918, eA e!H π; .p rkDm).
i A5 n.rp.m _ a. π.!
π"Z"5!, µ! %rkχ5"
D;sfO 79l _ <%< .pt
<%/<l µ.;H Z  M=;H
%rks a;"m  5NpkM µ[k
µ[kp enH.Mm. je!l
in.4 n.rp.m rkp
<t;Hk! aC€; .
µ.;H uAD el kM
tp;"k efAH. (in.
el ?kM, in.k
tk<pkM, rkp
<t; .k ‘<tt9l’
aC€$k, l95=D 5 en.
."m %Nk %tr!)
n.rp.%!H rkp
<t;Hk! aC€; .,
. 55 9;HkM, a.H
µ.;H;"PnH mU;HkMm
%=4 el./M$5 t;HkM,
µ.;H rk; . ki;" a .
aA< aY;"m  t;HkM,
9$;H4 el"l . u2 %Ol
in.k tm .9rk µ75.7
rkp <tm eNl.
rrk;H, eNl. ukf
7Cl X eNm  t%Mm.
8< in.k  t;"l .9rk
µ75.7 a o "5 YOl
я!X5%! (t rk;HkMm
eH9l e;"l<.kMm) o
"5 YOl r"%y a %.!
(µ.;H rk;HkM e"y)
a< ik <2m.
aH %t%l, .e5 rk;"
r"m <. pH eH9l
ove rk4 µ.5;HkMm
%t%l, µ.;H rk; .
ki;"9t t rk;HkM
%t%l, µ.;H; .
‘rkCl. µ.5;"PnH’,
mU;"PnH π$;"m /Nk
tm µ[ %kMm <. pfAH
e . u6r<r %t<% a /=5
%rkχ <. !O!H p
e k /N; <.rn<.r 8r.
µ.;H a 7;"l 
.pt , 8!l i/= mm
o<A.: 7m ep7Opπ-m in.
a elm, µ7yp rkM;H,
.9rk µ75.7 µ.;H
rk;" r"<% 8Mm.
µ.;H;"PnH mU;HkM
%=4 el./M$5 i km 
.pt aχ5l 7C m Dm
j%y; <.A< eym, 8!l
mm .9rk µ75.7 oA<
ikMm; t rk;"
r"%< ikMm.

1871 8m
8m 82
82
$s
$s mU
mU!
mU!H
a-mm, %rkχ
%rkχ
M;.
M;.yD
.yD
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mU!
mU!r
!r
r ;
; V 
µ5/χOl iAC
iAC4 ey
ey.H
eH?

1870_8m 82 i "r ;"l,

mU-kM4 χ %.C µ, %rks
$s e.Yr  e4$;.H
e.$n.<. _ aC; .
ki;H./! en. µ5/χm Xmπk 
iln<.$ at; H~4<
8Me%N e4$;.r15. 8O-m 1871
%r4χl e.Yr Vr%!%!
<$l iACMm75! Zrpn.m
j/t, ar?m i . j/Nk
e29t<H, e[4χ e.r;.
u2 %5f9t<H, . a=M=
e.tCB, %rks a9
8r;<. t rkp tχ 5
</Ar. %rkχ5; . 9t x7
ak</A g5 xP πee!v
1905 Xm$l e.Yr, 9O
<t; . 8.$;H e["9t,
8!l 1905 7mkMp π/
."O ~Ol “ar <r
e.CfOkk BH’’ eN xtH
<, tp  %e5 eX= µ A
<χk “;HkM µ!.<
Hkpt’’ i5ke%N %rks
2!m B=k e27k9l .
“92 64 75r’’ eN
mU!r  %rks </=!r16.
8!l ar mU!r k; .
8re% t75H ZN
99l . eM я!p tχ i5km
a. M=k<  a 59l 
eA\CB, aH aD n.
µkf5;Hm yn. /N
a-%Me%!, up t
rkp tχO M=pπte.
µ<!/A%Me%!, a/Nk 6k!
< ; "tC m .C m
t7\m µkf5%! X µ A4
e5Me%!k "!r. %rks in.p
tχ i5k;" a-; .p
M;.5Dm, a.nH <r;
.n"p 7pπ ! eADm, in.
a-;" a7p O< .%H
.;H; . %N$q ! eyH
rkDm µ/tr.
mUs a=k kM %rks
<. e5!k "5 o<e5 ‘";.m’,
$s mU!r tχ
a-;" a7p O< ar
ey..Mm.
mUs a=k O "5 eяr%
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./ r- я!X5;"
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12

l\9-
l\9- a  oY;
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Y;.l

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Bt %py (%27sf<5Dm
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.pt7kfAH.
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. p π2%!H, µ.54 e9l
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4
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13

‘M7Opp π4 !’

M7Opp π4 ! /=5 .%H

aP<<5 (1872)21 eCels mU- 5
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k; .k ; oAm, t
rk akMm ./<H akMm
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i2kMµ </N %k
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p;HfAH.
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π4 ! 5m <<.
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o[C %pk! / !.;
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8.l in.p π4 ! 5 iCM
$qPpH k2 < <5 8Mm.
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elm: e$5 XCl j/!<
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M7OpπC  p;"k
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a m oY;"./p t
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(km 55)
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µ !nH µ.;Hp
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14

aя"
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Zeit il en.! 24.
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21

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mU µ
µ.5;"
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22

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e.CMm .NO\m tχk
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1905_kMm 1917_kMm i pt
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n.rp
rp"
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kM.
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r-_я!X5" .%g
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Z !p .k t7\m Dm 8in.
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kM.;HkDm D;sf eC
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8!l xr u2 % a<X%y;
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82 2 %em
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ep;" n.r. 1901-_02l
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t rkk ;Hk  8.$;H
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i4n.rp;"l erg 
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u k <2m, .r;" <2m
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el9l .
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eяr% r_-я!X5"
D;sfO rm ip7 a=9;..y;
<.NfAH; tχk
;<.tC p /=e5[Mf<A
(1899), t rk;" µ.5p
tχ .9rk µ75.e. .
5/NkMm µ.y j/Nk ef<A
(1902), tχ "5 p.m πAp .
o;Hk ef<A (1909), 8O-m,
1852_<<5 %rks B=5./M %Ay4
elf<A, je!l a M=;Hp
t rkp tχkM
 % p /=5 π4 !
e[ppfAH (1912).
ee!kM D;sf X;"5
kM.;"l in. <Xrµ%!
µ AOl. ipπ4 ! <ptH.
25

ee!kM
ee!kM
kM
D;sfO
D;sfO kM
kM.
kM.m
.m

D;sf 5 e"r;Hp ee!k ‘iH

V9.p’ <kf π"Z"l
oy en.r. ip<kM <y
\kmrk, rl e.k
µ.<! m e2.y in.H.
tχp <r;.n"; . 8.$;H4
e5lt ir, <t/A
µ AOl %rkχ5;HkMm n.rp
.;HkMm i <5 s75
‘ %5.’ Z kM D;sf eN
e27n.r eA uN"5!
oNt µ7DkM n.!r. in.k ;H
µ/=\m $5!e.H ;.;.l
Z„πkptH. ;.;"<H in.
‘ %5.’ (.A %rkχ5e%!
a lkptH) <kM alH
‘D;sf.m’ aNk;.k a.
µ[ aC< 79l . !
ep;"k e2H.
eMя! X7k ?m tχm eA
. pπl a /=p π4 ! 5k
M=pπm o t Ol (Neue Zeit, 1912,
%r 30, i.i 2) ee!k, D;sfO
<k 4 ‘e5/A V9.m’ eNm,
‘e5P= e"rr;Hk ;"kMm
Z O .;Hm’ eNm χ;"$;.r.
‘tχO r4χp <k  D;sf
rk %NkfAr’ eN ee!k
e["!r (km 616). iv9; .
in. YOl e;H k Ol, Xm
;H e\;Hm e , a.H
a mn.%yp t rkp
tχkM  % π4 ! 5
aof!r.
“t rkm X;Hm <tm,
a a"m eN./
µ.;H rk; . e"r;H
X eNm <tm %t=, a
a"; . e"rkMm <tµm
8Mm…’’ eN ar e["!r.
“t rk a"k 9
H 6 e2 aχ a"k
9  aY;"Hm  pHm
. (Auflosung) in.p t rkp
tχO ukm (km 544)…
in.p <tm i. 9 y a
a %p a7<5 oYkpfA<H
. xm. 8tχ $m
χN %<5$ o[C %p 
aYp. rm em %<5$
o[C %p ape[H .!H
<%mt7 ! a !m a=5
Z„π;Hk t79m.’’ (km 548.)
ee!k .%H ;Hk 
M;.kMm 7;"l e$5 M A
u!. ipπ-m i. e
e.y 9CMfAH. i./M D;sf
ep7 %Np u ;.r eH
k;.kH.
“iHNm r_-я!X5"?kMm
aя"?kMm inH
µ2 e!eAl, µ!r
a a"m el 9mπ!r,
8!l π!r a . aYk
9mπ!r. ee!k i2 m ey5
9mfAr’’ eN ar e["!r.
(km 724.)
ee!kf 9km HlP5%Dm
s‚%Dm il  eA\m _
a 5 t O πA
M A k M=pπ
<275"l , a  X%H $q !p
e? mn.pt  al _
ee!k e[pm <t 9; .
D;sf $5!7 /=k e2
"\ ;.r. <t M=;. in.
a7p 5! 9;"l D;sf
%rkχ5 Z  5 aA< HAnH9t
µ/=\m n.rp.;"m x79fAr.
r_-я!X5"?kMm
aя"?kMµ <NtkM
ar akMm ik6m µ[k
µ[k; .A!H; %rkχ5; . ar
aA< e4 p;"; "$;Hp t7
9fAr.
%rkχ5"?kMm
aя"?kMµ <N
iH.:

1. µ!r a  a7<5
oYp . <Xk%yk e2
a<.<H <uPp tχ5l
rkC oYkpt πAM.,
<uPm Y MkfAH e .
aC€$kfAr. π!r
a  oYp./M$5
Z  % p $nH e%<
e;. epπ< a  a7<5
oYk 9mfAr.
2. µ!r, t rkm
aχ5l a"; . eN
e2Hm aH  l5 ap
 e=5 %  a7<5 aY;H9
<2e% .m, a.;"l
mU  pt 8.<%n"5
e.YrH
o[C %p! "5 o A
ZN9k eH
aχ5e% .m
aC€$kfAr. π!r
ap e=5 %D aYkp
<2e%N /N;H Ol,
a.;"l t rkm ZNp
<H e!? t $km
ep7 .!H tχ a"; .p
π<5fkp <fAH eH
M=;H; e.D <5Ol .
tχp t rkm a
a"; .p π<5fk <2m
e .k B aя"
%NkfAr; a. tχ4
r"; . ar
Z$kfAr.
3. µ!r ./<H a p
 5;"p tχkp t
rk;HkMp O/χ .
<2e%N <fAr.
aя" i. !
Z$kfAr.

in. kM.;"l %rkχ5;"

π"Z"5y 9CMfAr ee!k<
a= D;sf al. je!l,  l5
a i5n"m "5 C?kM %=
nH9fAH efA el t
rkm ap7<5 a a"; .
eN e29 µ75H, %A aH
in. i5n"; . eXNkf9t,
.r;H9t, a.;"l "5 o A
a %;Hk e <2m eN.
%rks <";.r.
D;sf %rkχ5; .; HAnH9t
n.rp. µµkM x79fAr.
ep7e5Al, ap e=5 %D
aYkp <2e%H _
n.rp"?kM4 χ=Hm
j/ 5.y il. iH _ a 5
.;"l im eA%l t6%y
% AnH 9fAH; ‘eN eH’
e./M eN%<! em %
eN.l e.y ar;.m
BA% 5l, ivYOl ar
n.rp"?kM o ν l9m 9t
kfAr.
%rkχ5; .; .m "$;Hp t .
r7 % AkMm et, D;sf
At4 ;""5y XnH
efAr: <X< %rkχn<. o
‘<%/< ’ e;H kfAr. 1850_l
%rks “aχ 8tχk Cl
a"m uN"5y
%;"5;H% n";.l’’ aχ5m
eN e["!r.50 8< D;sf
e/= µlktk <tfAr: ee!k
‘%;"5;H; .’ aY;"
9mfAr?
iH o .n"<% a= <Al.
%;"5;H;HkM e"yk Bttχ
µ A eH M=;H %rkχ5m,
„<.5m i  i27
;<.tC?m o<A. eN
erg  BA µ5A<
a .e5;. o .n"<% 8Mm.
D;sf BNm ‘<%/<’ iCM χ=Hm
en.H. %;"5;Hm  l5 ap
e=5 %D, "5 ap e=5 %D
i27\<% ;"5%!H..
e.Yr .<% %!µnH .%H
8.p   oN;"k
e2rO aH %;"5;Hm
.<!?! 8!l in. %;"5;Hm
%;"5;H a i5n"; . _ Zn.
< !, <Šs, a" rkm
8f5/ A _ ‘a7<5 aYp.’
a7p Ol a %n..y ikMm.
mU M=;H %rkm eCelm B=5
.C  5m XM a=r;
i/ Ak 5H .t7k Y;H9t,
iCM π4 ! χ=Hm
mn.p. o <%/< p
πy;e.;Hk BN. µm D;sf
jy;Hp π lkMm e;.!y XnH
efAr.
“…ar [ee!k] a"$? 5
ap ~  oY;H9
9mfA, e!?’’ eN D;sf
e.rnH e[HfAr. “8!l a
Zrm iktm, tχO\m
e.Y/CC\CB Xm%l
a"$ il.7 ey5 µ75<..
X%H < ;"tm a a"$
oYkp <2e%N <9l ,
ar %kl <.rne.kp
<2e%N. BNfAH… iCM Xm
9"pH ‘C aχ’ Zr
i5n"m ev7m e2.y
ikMm e.l, X%H aχ5l
<tm a a"; ., Xm
a .p π7;Hk e?m µ<
[a[;.m D;sfO- 5H], oY;H
9fA. [el p e5r;.l
 ;H9fA. _ ¦u ¡st]
eH.. a"$< oYkpk
B75 a %4m eH?’’ πAM l9, p",
Z", iom 8f5/=
a %4C t75l .pfAH.
“il , aC;HkM e"! X%H
aχ5l <t;.l ./<H
a %4Cl eHD<% pkpt
9H… .Ayp $nH
ep .; .kMm et,
"mDm BNf<A; iCM Xm
9"pH e/= eNm
r-_я!X5" ‘C
akM’ a;"p <Mm 7m al,
X%H e"rpπ!l ./<H a
ep7 %/ApfAH e .<5
9"kf<Am.’’ (km 725.)
iH o .n"<% eH e.D.
ee!k tχ e-m π4 ! 5
e[pπ!r. a 5 t O
. pm <%/2 C?m i .;
e.y4 t7k tfA!. ‘e"rp’
e-m π4 !kM; .94 el.
rm, D;sf tχk
2<6t;HkMp "y4
n.rp.k 2<6t; .k
e2 nH M;HfAr. ar
el. e iH.: ./<H
Xm e"r;.py ikf<Am; 8tχ
a"; .p π7;. π/ ep7
ip<m, a . apAm rkm.
tχ % An<. 9tH! n.rp"
9mπ5H iH< ..
π4 ! e"rpm al, eH9l
aχ5l <tµm al; tχ.
π4 !. tχ eH t rkm
‘Zr i5n"; .’, a i5n"m
a !; .<% aY;H9t,
8.<%n"5 e.Yr! o
"5 i5n"; . a.;"l
a %p"l. aCfH.
D;sf ‘a %4Cm’ ‘rk"’
e27kfAr, i/ A pkf9t,
a !;H a"µ e.Yr,
 5t π"Z"H
<95;H €i i5CMm Z6r
M[k  i/NkMp "y a %k
µ75.?
‘a %4C<’ e.rnH ikM%,
alH ‘Z6r M[k<’, <N j<.
a %p< ZNp% e.l
<9 _ iH ep7 ipπ-m
oN..  l5 ap e=5 %D
(µ.;H rk;H 8Om
8Om i ll πp
π 6kptHm %A. %rl\m
%n.;"\m s=9tH%! in.p
e=5 %D) e.rnH inH %,
alH aYkpt a.;"l "5
oN a %kp% e<. <9.
"5 rkm  l5 ap
e=5 %9 H 6 e2 8 6
e\;", 8tχ $"l aCM.l
tχ; in. rkm in.p e=5 % 
eXNkf9t, o "5 e=5 %9
H 6 e2 8 6 e\;", 8tχ
$"l. tχ aCfH.
%rkχ5;" in. a7p k ; .
D;sf r7 e%[f 9fAr, alH
i .p $nHe; .= 9fAr.
a"$ p /= ar e[pm
<9, mU 7pπ ! m
%rkχ <. ! m ar $nH
e9l  e .; e.yp
p;HfAH. “tχO\m
e.Y/CC\m B Xm%l
a"$ il.7 ey5 µ75<.…’’
µ.;H;"l, µ.;H
rk;" 8tχOl Xm%l a"$
il.7 ey5 µ75H..
µ.;H;.l t rkm
okpt ikfAH, u lp
%k a7 %p;.pt
ikfAr. µ.;H;"l
я!X5m BP a7 % µ AO el
Z  %\m %k? 5
N %5\m H;.\m t2,
iNkpt, MNkpt,
M kpt ikfAH.
ik6;"!l ., iH
o=!l., X%H aχ5l
ZN!C, e.Y/CC
Zrf µ.;H Z  %l
Cp;.pfAr _ alH
i-m HlP5%y4 ele.l
C µN./! <kM <5r
8kpfAr _ a"
rk;"!y, a.H %knH
π$nH %k?kM <%<!y, .4
\   ;<.y, %=9m
<kM <5fA!r.
a" rk a %pπ mm iH.
µ.? 5 u  % =µ.l
ey5pfA , µ.;H rkm
ki;.pfA , t rk; .4
<rn. Zrf?m B .9rk
µ75.7 xDkM ‘a" rk
%5%kp<’ eyr.
<.rne.kpm Zrf
<uP;"\m ipr .l,
D;sfO B/Np7 a"$?m
ik< eyr, a" rkµm
ik< eym! a 5 in.k
B/N µ/=\m .A!H. %rks,
mU- 5 u.6; .4 t7kt7,
Zrf ‘a" rk;"!y’
ipH, ‘a"$y’ ipH
<uP;"l µ7D/N9m e .k
tfAr; a"$ <.rne.kp
<2m e-m <tt B,
en. aDkM, en<X;"\m
"pπ5 lkpe%A <tm
M;.pfA<., mC $
e.Y 5 m;" Z kMk
M AkpfA<., %/Nm X?%A
uNp?kMp "y ‘oC< Zr
%ACDm t %ACDm
i5CMm e5/Nm uNp’
ZNpfA!< an. aDkM
‘a" rk;"!kMm’
‘a"$?kMm’ µ7D j/t9m.51
u2 % e!eAl, ee!kMkM
e"! D;sfO .m µ[Hm,
i-m µkf5%y Xm tχO\m
e.Y/C ZN!C\CB Xm%l
a"$ il.7 ey5 µ75<.
e! D;sf BNm a"5/. .µm,
eH9l %rkχ5; . e"r;H
erg  B=5 an.p  l5
‘.C ’ ap7<5 "pπk BN<.
8Mm. a 5 xPp ;.%!
<uP;" µ./<l
erg  ‘.!’ я!X5;"
;Hk  e"rkfAr; ‘At4 ;"
я!X5m’ e.y ar M=pπm
u$ %k t , ml
a"$, a"l %;"5p
π"Z";H a %p µ.!/ A
e"rkfAr. in.p ‘.!’ я!X5m
$5!.l eN Z„πkMm et,
ar ep .m"5r52 .n. 9k; .
8.%yk e2 π$t7g
e.Y/CC? 5 a-; .k
M=pπfAr. ‘$t6 .n";"l’
e.Y/CC e[H 82k m
r4χ/A! eN BNfAr (km 137,
eяr% "p); .! я!X5m
u.H e . in. r4χ
a/NkM ‹5%A u6r;"/N; 8<
a  i .k 9t, a./Mp "
.6 я!X5; ., a.H
X?%A a %p a"
rk;H i 6n. %n. . j/A!
efAr.
u2 %Ol, e.Y/CC rn.H
‘$t6 .n";"l’ al, $t6
µ.;H a7 % µ AO<..
in. Z  %Ol, Xpπ\
<tkMm, µ AkMm, ey %kMm,
‘<%lZ ’ Zr 9CPnH
j l oHkp.\kMm 
Y\m a  9tk epH
‘il.7 ey5 µ75H’ e .k
BA; <. Ol . <uP;"l
in.p ‘.!’ я!X5;" i5l
Dm .9rk µ75.7p ;HOr
e/eA[m. je!Al, X$
µ.5;" /=< µ. µ.y
%k e. Ol p en
"<!r ape[H kepπ\m
<.r.l\m %t=, aχ
aA Zr;"\CB <54 5yp
CM eNm Z kM u5rnH9r.
<uP;"l el<m µ A ;Hk
e2 atχ X;" 9 9l
5<% a. Z  % j/p
lfk e2 9r.
9%r! _ -M;.yD <% .5!
%rks mU- 5 X µ A
X7k l "pµ ! 5k
2o/Ar. in.; "pµ !
n.rp"  XC4 eyfAH.
ar .%H < l;.!m
6%Dm, µ.;H
rk;H µ7Dm µ/ADm
µ=;Hk e 9m..
6%Dm in.; "pµ ! 5
aC€$k 9m9l .
aя" ar
akry ip.
6%<, e$5 µ.5
%N.l?k! el
Z  % m $nH e..
6%< in.; "pµ ! 5p
rk 9m9l . “ l5 ap
e=5 %  aYpH M=;H Xm
Z !k< BH, a %4C?m
a"$?m il%l ikDm
µ7%?’’ e<. n.rp"O
.m. n.rp" Mt7 µ.;H
%!p %Ol s=p<!,
tχO\m tχO 8k 8/AP\m
u?kM Xmπk Ol., tχ
eAH<% XCf4 fA (X%H
e%…9kM m <uPs-
tχ5r m <).
“ l5 ap e=5 %  oYpH
/= %t<% Xm χn"k <2m,
µn"5 t rkp tχ
s‚ 7pπ !  aχ
8y"\m, aYkpt. i;"l
e . pH, ep7 pH eN
M;.y"\m 5l ’’ e.y
aя" .fA
(aя"l χAn.r <5
BNf<A, fp<;f p
<<A p π e.rnH
µ.;H rk;HkM lπ7;H4
el<  al). 8<,
aя"O <r;.n"m eMя!
i5k;" X µ A Z  % k
6kfl e2 s‚%!
π4 !?kM; VrD 2./M$5
anjeXnjm e2 tχ
µ5/χO <r;.n"%y ilH,
9k"O <r;.n"%f 9fAH.
i .N m .9r;Hk e
%rks <. ! eyfAr.  l5
ap e=5 %D a !; .m
aY;" u!.; H~<
e5lm7 ar <. ! eyfAr;
a<.<H π4 ! 5 s‚%y
M;" ar <. ! eyfAr:
mU!!H 9$! я!X5;HkM
Y ey5Dm a" rk; .
<< ki;"Dm in.
X7k   e;H o χ
C?kM o "5, t rk
ap e=5 %  a %k; e.C
µ7n.H. mU!rnH Xm
tχ; H~ k /Nk e
<2m; ar? 5 X µ A
X7k l e%y5< a%!,
u!75< ;"5%!
X7k  u  5 Xm
2=nH e <2m; πAM
in.p  . 5p π/= Xm a"
rk; . a7<5 aYp"l e/=
eN<m.
a" rkm ivN
aYkp. ;"5p πm
u2 %l u;..m
ey5pfAH: <uPm < 
<X; .k M A54 eym, H i 
%4 eyH %k "  u5rZ kM
u5r;" 9m, 9"9kf=
ovem ‘ap ~ 4’
ey5k B75ry u5m75!
Z  %  %ke. Ol
em %<5kM u2kf; .m.
eH9l aχ ove 7µm
aA< urnH u"r./M iv9.m Y
Mkpm.
“…a a"; . aYpH i.
M=k<y [eMя!
< ZN;.;" M=k<y] ik
µ75H’’ eN D;sf e.rnH
e[HfAr. “aC; .k M=pπt
π4 !Ol i6Cf94 ey<.,
alH t rk;HkMp
  %5 aC; .
pkf9tp t rk; .
i YOl n"k [entgegenkommende]
9pm e2 o A a%r;H<.
a. M=k<y ik µ7m…
8!l o<Hm, ep7pt
Z  %O\m, aH’’ [a.H,  
aC;" .! t rk
e/=] “a a";" aYDkM
it4 el µ75H; a a";"
mkM k" s Z O<
xD e5r4χ 5 [Verschiebung]
u2kMH %t<% i. 9 y
ik µ7m… X?%A;"l
em % eN. rµm
X?%A; . aC;"
eя%! Z kM u54 ey.
rµm a a"m el<., n.
; .p < ipe[Hm X%H
aχ5l <t;" M=k<.’’
(kC 726,727,732.)
iH p/A %t%!
n.rp.<% a= <Al:
el9l tχ <χ, e5Pl
tχ 5 Z$p<. a= <l.
“t rk; . i YOl n"k
9pm e2… xr aCm’’ _
D;sfO χn. ! i./M <%l
el µ75. , “8?m rk%y
o[C %n. t rkm’’ eN
mUs a=k  π!m ey.
1847_8m 82 opπ Ol iH
Mt7 µ.;Hk Y  Z O
" Ol π<!kf x<. 8Mm.
euye%, πee!v,
2r<l< _ ‘t rk; .
i YOl n"k 9pm e2’
xr aC;Hkp < o;Hk
e?m ir el<-m
D;sf .%H i.5C;. ‘‹kf5; .’
a n. <2m.
8!l XC <uP;"
H<f! irnH µ=;Hk
e< ey<m. 8.<%n"5
t rkm .<! aC%f
9m et Xm  l5 ap
e=5 %  a7<5 aYp./p
<< ey<m. i  ‘i2m
aA< <A! ’.
‘a a";" mkM k"
s Z O< e5r4χ 5
u2kDm’. “X?%A;"l
em % eADm’’,
“X?%A; . aC;"
eя%!H Z kM u54 ey5Dm’’ ~
$54 χ;.%OkMm ef?m
<9t?m, πee!v?m
;<v?m ;eye;<.P?m
er<!v?%<!$ i5
;"l D;sf im 6tm.
5/ Am µ.;H X?%Ak
M75χ m?kM<<5 i;"k
eHm, n.rp"?kM µ/=\m
j/ ;.H%! in. itχ5m k4
χAp!<..
8!l XC n.rp"nH
µ=;Hk e<m. rk u6rD
e2 t rkm a !;Hm
eC? <rnH <m _
“k" s Z Ol e5r4χ 5
u2kM./’’ al, µ.;H
rk; . ki;H./, µ.;H
X?%A µ A 5 aYp./,
mU ! µ%"$5k e2
я!X5k M75 alH
e.Yr,  5tH
π"Z" <95;H? 5
M75k, t rk;"
tχ4 r";Hkp <m.
***
r<. <uP;"l D;sfkM
pA;"l eяr%Ol <uPs
%. njχ 53 (ef, <9t, <lp
%/Nm sC, π27C 8f5
s27<!95r?m aC!
j !5 m); πχ\m
el{5;"\m el< p
π/=<5m54 2r<l<m;
i;.P5k tχO t7m "eem
πA H$?m; π$tl
`<π5?m ‘<54 5r?m’
(‘<54 ; e.Y/ tχ’55
epe[H<%, u2 %Ol,
." 4 rn..<
inHH), i! πAm u!r.
in.k ! el<m
X?%A < O\m ir? 5
tχp ;"$ \m em CM, 
n.rpCl µ. %5! CM,
8/NfAr; ir t
rk4 r"; . aA<
Ak~;H9t, oD% A/A
n.rp.k e  5p
π/NfAr. in.k !
2l t rk4 ‘r"m’
я!X5;HkM ‘µ6!H’!!
ir?kMm Mt7 µ.;H
я!X5"?kMm u2 %Ol
a7p  <N eHDm il .
in.4 iZ  5k ;"l e2
rk Ol, i2H afm,
a.H a. a"tr%!
π"Z"l p e$5! π$D,
µ[k µ[k4 n.rp.;"l
rif9tH eN µ[ Z55;H
µ7D ey5m. mU a-m
Ak~kpt<. al%l,
"$;Hp tDm t7kfAH.  l5
ap e=5 %  eXNkf
a.;"l "5 o A a %k;
e.Yr e5l <2m,
ivYOl ar .%H aχ5l
8tχ 5 µ.5;" <uPp
! %pkM$5 a7;.%kfk
e <2m, i./M$5 .6m
a %Ol nH e27kfAH
efA ; .; e.Yr? 5
%!"l "5 p./Mp "y,
u2 %Ol i./M <Xr 9<.%!
o A;. ipπ"Z"
eMя!C?kMp πm eyH,
n.rp.;HkM 8Ok6k!
ν l9C 9t kMm 9.;"l
‘8tχ5"m el./!
<t; .4’ χ;"$;H!r.
j";"5 <t7O 9 y 9$nH
rnH 9t io i5n"; .k
e2 a io t.Cf,
u  8 <275H π$t!,
eяr%5 _ in. Z" r.!% alH
aH _ e-m π4 ! 5;
Vrp./ ipt.C it<
itm %k  aY;e.Y;"m o
<X;"l, aχl t rkp
tχkM <kM M=;.
π4 ! 5; "$;Hp tHm r7
% ApHm p em ;"m 8/AH
ikH*
1

µ./ "pkMp
"pkMp
π- 

in.p πm 1917 8s, epm$l

e[.ptH. jl.! a;.
a;"55;HkM _ “1905, 1917_8m
82 g5p tχ
a-m’’ _ j/!< "tm
M;"n<.. 8!l . p ;
.9r;H in. a;"55;"l o $B
e[. µ759 , <Xm f k9l .
1917 ak<r tχO .NO!
aχ5l eXk7 ‘MNkft 9tH.’ iH
<A ‘MNk€’ </;.k<..
8!l π;" i2m ; .
(“1905, 1917_8m 82 g5p
tχ a-m’’) eXC;HkM
o;"p< <275.f9m
<PkfAH. ‘tχO a-; .’
e[H .k t7\m <X$l inH
2H <%\m i.Dm
5-.Dm ikfAH. 8χ$5r al
"t, e.M" 33, kC 1–120
e;ef;
1917, Xmr 30
1917, 8s–epm$l e[.ptH
µ./ "pkMp π-  _ 1917 Xmr
30 \m & 3, a;"55m 2 _ 1918 7mr
17_kM µm e[.pt 
1918_l ‘¨ s i s!<5’
"p;.l .pπ%y
e;ef"l eOptH
M=p
1. am tχm. a p /=5
%rkχ5; .;Hµm tχOl t
rk;"  %?m _ µ.;H
i k aC;"
akMµ AOPnH .p./
e . % Ay ik Ol 1917
8s, epmr %.Cl ina 
e["!r.
a /=5 π4 !kM; .;Hr;.
9km .. aχ5m M=;H
µ.Pl ar 1916_8m 827
π/"Ol <χ!r. i ƒr afm
eA . pπl ape[H ar e["5
M=pπl a M=;H $
%rkχ5;HkM µ6! Z  5
a-$;. .k 2! 9%r!m eyH,
a M=;H %rkχ5;" Z 
e!eH /= 9k%! o
t  e[H.y k;"n.r.
1917 πp$ 17-l e.ykM e["5
7.;"l, a M=;H %rkχ5;"
Z  /=5 .%H a/e
a<X%y; .5f9t.yk B=!r.
a M=;H %rkχ5m eN
. pπpt p at  .Cf5
M=p<t7l e7 e[;Hkl iH
eXk%y e[.pt7n.H. %rks,
eCels alPnH ekpt
<%/<?m, D;sf, ee!k,
erg  irH
;.CPnH χ C?m i 
/=5 9%r!k ;H ?m %/Nm
e- 5 µ7D?m eH
Zr6Op?m i"l aCfOn.!.
in.k M=p  e am
tχm eA .%H a\kM
a7p 5p 5;"k e2r.
e- 5 "t;"7 am
tχm j[ a;"55C e2.y
in"k <2m. 8!l ‘1905,
1917_8m 82 g5p
tχ a-m’ e-m  χ5!
jlH a;"55m e[.p< il .
i./M$5 9%! "tµm
‘µ7D O’ "tµm . Xmm
u!. ak<r <uPp tχkMp
πAM 1918_l am tχm 30,700
π"! "p eOptH.
i2m a;"55;"l ‘1852l
ipπ4 ! 5 %rks e;H ;.H’
eA . pπl e <r;Hk
e2 "5 π$D i2m "p
1919-l en.H
2. `<π5 [Fabians] _ 1884l
ZNpt π$t7g qr";..
ZN!%! `<π5 l;" [Fabian
Society] uNpπ!r. `<π5
%k©%s (f.µ. rAm a/A2)
e-m <%5; ."O e5 
iklm .!kM4 t7k e2H.
e\kM e"! ;.;"l µ7D
t l <r ; .9r;Hk
e2 o;"p<t4 el\m
.n"; .k 52.l in.; ."
‘.%."’ [‘Cunctator’) eA e5 p
e/Ar. `<π5 l;"
uNpπ!rl em %<5r
µ.;H a=D;H AO!f5
9njƒ, e[;.r,
aχ5l" (χt em π5t”s
em, m< %ke!lt,
er!rtu µ.<!r). t
rk;" rkp <tm,
<uPp tχ i/= aχ5; .
`<π5 %N;.!r; χ=5 µ.54
qr";.C, a.H 7p75!
%/AC r%y;.
µ.;H;"PnH
<uP;Hk! %/A; . j/;.
µ7m eA!r. `<π5 ;Hk 
‘.njχ5 n.rp.p <kMm’
eN e M=pπtr. 1900_l
`<π5 lm e.Y/tχ
i 6kptH. ‘`<π5 <uPm’
e.Y/ tχk e O χ;.n.;
<./Nyl oAMm.
µ.l up <$ <H (1914–18)
`<π5 r-<.χ5e=p <k 
a-$;.!r.
3. π. eCels. Mmm, .4e;H,
a 8f5/= <./Am (.i "p,
%s<, µ<!/Ap "pm). i<.
aPPnH e "mDm kC
13, 16, 18–22l <%/< .fAr
(<%/7 "p, km 319–22).
4. <uPs–tχ5r tχ
-g59l 1901 iN"O\m 1902
Hk;"\m l<N X<;k
<g7 m i 6;H ZNpt
Mt7 µ.;Hk tχ. µ.l up
<$ <H <uPs–
tχ5rl em<r
r–<.χ5 e=k ;Hk 
8.$;.!r.
1917 πp$ µ;H–я!X5p
tχ 5; e.rnH <uPs–
tχ5r?m e%…9kM?m
µ.;H i k aC;"
π.! ‚2y4 e5lt!r.
<uPs–tχ5r tχO
. r (<esf,
avk<"e5v, er<!v) i k
aC;" uNpπ!ry in.!r.
iktχ ZD  %p 2 6 
oYk <2e%A 9O
<$k  5 8.$k %N;.H, in.p
2 6 p7k <2e%AH.
ZD  %p 2 6 p π7;Hk
e2 9O?kM e"y
i k aC;" <uPs–
tχ5r tχ a %4r .2p
   a-pπ!r. 8.<%n"5
ak<r e[4χO .NOl iktχ
fC%< e"rptχ µ.;H
rk;. <rnH e2,
µ.;H 8tχ 5 8.$;.H.
i.!l tχ %k "nH
. %p;.pt 9tH.
1917 Xmr iN"Ol <uPs–
tχ5r tχO iH$O!r
<54 k tχ o A ZN9k
e2!r. 9Om .%H
elk p H;Hk e
µ5A ir e5DkM <95;
8tχ5"; . aC€$;H,
<l…9kM? opn.;HkM
n.!r. 8!l χ=H ;Hkelm
<95; 8tχ 5 e"r;Hp <;
. pt!r.
5. e%…9kM _ g59
r–я!X5k tχOl in. Mt7
µ.;H, n.rp.p <kf
8.r, e.Yr H
µ.;H4 elkM e5lk
9y in.r. g59
r–я!X5; e.Yr tχO
i2H Cfl (1903 8s)
tχO %;"5 uNpk?k
X e/A <.r.Pl ir χN %
kM p e/N χN %O!r
(e%…s;<) 8!.l
<l…9kM eN
a lkpO!r
e%…9kM t rk;HkMm
µ.;H rk;HkMm u
6 µ5N, e.Y rk
i5k;"l n.rp.k e  5k
 pπ7;.!r. 1917 πp$
µ.;H–я!X5p tχ 5;
e.rnH e%…9kM?m
<uPs–tχ5r tχO!m
i k aC;"l .9 j/N,
in. aC;" j";"5k
e  5 8.$;.!r; \pe/N
xCf n. t rkp tχ 5
e"r;Hp <7!r.
ak<r <uPp tχkMp πAM
e%…9kM fC%<
e"rptχk tχ5f <95;
8tχ5"; . e"r;H4 "?m
C?m ey.!r.
6. µ.5;" .!k M7 alH M
YO! o[C %p _ .!k
mU a %p alH /=
µ.H r–e. a %p.
Mk mU!!H e., µ.5p
π 6pl i 6kp e/A i;.
uA9!rH Bt %pMm. in.p
.!k M75 %p .yY, .n .Y
µ.5k tC k nH eAH.
.n . Y a %p!H µ79l .!
µ.5m rk µ.5%y %N"\m
aχ u.5;"\m e2<y
9tH. .!k mU a %pπl
u/;" uAD, u/;"4 .!C
r u  % 5m elp
2C $%;H
9Z<5; .m a7p 5yk
e27n.!. iH ak;"5 u/;"
k"H .in. r4χ Z kMm
a/= . %kMm π.!%yp
enH.y in.H.
7. . %rkχ <;.
< ;"t;" 9%r!µm (m 4)
π. eCelχ $CMkM %Npm %/Nm
ee\kM eCels e["5 1875 %r4
18–28 8m <."k 7.µm iCM
M=kpfA!.
8. . %rks. r.!m, e.M" 1.
9. µp.2p <r (1618\–48) –
µ.H eH ‹<pπ5 ;.m
‹<pπ5 aH l<N
Bt?kMm i <5 µ2
 %5f5.l in. ;.m e[n.H.
<ts?kMm
;<.Pkr?kM%! <t;"
7;"l iH e5f5H.
eяr%. π.! <r aCMm,
io4  A5\kMm
e kk <$k ?kM%!
ikMm 8O/N. in. ;.m 1648-l
estP5 %.! opn.m
 e5[;.f5H µ7D/AH. in.
opn.;.l eяr% aχ5l YOl
<%\m χ!π!%y;
H2ptH.
10. <;. < ;"tm _ eяr%O
<uPs; e.Yr tχO
<;. Cfs 1875-l j/A
< ;"tm. <;. Cfs
‹!4r, syP5r 8f5 i
eяr% <uPsk tχ m
o= 6n.H. ‹!4r ªMst
eel, 9leelm Špke!ht
.  %Ol in.!r; ir χ;.n.
YOl %rks, eCelχ
elkMkM uttr. <;.
< ;"tm .m; <.rD .;.l
Cpt7n.H. ‹!4r π.!
π4 !l syP5r?kM
9tk e;H syP5
Zr6Op  j/Nke2 9t.l
in. < ;"tm n.rp.;
. % e27n.H. 1869-8m
827 ‹!4r < ;"t;H
opπ Ol <;. < ;"tm
eMyp π<!kf4 eN
9te.N %rkm eCelm "!r.
%rks a 5 <;.
< ;"t;" 9%r!;"\m,
eCels 1875 %r4 18–28l ee\kM
e["5 7;"\m in.
< ;"t; .k  %5y 9%r!m
eyH .kf!r.
11. n. a/A27 iN"O\m
ina/A27 e.k;"\m 
Xl µ.;H rk;"
8?m tC e.Y rk
i5k; .p πD;.Dm, χN
\  a;Hp t rk; .p
tχp <t;"PnH " 
"pDm µ5A!. in. <Xk;H
a  <uPsk tχ χ
qr";..; . r p π/<kM
µ.;H aCCl CM
e4 eyH i4χ $n.!.
iCfn"l ‘a %4r .9k;
.m % µ.;H rk;HkM 9/Nk
e2 e.Y rk;HkM
apt%y; H<m $n.rl’
(9.i. e) o! я er!s
1892-l X?%A;HkM;
<.rne.kptr. πχl
<uPs! aek2r e;"<5
l2 1899-l l ek–<9
µ.;H aC;"l <rnH
e2 µ.;H rkm a.
e  54 e5l;. u.9!r.
π/<kM µ.;H aC;"l
l2 CM e2.!H
πenj; e.Y rk
i5k;HkMp e$Hm VCM $n.H.
l2 <kM H<4 e5\m
";.l.µm 8Me%N e
M=pπtr. i;.POl i.m
a/A27 e.k;"l P<5.
πseyt7, i<!v ee!
<A <uPs aC;H
B7k e?m <kf ;.
8.ry4 e5lt!r. 1912-l
ir <uPsk tχOPnH
e<5/Apt!r.
µ.l up <$ <H 
X\m r _ я!X5k tχ
n.rp. H$; . r
apt%! r -<.χ5 e=5rf;
.%H X µ.;H
aCCl .9<5/N a/=
e  5 8.$;.!r.
12. g59l 1917 πp$ 27-l (%r4 12)
X e/A µ.;H -я!X5p
tχO 9 y e<.4"m
ki;.pt µ.;H i k
aCm ZNptH.
13. <t _ s7tUu!l
-e%kft7k (aχ5 %p4 t
-я!X5) tχO uNpπ!r.
g59 .. -µ75tχ.
µ.;H rk;.$ .  %5!
tχ5! iH, 1905 ak<$l
ZNptH. µ.,
Zpπk 4 <rn. eymsH<
a"$, µ.;H
a=D;H AO!r 8f<5r iktχOl
oN <rn.!r. µ.l
up<$<H яr aC;"
X π7kMm eXtk e kMk
<t µ[ 8.;.!r. 1917
πp$ µ.;H- я!X5p
tχO<H µ75tχ 5p Hkp
eµ5/χ ey.!r. µ.;H
i k aC;"l .  % Z 
f;H, %k 9<., e"rptχk
e  5k  pπ7;.!r. %em
ak<r <uPp tχkMp π/
<t <95; 8tχ5";"
% $O!r; 8.<%n"5
e"rptχ X7k  5/=\m,
. trH io;
.kM.l el/=\m CM
e;Hk e2!r.
14. «k Yu –kt (‘"5 m’) _
eяr% r- я!X5k tχO
.;Hr;. njχ . 1883 PnH 1923
  gtrt7l eOpt
n.H. 1917 ak<r  Ol rl
D;sfm, π/ ee$k Me!Dm
8χ$5ry in.!r. %rks,
eCels e["5  χ, µ.µ.l
in. njχ Ol enH
e27n.!. i. 8χ$5r?kM
eCels 8< ! B= n.r.
%rkχ5; . 9tp 2
eA./ a7k7 ar k
2! 9%r!µm ey.r.
e.2Am 82 π/"Ol
eCels iAn.π in. njχ 
";.l.k t   µ A5y
eO; e.Cf/N. %rkχ5;HkM
e"! ";.l. i5k; .; Hkf
;. erg  <uPp
π4 ! e-m e.r
t  5m iH eOtH.
µ.H up<$ <H (1914-1918)
iH %5. Z  5 j/N, r–<.χ5
e=5r?kM 8.D a;H n.H.
15. iC< M=pπpH 2l 1870
epmr 6-kMm 9-kMm i Ol .
%rks e["5 πenj-πg5 ;.m
M=;H r<. u lpr Cp
eH4 O i2H u .
‹<p9\m ae%$k ‹kf5
Xt7\µ r<. u lpr C
uNpπ!r?kM.
16. \ Ml%-kM . %rkχ 1871 jpl
12 7.m.
17. . %rks πχl uXtp <r
kC 63, 64, 72–73, 77–79 l e
i<. aPPnH <%/< .fAr.
18. "<5e X<. (‘%k itχ5m’)
<uPs -tχ5r tχO
X<. 1917 %r4χPnH 1918 Ž 
  e;ef"l en.H.
a7k7 i. e5r %/Apt n.H.
<.k peN elP %.
Z  5 j/N iH µ.;H
i k aC;HkM 8.;H
n.H. 1918 ak<$l %9l
"mDm e.Cf XM i.i
en.!. 1919 %r4χl %s<9l
10 i.i e5O!. e"rptχ
e5/t7l iACf5./ in.4
ey"<5 rptH.
19. ees".s \ aY5p i
eAe%N eπ©l 75!
<O\kM; V ;H e$59t (f.µ
356) f<kr.
20. {<2" _ "e!tm
a/A27  χp M"Ol X e/A
πenj µ.;Hp tχO<H
e5lt µ.;H aχ5l
<g7. .. µ.;H
rk;.$ X p π"P;.H.
tχkMm e"rptχkM <5
ik<g7O!r s7!r.
µ75tχ opn.C eyH
e2!r.
21. π. eCels M7Opp π4 !kMp
π/ kC 83–84l e i<.
aPPnH <%/< .fAr.
22. πfs _ πenj
<uPs i5k;"l <.=5 o
<kf 8.r; e5r e/A
tχ5m πenjk /!.k
mU;" π"Z"%! \ oMst
πf [Blanquil] (1805-1881) in.p
<kf/M; .  % .Cf!r. “BP
a7 % Z OPnH %. Mm
9.  eA t rkp
<tm <. Ol , χN %
a=D;H AO!$ χN <g7O
" rm i .4 eyH 9m’’
(9.i.e) eN πfs
Xmπ!r. e[4χ e/= eA aχ5%!
s‚ Z  %  ar 6kfl
e;Hk e9l ; eM
я!C? e.r e27k
<2e% . u.q!m ey.!r.
tχk tχO µ5/χ?kMp "y
iχ54 "5r <g7O
e5l k e2 tχ X;"
9e%N Z !;.!r.
23. „<.5" \ 9njƒ!;HkM
µ6! Mt7 µ.;H <uPp
<kf 8.r.
%rkχ5;HkMp   %5! <kM
iH. πenj aя. el<yp
„<.. i. χ;.n.". e$5
µ.;H u  % p „<.
Mt7 µ.;Hk
;<.t;"PnH 2! 9%r!m
ey.r. χ!nj χN
.D  %5r  eNm Z ;H
p7k4 ey5 Z !;H, ‘%k’
Cf m ‘$r;. !’ Cf m
a %k <2e%N B=!r.
i/= H 6 e2
e.Yr u/;"4 .!C p
e/N; e.Yl 9 !ƒrf, .%H
u/;"p 2C ‘Z55’ 9 Ol
9/ !5./M j/ eyH e
µ7e%N .7!r. t
rk;"/M /Np ~ 5p
$nH e; .=5 ar, rkp
<t; .m t rkp
tχ 5m t rk4
r"; .m Z$;.r.
aя"5! ar a<
<. Ol  eN "!r. µ.H
af;" H .%H ;Hk ;
"~k µ5A „<.5r 
e"r;H %rkm eCelm
9pπ75! <tm X;"!r.
24. . %rkχ Der politische Indifferentismus
(‘aχ5Pl ak AO %’)
e-m t  5m, eCelχ
a"m M=;H e-m t  5m
iCM e M=pπfAr.
ikt  1873 7m$l i;.P5
ÔAlmanacco Republicano per l’anno 1874’ eA
i.Yl eOpt!. π/ 1913-l
i/= eяr% e%Ye5rp Die Neue
Zeit il en.H.
25. . %rks. Der politische Indifferentismus
(‘aχ5Pl ak AO %’).
26. π. eCels. a"m M=;H (The
Priniciple of Authorities).
27. π. eCels. a"m M=;H.
28. . %rks. <;.
< ;"t;" 9%r!m
29. iCM M=kpH . %rkχ
e%y5=9 N % (.i "p,
%s<, µ<!/Ap "pm).
30. er`rt < ;"tm _ eяr%
r–я!X5ktχ 1891 ak<$l
er`rt Cfχl j/A < ;"tm.
<;. < ;"t;H (1875)
opπ Ol iH µ<!/A; .k
M=;.H. µ.;Hp e?/;"
µ A .9rk µ75.N ki4χ/N
a./Mp "y <uP µ A
<.Ne%A %rks <. !O
a7p Ol in. < ;"tm
MkptH. e.Y rkm
aχ5l <tm X;H.
aχ5; .m, in.p <t;HkM;
.  % .CMH tχO ;"%Mm
e .m i! πA/ Am iH
PN;"/N. a<.<"l iH
n.rp.;HkM µkf5 Yl
9tk ekDm ey.H. in.
< ; "t;" 8" X 
eCels .%H 1891- 8m 827 r
-я!X5 < ;"t XP 9%r!m
e-m aPl 9%y 9%rχ;.r.
e%;.;"l i2H af;"
n.rp.m /=5 9%r!%y iH
9Cf/N. 8!l eяr%
r–я!X5; . r eCelχ
9%r!; .k tχ uNpπ!r?kM;
e.$5.7 it7p eyH9t!r.
< ; "t;" iN" ; .
Mk Ol eCelχ  µkf5
;H  k 5H
oHkf9t!r. t rk4
r"m M=;H er`rt
< ;"tm oNm el.H.
a. π.! M A eNm,
n.rp.;HkMk < l;.!%y
9tk ep.Mm eNm e
"!r.
31. <uPs– e"rp4 tm
(<uPs?kM e"! 9<u4
tm) _ eяr%Ol e.Y rk
i5k; .m <uPs i5k; .m
e"rp./ πs%rk 8tχ 1878-l
πApπ;. tm. in.4 t;"7
el r–я!X5k tχ
ZN!C?kMm e.Yr? 5
eMя! ZN!C?kMm e.Y
rkp ;"$ ?kMm . 
9"kptH; <uP al?m
e?m =µ.l ey5pt!;
r–я!X5" X
;.pHm aCyp
ADm akMµ AkM
ikO!r. 1890-l %k Zrpn.m
6%Dm rnH xCf9t
e.Y rk i5km 6%Dm
<uPs-e"rp4 tm ;H
ey5p <275.O/N.
32. πv. (‘u2 %’) _ tptr%!
<l…9k X<. i. µ.l i.i
1912 jpl 22-l (<% 5) •trsrfl
en.H.
χ;.n. YOl e πv.DkM
Yt7 n.r, a<X%y; "!$
a./Mk t  e[" n.r. a .p
<rkM6m  ;. tχ jkMm
et a. 8χ$5r?kM
8< ! B= n.r.
tχO o[C %pp ~Ol o
~p M" πv.9 rm
X e/AH. tk tχk M[k
π"Z"?!! %X πv.
a\;"l Btpt!. 8 l
tχp ~ /=5 .l?m a./M
nH <rn.!. tχO %;"5kM[,
e;ef; M[ i/= .k€H 
aH tχ ZN!C?kM a-pπ
;.H.
πv. <Š$ 9pπ75!
.kM.l?kM ikf n.H; 1914
Ž  8-l (21-l) rptH.
1917-8m 82 πp$ µ.;H–
я!X5p tχkMp π/.
"mDm aH e; e.Cf/N.
1917 %r4 5 (18) µ.y aH g5
r–я!X5; e.Yr tχO
%;"5kM[, e;ef; M[ i/=
jy e O/N.
e;ef; nH <rn.Hm e
a. 8χ$5r M[9l <rnH
e2r. µ.;H–я!X5p
tχ 5 <uPp tχ5y 4
ey./! e "t;HkM$5
i5k; . πv. e.Cf/N.
e"rptχ i k aC;"
akMµ A 6%y, 1917
Ž OPnH ak<kM aH
.!H e5 p µ A %/=k e
<275.O/N. Ps<.k πv",
ePt$, <4χ, <4χ t; 8f5
e5rl en.H. %em
ak<r <uPp tχ e/=
5 n.Hm 1917 ak<r 27 (Xmr 9)
µ.y "mDm πv. e-m
e5$l enH e27kfAH.
33. π. eCels. %rkχ ‘πχl
uXtp <r’ e-m a\kM
µ- . eCels e["5 i<.
µ- OPnH e "mDm
kC 106–118 l <%/<
.fAr.
34. iCM M=kpH i k
aC;" a %4! e%…9k
;eye;<.P 1917 Ž 11 l (24 l)
Zi;"5 e/eYD. <95;Hk
µ.H a !;H g5k Cfχ
.  %k M[, e;ef;
e.Yr,  kr π"Z"H
<95;" Zrk M[, 9O
π"Z"? 5 <95;" Zrk
M[, Cfχl nH e2 elk
<g7 M[k 8f5/=
Bt a%r9l ar
e/eY/=!r. e;ef;
e.Yr,   krH
a %"5! 8rptC M=;H
i .k Bt a%rD 9";.H.
<l…9kM in. 8rptC 
Ž 10 (23) l X;.; "tt7n.!r.
in.4 e/eYD a‚ADm
e"rptχ5!.Dm in.H.
;eye;<.P .%H u Ol,
<l…9kM aC;HkM
e"4 " ey.Dm e"rptχkM
u.D.Dm M/Am t7!r;
<l…9kM p π/Nm
e.YrnH 8.C p
=p./M; Vr%!%!
X7k  ekp <.
a4N;"!r.
35. µ.l up <kM µ
eяr%Ol Los-von-Kirche-Bewegung (‘%.4
  5 9t e<5N’) alH
Kirchenaustrittsbewegung (%.4  OPnH
π$nH 9m i5km) e$5 aDkM
rnH9tH. "$"5! l
<< e["5 Kirchenaustrittsbewegung
Sozialdemokratie (‘%.4  OPnH
π$nH9m i5kµm
r-я!X5µm’) e-m t  5
1914 я!$Ol Die Neue Zeit eOt,
in. i5km M=;H eяr%
r–я!X5k tχO <kM /=5
9.; .; Hkf ;.H.
%.4 OPnH π$nH 9./!
i5km M=;H tχ XZ  % fk
<2e%Nm, .!H uNpπ!r
%.;HkMm %.4  kMm e"!
π;"l m .; .k
<2e%Nm /N;"5 << 5k
27p./M eяr%
r–я!X5;" π . r
.=9t!r.
36. ;"5%! mC  1917
π/"Ol lkfPn. „π <Xt7
eN%!;"l e M=pπfAr.
µ.l up <$ <H g59l
„π <Xt eMy %"pk
M An"n.H.
37. syP5r _ eяr% Mt7
µ.;H <uPs er7!
syP 8.r, eяr%
e.YrH eH4 C;"
uNpπ!r. i4Cm, e.Y
rk;" H elkM eA µ5A
µ.;H µ<!/A" 
e"rp./ 1863-l pχfl
Btpt e.Yr ZN!CH
Cfχl ZNp e/AH. i4C;"
µ.H . < syl. a.
< ;"t; .m a.
<r;.n";" a7p k
BN m syl M;"tr.
C;" aχ5l < ;"tm
a !;H %k kM$ %kp
<Dm, a. e.
< ;"tm aC %5 u.9
e/A e.Yr e?/;"k
lC?kp <Dm a A
B9!. X µ AOl sy\m
a p π/=<5m πg5
<%"km eA;.k µ AOl XnH
e2!r, πs%rkf <k
e  5 8.$;.!r.
38. g5 r –я!X5; e.Yr
tχO i2H Cfs iCM
M=kpfAH. iH 1903 Ž  17 _
8s 10 l (Ž  30 – 8s 23)
X e/AH. µ.l 13 a%rD
πseyl©l X e/A!. π/
<Šs akMµ A 6%y,
Cfs 2l X eA
<275.O/N.
39. . %rks. πχl uXtp
<r.
40. uk _ <uksπ5$ es
~ X;"l m ;"m.
< m Ye=m e2
t7k, .m 
Cf5$nH,  ;";"l
M=kpt.7 o ;.l  .
<2e%!k <$5.
41. rkf _  l5 g59 %.p
 H %6r. %.p
  ik 4 χ;"C e-m
;.;"l Z.f. e5<vsf
im%6rH µtp lkC 
e;H ;.r.
42. µ.H af;" <ek Cfs
_ 1872 epmr 2–7 l X e/AH. 15
<.χ5 ZN!C 4 <rn. 65
π"Z" i"l nH e2!r.
in.k Cfχ/M; .5r ey Ol
%rkm eCelm t rkp
tχ k"  oN;. e
µ5/χ <%/e2!r. ar? 5
π< 6kM j/ Zi4χ Zl
j/ptH. Cfχ/! <."m
Zr6OkptH. Zi4χ ZPl i
π.! π4 ! im e/A!: 1)
eH4 O u$ %, 2) t
rk;" aχ5l e5/.
eH4  O u$ % 
9$kMH M=;Hm, a.
.  %5; . im %/NH M=;Hm,
iχ5 ‘r-я!X5k Bt~’
e5l M=;Hm, i! πA/ Ak
M=;Hm in.k Cfs Vr%!C
j/AH. em! Vr%!C 
%rkm eCelm .5$;Hk
e;.!r j !5  ar? 5
π< 6 a7p Ol Mkp
e/A .
t rk;" aχ5l e5/
/=5 Vr%!m ‘aχ5l 8tχ5"m
elH t rk;" em
~5f fAH’ eNm ‘µ.5p
tχO e/=kM uN" eyH,
rkC  oY;"e.A a.
iN" <Xk; . a m et’
t rkm .!H en. aχ5l
tχ 5 ZN9k e2 <2m
eNm B=5H.
el  5! Mt7 µ.;Hk
MNCM[ .; .m e"r;H %rkm
eCelm ar p π/=<5m
 82y X;" n. <tm
e/=%y µ7D/A . in.k
Cfs M=pπtH. kB-m
MOl<5<%m j !5 aя.;
. r?m af;"PnH
9kpt!r.
<ek Cfχ ~ a !;Hm
%rks, eCelχ . %Ol
X e/A!. in.k Cfχ
Vr%!C Mt7 µ.;H
aя.k 2<6t;" H
%rkχ5m e/=  75 .
a=9;.!.  X\m e.Y
rk;" <54  aχ5l tχ
u.5%./M i;Vr%!C  . 54
ept!
43. π. eCels, . %rkχ ‘<;.
< ;"t;" 9%r!m’ e-m
a\kM µ- .
44. yr5 (‘u.5m’) _ gtrt7l
1901–02l isk 8χ$5r eOt
%rkχ5 9njƒ! aχ5l njχ .
XM i.i e5O!.
in.4 njχ  r<., %/Nm g5;
";.l.; . 9%rχ;Hm,
%rkχ5;" .;Hr;.
a7p  p H;Hm e["5H
45. iCM M=pπpH $χl 1900
epmr 23–27 l X e/A
i2H af;" ‹n.H u
Cfs lek–< e"rptχ
aC;"l l2 CM
e2.l 9.;HkM n. ‘aχ5l
8tχ5"m <7p eNHm
µ.;Hk tχ?
Bt~?m’ e-m a7p p
π4 ! M=;Hp em %p
π"Z" rl D;sfO
Vr%!;HkM 8.y k;.!r.
i;Vr%!m B=5.H: ‘.pt o
<uPs µ.;H aC;"l
CM eH aχ5l 8tχ5"m
<7p eN./M µ A5!
Hk%y a %e%!k
e./fl ; a Z  %Ol
./P%!, 9"9k! j/tkM
<%l iH a"%f9 µ75H.’
n.rp" µ.;H
rk;. .m o;H lp./M
Z55m BA a7k7 in.; Vr%!; .
8.%yk M=pπt n.!r.
46. erg 5m _ r<.
r–я!X5;"l %rkχ5;HkM
9<.%! n.rp.p <kM.
;e..m a/A27 iN"Ol
eяr%Ol <.=5H. in.p <kM
";.l.;" ;. 8.!
er erg  e5 p
eAO/N.
47. . %rks. \ <!prt7
„<%r "e!t.
48. . %rks. π. eCels, mUs
a=k O 1872 8m 82 eяr%
"pkM µD  (.i "p, %s<,
µ<!/Ap "pm).
49. . %rks, πχl uXtp
<r.
50. . %rks, π. eCels. mUsk
l;"/M %;"5k M[9 u .
51. . %rks. πχl uXtp <r.
52. iCM BApH χt, π5t”s
ep e["5 8Cf<5; e.Y/C
i5k; .;Hµm X µ Am.
53. <uPs %. njχ  (‘Sozialistische
Monatshefte) _ eяr%
n.rp"? 5 .  %5!
njχ , r<.; ";.l.;"
e. erPl 1897 PnH 1933
  eOpt n.H. µ.l u
j";"5p <$<H (1914–18) iH
r–<.χ5e= Z  5
<%/e2H.
54. el< p π/=<5r _ πenj
<uPs i5k;", r<.
<uPs i5k;" . rl
o! l el< p
π/=<5r. j";"5
okMµ A 5m X π7kMm
<r m e"r;H
я!X5;HkDm %k
.n"C?kDm
%.!;HkDm el<s
<7!r. el<m a p
π/=<5m %rkχ5;" a7p k
<t ; ";. 9mπ!r.
µ.;H rk;HkM e"!
t rkp <t;.l
<uP; .p eA µ75H. ‘я!X5k
;H %r.’ 9 < eA
µ7m eN "!r. okM<kMm
okpt<kM <5 rk
a %" Z <2m eA!r.
BtAD i5k; .p /=5 „<.5
π % e27n.!r.
µ.;H;"l BtAD i5k;"
r4χ 7p75y <uP;Hk!
%/A; . j/;He%! Xmπ!r.
1902-l ir πenj <uPsk
tχ 5 ZN9!r. in.k tχ
qr";..k ;Hk  8.$;.H.
1905-l iH πχ <t
<uPsk tχ i 6nH ‹kf5
πenj <uPsk tχ 5 ZN9/N.
el<m a p π/=<5m
e27n. qr";..k
;Hk  e  %5yk
2! 9%r!m ey.r.
eXCf n. ;. a5; . e"r;H,
%.!;Hk el<s <7!r,
i.!l ar j";"5 µ.;H
rk;.$ eNpkMp ;"%!r.
u ;.m 8m%Mm .NOl
π/<kf 5tl ar
elptr.
µ.l up <$<H πenj
<uPsk tχ; .  %Ol 8"k
Z Ol in. el< p
π/=<5r fC%< j";"5
;.; . 8.$;H, r–<.χ5e=
Z  5 j/A!r.
55. π$t7g <54 ; e.Y/ tχ
(Independent Labour Party) _ < ZN;.p
<tm uOr e/eAlDm, e.Y
rk i5km µ.;Hk
tχnH <54  eA µ5Dm
µ/t <H 1893-l ZN95
qr";..k tχ, ‘"5
e.Y/CC’ uNpπ!r?m,
 l5 e.Y/CC /=
uNpπ!r?m, %/Nm
`<π5? 5 elkfPn.
a=D;H AO!m, Mt7 µ.;Hp
M"<5m i"l <rnH e2!r.
fe5r er7m m< %ke!lm
i./M; .  % .Cf!r.
e.k;"Pn<. iktχ
µ.;H- _ qr";.. Z  5
j/N X?%Ap <t
µ A\m ..k tχ
X?%A u 2"\m
. µkf5 !m e\;" n.H.
‘e%y5! n.rp.k tχ5Mm,
epe[H<% iH µ.;H
rk; .<5 rn"nHH’ eN
e i .p /=k B=!r.
µ.l up<r e.Cf5Hm iktχ
;.- e"rp a=k  eOtH,
8!l 9 9l r–<.χ5e=
Z ?kM4 $nH eN9tH.
2

e5rkM=p
e5rkM=p
a"
a"

avk<"e5v, Z. ". [Avksentyev, N.D.]

(1878–1943) _ <uPs-tχ5r
. rl or, aktχO
%;"5k M[ uNpπ!r. µ.l up
<$ <H r–<.χ5 e=5y
in.r. 1917 πp$ µ.;H–
я!X5p tχkMp πAM a !;H
g5 9O π"Z"H
<95;" Zrk M[9
. !r. i2H Bt
i k aC;"l uXt
a %4Dm, πAM e"rptχ
ZN!%! ‘g5k M75χ
i k  O’ (trC
X?%Am) . Dm in.r.
ak<r <uPp tχkMp π/
 e"rptχk C?kM j/
ey.r.
eCels, πee$k [Engels, Frederick]
(1820–1895) – 9njƒ!k mU;"
rrl or. r<.p t
rk;" . r, <.!χ$5r. rl
%rkχ X2m <t; <.lm
8r.
re!P, f=s75
[Cornelissen,Christian] – 4 aя",
π.a. fp<;f !p π/=5r.
%rkχ5; . e"r;Hp <7!r.
µ.l up <$<H <.χ5 e=5r.
D;sf, rl [Kautsky, Karl] (1854–1938) –
eяr% r-я!X5k tχO,
i2H af;" . rl
or; .%H aχ5l ik O
e.kp M"Ol %rkχ5"5y
in.r; π/ %rkχ5; .k t7k
e;.r. n.rp.;" Dm
a5%!, Dm V %5!
 l oA! %5.
(D;sf.) Z O χ;.n.".
eяr% r–я!X5"
.;Hr;. i.l! Die Neue Zeit i
"pχ$5r.
µ.l u ;.;" <H (1914–1918),
D;sf %5.k e  5p
π/=!r; .%H r–<.χ5e=k
e  5 r<.χ5; .p /=5
yk4 k e2 r7 % A;.r.
aV. j";"5m e.!
π/<kM.; .;H; . µ
;.r.
fp<;f, π.a. [Kropotkin, P.A.]
(1842–1921) – aя.;" π
. r\m χ;.n."\m
or. µ.l up <$ <H
(1914–1918) <.χ5 e=5r. X
;.ptp  82
eXl in. π 1917-l
g5DkM; "mπ!r. a 5
µ.;Hk ;<.tC i-m
% A59l  eA\m, 1920-l
‹<pπ5; e.Yr?kM
eOt o 7.;"l, ak<r
<uPp tχO µkf5;H; .
j/Nk e2r; <95; g5DkM
e"! 8.p ; . t ;
.kMm7 e.Yr?kM
<2< 9;.r.
fe, l [Grave, Jean] (1854-1939) –
πenjk Mt7 µ.;H
<uPs, aя.;" o
.;H". 20-8m a/A27
e.k;"l aя- χ27kPs
Z  5 j/Ar. µ.l up<$
<H r–<.χ5 e=5y in.r.
et, ¬l [Guesde,Jules] (<χl, %;"U)
(1854–1922) – πenj <uPs
i5km, i2H afm i/=
a %pr, . rl or.
1901-l etm a 4 <rn<.m
πχ <uPsk tχ 5
ZN9!r. 1905-l iktχ qr";..
πenj <uPsk tχ
i 6nH ‹kf5 πenj <uPsk
tχ 8O/N. πχl %rkχ5k
;Hk p pDm, <uPs
i5k; . rkDm et V9%p
~5/=5r.
H$ <uPs? 5
e   e"r;Hp < Ol,
.;Hr;.p π4 !\m
<r;.n"p π4 !\m
MNCM[. µ A  a-$;Hp 
.N $n.r. µ.l up<r
8m%!Hm r–<.χ5e=
Z  5 j/N, πenj µ.;H
aC uNpπ!r 8!r.
Ml%, \;9k [Kugelmann, Ludwig]
(1830–1902) – eяr% r-я!X5",
rl %rkχ X2r. 1848–49l
eяr%Ol X e/A tχOl
Ce;Hk e2r. µ.H
af;" uNpπ!r.
<, a.U. [Ghe, A.Y.] (1879–1919) – g5
aя". ak<r <uPp
tχkMp π <95; 8tχ 5
8.$;.r.
<esf, a.π. [Kerensky, A.F] (1881–1970)
– <uPsp-tχ5r tχO
uNpπ!r. 1917-l πp$ µ.;H-
я!X5p tχkMp π µ.;H
i k aC;"l p", ;.m,
/  8f5/Nk!
a %4Dm π/ .  %
a %4Dm, .  %; ."5Dm
in.r. ak<r <uPp
tχkMp π <95;
8tχ5"; . e"r;Hp <$tr;
1918-l eX <y9tr.
<lp, 9leelm [Kolb, Wilhelm]
(1870–1918) – eяr% r-я!X5",
 k<75! n.rp",
";.l".
em, %rel [Sembat, Marcel] (1862-1922)
– πenj <uPsk tχO
qr";..; . r, ;"$ 5r.
µ.l up <$ <H r
-<.χ5e=5r. 1914 8s7PnH 1917
epmr   πχ j";"5
‘<.χ5p Hp aC;"l’ eH
%%;H a %4y in.r.
8t X <uPs 
r–<.χ5e=k e O
a7p Ol ‹kf5p;. 1915
πp$Ol Btpt 2 %Xt7l
Ce;Hk e2r.
er<!v, 9.. [Chernov, V. M.] (1876–1952)
– <uPs-tχ5r tχO
. r\m .;H"\m
or. µ.l up <$ <H
iH"p .p π<5Cl mtr
eA\m, u2 %Ol r–<.χ5e=
Z  <5 a-$;.r. 1917
<%-8st %.Cl µ.;H
i k aC;"l 95
%n"$5 in.r; Zpπk?kM4
en.%! Z; . e;Hk e2
9O k e %5y akMm
e  5p π/=!r.
ey›<!v, 9. . [Zenzinov, V. M]
(πAp-1881) – <uPs-tχ5r
tχO . rl or.
iktχO %;"5k M[ uNpπ!r. µ.l
up <$ <H “.5p Hp’’
<r; .n"; . 8.$;.r. 1917-l
e;ef; <95;" e5/M[
uNpπ!!r. µ.;H
rk;H Bt < <2m
eAr. <uPs –
-tχ5r? 5 j! "<5e
X<.9 8χ$5rl or.
s<eev, .i. [Skobelev, M. I.]
(1885–1939) – 1903 µ.y e%…9ky
r–я!X5 i5k;"l Ce;Hk
e2r. µ.l up<$ <H
%5. Z  5 a-$;.r. 1917
πp$ µ.;H- я!X5p
tχkMp π e;ef; <95;"
H 6;. m, µ.l a%r9!H
%;"54 e5/M[9 H 6;. m
8!r – 1917 <% OPnH 8s  
µ.;H i k aC;"l
e.Yr H A a %4y in.r.
sCM, e.rl [Stauning, Thorwald]
(1873-1942) – 4 ap πµr; 4
r–я!X5k tχ, i2H
afm i/= H$;
. rl or; t 5r. µ.l
up<$ <H r–<.χ5 e=5r.
1916–20l 4 µ.;H
aC;"l i il. a %4r.
πAM µ–я!X5 aC;HkMm,
µ.;H; V9", H$
r–я!X5" Bt
aC;HkMm .  % .Cf!r.
s7r!r, %ks [Stirner, Max] (1806–1856) –
eяr% .;H95r, µ.;H;
.;H.m, aя.m
8f5/= χ;.n.".
sH„<, π.e. [Struve, P. B] (1870–1944) –
µ.;Hp e5r,
t 5r, etk tχO
. rl or. 1890-8m
82l ‘tptr %rkχ5;"’
π π"Z"l or. %rkχ
e., .;H95l
.;HC?kM; ‘";.C ’
µ ;.r; %rkχ5; .m
e.Y rk i5k; .m
µ.;H X?kM j/AN
%/=5 %k µ5Ar.
ser, eerrt [Spencer, Herbert]
(1820–1903) – 8Cf<5;
.;H95r, u95r,
r95r, π <Xrtχ".
µ.5; .p /=5 aC; .;Hm
e!p. rrl or.
euye%, `πPp [Scheidemann, Philip]
(1865–1939) – eяr% r–я!X5k
tχO aV. H$ n.rp.p
π$9 o . r. µ.l up<$
<H r–<.χ5 e=5r. eяr%Ol
1918-l X e/A Xmr tχO
<H, %k π"Z" a  e!pt
a O uNpπ!f!r. srts
ZN!; .4 <rn<.kM e"p 
e 4 e5l  skM9;.r. 1919
πp$OPnH Ž   ey%r
M75χ Bt aC;HkM;
.  % .Cf!r. 1918-kMm 1921-kMm
i Ol eяr% e.Y rk
i5k; .k e75 µ AOl Xk
j/ ey<.$l or. πAM
µ !p! aχ5l
e5/PnH 9fk e2r.
eel, f<5rM 9leelm `π”t$h
[Hege, Georg] (1770–1831) – %em eяr%
.;H95r, AZ k
;Hµ.l", eяr% µ.;H
rk;" χ;.n.". i5k95 
 9$!, 8l%! µ AOl epm
ey.r, iH .;H95\kM eel
8/=5 /N µkf5;Hm yn.
e.2.. eeP i5k95l,
i5k95l e µ.l.;"
.;Hr;.; <./Nyl
oAf5H. e-m eeP
eH! l %. i5k- %Np;
.;H95\ eXCfp π 6pk
e27n. a 5 i5k95l,
;H µ.l.; . %5.y in.H.
<e2r, 8r.r [Henderson, Arthur]
(1863–1935) – π$t7g e.Y/ tχ,
π$t7g e.Y/C i5km i/=
o . r. µ.l up <$ <H
r–<.χ5 e=5y in.r. π$t7g
µ.;H aCCl χ/χ
%5m %n"$p.9 f;.r.
e2t%, ee= %5rs [Hyndman,
Henry Myers] (1842–1921) – 8Cf<5
<uPs; qr";.". 1881-l
я!X5k Bt  5 ZN9!r.
π/ 1884-l iH r- я!X5k
Bt 5; ";"5 %kptH
1900–19108m 82l ar
r<. <uPs πU<9l
uNpπ! in.r 1916   π$t7g
<uPsk tχO . rl
or j";"5 ;.m M=;H
r–<.χ5e= Z  j/A./ ar
1916-l lr7l X e/A iktχO
%Xt7l 27kptr.
t7, `πPp< (1857–1932) –
i;.P5; e.Yr i5k;"l CM
e2r; i;.P5 <uPs tχ
s.rl (1892) or; a.
qr";.. H$p M"O
. r.
$C, oye (1833-1921) – eяr%
.;H95r, e5r, Mt7
µ.;H4 χ;.n.".
<9t, er (1863–1930) – eяr%
r–я!X5;" H$;
. rl or; ";.l".
e.YPl e5r. 1903-8m
82 µ.l eяr% X?%A%f5
esfl uNpπ!r. up <$
<H (1914–1918) r–<.χ5 e=5r.
H–<!vsf, . i. (1865–1919) –
g5 µ.;Hp e5r;
18908m 82l ‘tptr
%rkχ5;"’ π"Z"l or.
1905–1907 82l Xn. tχO
<H etk tχ uNpπ!r.
ak<r tχkMp πAM uk l
e"rptχ < l µ !p
mtr.
;eye;<.P, i.f (1881–1959) – o
e%…9k . r. µ.l up<$
<H %5. Z  5 a-$;.r.
1917 πp$ µ.;H–я!X5p
tχkMp π, µ.;H i k
aC;"l .l .n" a %4Dm
πAM uH A a %4Dm in.r.
<l…9kM?kM e"! e75
akMµ AkM skrt7<5$l or.
ak<r <uPp tχkMp πAM,
яr{59l e%…9kM
e"rptχ aC;HkM; . r.
πAM eX?kM x7!r.
eXp<P5, µ.m (<!prt)
(1769_-1821) _ 1804 µ.l 1814  O\m
1815\m πenjp <r.
eXp<P5 rAm (<!prt,
\) (1808–1873) – 1852 µ.l 1870  
πenjp <r, µ.m
eXp<P5- 5 %;H!r.
kB, . a. (1814-1876) – X<"5m,
aя.m i/=
χ;.n."l or. 1840-l
g5  9t e<5 eAr.
eяr%Ol 1848–49 82
tχOl CM e;Hk e2r.
µ.H af;"l uNpπ!y
inH %rkχ5;" m  y4
e5ltr. t rk4
r"µm aCy el
 5! a m ar Z$;.r.
u /=l t
rk;HkM ;"; .p $nH
e; .=5 ar <54 5!
e.Y rkk tχ ZNp .
e"r;.r; e.Y rkm aχ5l
e5/t7l mk Be.-m
; . 8.$;.r.
l4qsf, π.i. (1875-1929) –
e=5r, ‘e‚l’ χ27k<t 
ZN95r. Cf µ.? eXCf
i 6pk e2r. 1917 πp$
µ.;H-я!X5p tχkMp π
µ.;H i k aC;"l
r;.m, e.Yl H A a %4!r.
e.Yl H A µ.? 5
qrM D < ?kM j/
ey.r, я!X5 ZN!C 
e"r;Hp <75r.
πseyt7, Pe5. (1857-1920)
i;.P5 <uPsk tχO
ZN!r\m, a. H$
qr";..p π$9 . r\m
or. 1912-l i;.P5 <uPsk
tχOPnH pkptr; ‘r
-qr";..k tχ 5’ ZN9!r. µ.l
up<$ <H r–<.χ5
e=5y inH, 8t
a?kM 8.y i;.P5 <$l
<rnH e <2m eAr.
1916-PnH 1918- Ol i il.
a %4y in.r.
πs%rk, xt< er
P<5p<l (1815-1898) – πg59,
eяr%O ap πµm
я.n"$m. χ!nj χN ayp
π$;"n. eяr% a p
π/<kM. πg5 яCr? 5
8"k;" €i n.%y
o= 6p<. πs%rkf
.  %5! M=k<. 1871 я!$Ol
eяr% µ7p<χ .  %
a %4!r. Zpπ;H
яCr X?kM j/ 29
82k ;HkM eяr%O
uXt, eXtk e  5
M;H X;"4 eAr; a<. <H
яCr?kMm e
µ.?kM <5 o/N % 5
uN" eyH eDm µ5Ar.
e.Y rk i5k; . Xkf 9
<2e%N 1878- l <uPs–
e"rp4 tm i5/=5r. 8!l
in.4 t;" rm ar i .4 ey5
µ75%/ <! π, eMя!C 
j%/Nm yk4; "t%4 rk
pN"; "t; . M;H,
e.Yrl χ M"<5kMk
t54 rk pN"k!
tC  i5/=!r. 8!l in.
a/k !C k e2
e.Yr i5k; .p
πD;H./! πs%rkf
µ5/χ <.l95 n.!. 1890-l ar
aC;"PnH 9kptr.
πk<, 9leelm (1842–1880) –
eяr% <uPs, ;.p "pr,
9/ !5r. ‹!4r tχO (1869)
ZN!r\m . r\m or.
πeg< πeg<vs5, e..
[(1844–1934) – <uPs tχ5r
tχO ZN!r\m . r\m
or. a.  k<7 H$ 54
<rn.r. 1917 πp$ µ.;H–
я!X5p tχkMp πAM i k
aC; . 8.$;.r. j";"5p
<  ‘e/= µ7DkM;’ e.rnH
X;"4 el <2m eAr.
π27CM, rl 5l%r (1860-1825) –
sk r–я!X5k tχ,
i2H afm i/=
. rl or. n.rp.
Z   j/Ar. µ.l up <$
<H r-<.χ5 e=5r. 1917-l m
..–<uPsk Bt
aC;"l <rnH e2r
πee!v, f.. (1856–1918) – g5,
r<.; e.Y rk i5k;"
. χAn. πµrl or.
g59l %rkχ5; . µ.µ.l
pπ5r. µ.H g5 %rkχ5k
l%! ‘u lp 9. k’ M[ 
1883-l eя¥9l ZN95r.
X<"5; .m r<.; e.Yr
i5k;"l ";.l.; .m e"r;Hp
<7!r. ina/A27 8m
82l isk ey"<5, yr5
njχ  i/= 8χ$5r M[9l
in.r.
eµ.l. uk
2<6t; .p HkDm pDm
1883kMm 1903-kMm i Ol
πee!v  al  e["!r.
8O-m ape[<. ar  m
π l $n.r; i  a 5
π/ e%…9k ;<.tC?kM
9;"t!. g59 r–я!X5;
e.Yr tχO i2H
Cfχ/Mp πAM πee!v
n.rp.m M=;H %p <k 
a-$;.r; π/
e%…9kM? <rnH e2r.
µ.l g5p tχO <H (1905–1907)
π.! π4 !l e%…9k
Z  5 j/Ar. µ.l up <$
<H r–<.χ5e= Z ?kM
%=9tr. 1917 πp$ µ.;H–
я!X5p tχkMp πAM g5DkM;
"mπ5Hm, e%…9kM
-Hp" V9 H$k
M[! ‘eVs;<’ M[DkM;
.  % .Cf!r.
<l…9kM m <uPp
tχ 5m e"r;.r; <uP;HkM
%=4 el g5 i-m kM
Z Ol il  eN Z !;.r.
ak<r <uPp tχ M=;H ar
e"r% Ap <k  a-$;.r
eA\m, <95; 8tχ5"; .
e"r;Hp <9l .
„<., π<5r el<yp (1809-1865) –
πenjk t 5r, e5r,
r-95r, Mt7 µ.;H4
χ;.n.". aя.;"
rrl or.
eel, ªMst (1840–1913) – eяr%
µ-я!X5m, r<.; e.Y
rk i5km i/= π;
. rl or.
erg , er
[¢š›stk›, ~•u¦š•]
(1850-1932) – eяr% r–я!X5k
tχ, i2H afm i/=
 k<75! n.rp.p M"O
. r. qr";..m, ";.l.m
i/= .;H". 1870-8m
82 Xp M"Ol
r–я!X5 i5k;"l Ce;Hk
e µ/tr. 1881–1889 8m
82l eяr% r–я!X5k
tχO %5 j! «k
…¡œk¦ -•¥¡š¦t i
(‘r–я!X5"’) 8χ$5
in.r. 1896–1898 8m 82l
(‘"5 m’) njχ Ol ‘<uP;"
π4 !’ e-m . pπl
t ; e.r o A eOtr.
π/ ikt  ‘<uP;"
µ./<?m r-я!X5;"
 %?m’ eA . pπl o
;.%y en.!. tχ
%rkχ5;" .;H95l, aχ5l,
e. a7p  
ikt l ar ";. µ/tr.
µ.;H;"l e.Yr? 5
e. Z  5 u5r;H .
<Xk%yk e2
qr";.C?kp <<.
e.Y rk i5k;" π.!
 %5Me%! ar B=!r. ‘i5k<%
a !;Hm, iN"k M=k< o
etl’ eA n.rp.
;"; . µ ;.r. µ.l up
<$ <H %5. Z  5
a-$;.r; r <.χ5m M=;H y
k47;H; .%H <.χ5 e=p <k 
% A;Hk e µ5Ar.
ee!k, 8 (1873–1960) – 4
r-я!X5"; 1910 µ.y eяr%
iH$ r–я!X5"?
eXCf5 e.r e27n.r,
ar? 5 ;"$ l e5l
µ !p yn. C/= n.r. µ.l
up<$ <H r<."54
e5ltr, ©%rl iH$k
tχO .;Hr;. jf5 Vorbote ‹
(‘µ<!7’) eO"l CM
e2r. 1918–21 l eX.rnH
mUsk tχOl
uNpπ!On.r; mUs
af;" < Ol CM e2r.
a"V9 iH$k MNCM[.p
<k p π/=!r.
;<v, a.Z. (1869–1934) – e%…9k
. r; µ.l up<$ <H
r–<.χ5 e=5r. ak<r
<uPp tχkMp π/ eX
eN9tr.
e5<vsf, Z.e. (1835–1863) –
e5r e/A g5 e[;.r,
я!X5". g59 e<.4"-
rkp lk lkC m
µ A m
.<.=;.!; .m .%H all
.kf!r.
<!prt, \ – rAm
eXp<P5 !p rkDm.
%27sf<5, res \ (1689-1755) –
π πenj µ.;H
r95r, e5r,
e[;.r. "e!tH a/A27
µ.;H a=D i5k",
tµ A µ75tχO .;H".
%rks, rl (1818–1883) – 9njƒ!k
mU;" .n ., op/A
χn. !5r, r<.; e.Y
rk;" . r, <.!χ$5r.
 <vsf, Z.. (1842–1904) – ..
X<"5;" π .;H"l
or. ;"$ 5r, ikf5 9%rr,
<Xrtχ.; .;H95r,
aZ  % 4 <rn. r95r.
1892-l %rkχ5- e"rp njχ 5!
„se<5 ;s;<DkMp
eNpr 8!r.
l2, aek2r e;"<5
(1859-1943) πenj aχ5l".
1890-8m 82l
<uPs 8.f,
πenj <uPs i5k;"
n.rp.p <kMkM; .  %
.Cf!r. 1899-l lek -<9
π/<kM. µ.;H
aC;" uNpπ!!r; $s
mU ! Xkf5 e !
eя!l lPe o;H l;.r.
1904-l <uPs tχOPnH
pkptHm l2m j !5
µ! <uPs?m (π$52t,
995) ‘<54  <uPs’
eeA <g7 5 a %;Hk
e2!r. 1909–10, 1912–13, 1914–15 8f5
82l a %4y in.r.
1920–24l πenjk M75χ я!"".
<%$C, `πs (1846-1919) – eяr%
e.Yr i5k;" µkf5 πµr.
eяr% r–я!X5;"
iH$O!H . r,
.;H"l or. iktχO
.;Hr;. jf5 «k Yu –kt
i (‘"5 m’) 8χ$5rl or.
eяr% mUsk tχ 5 ZND"l
µkf5 Ce;Hk e2r.
e.k, . e. (1885–1939) – i.m
a/A27 8m;"l Š…59\m
<n"\m eяr%O\m
r–я!X5 i5k;"l mtr.
eяr% iH$ r–я!X5
e  eO"l CM
e2r. µ.l up <$ <H
r<.χ5 Z  5 a-$;.r
eA\m %5.; . <Xkf
s7!r. <.χ5 i!CH 5
Zr65 u$ % /=5 π4 !Ol
.A! Z  5 a-$;.r.
!v, Z.ey. (πAp:
1859);"$ 5r; µ.Pl X<;k,
πAM <uPs -tχ5r.
<!94, i.a. (1860–1920) –
<uPs-tχ5r
. rl or. r<.
<uPs πU<9 uNpπ!r. µ.l
up <$ <H (1914–1918) r
-<.χ5 e=5r.
ee!<l, π<5r (1871–1935) – πenj
<uPsk tχO qr";..;
. rl or. µ.l up
<$ <H (1914–1918) r–<.χ5
e=5r.
syl, er7! (1825–1864) –
eяr% Mt7 µ.;H <uPs.
eяr% e.Yr i5k;"l Z95
o   n.rp.%f5
syP5;" rr. af eяr%
e.Yr C; . ZN95r (1863).
in.4 Cm ZNpt.!H
e.Yr i5k;"/M 8km .m
µkf5;Hm yn..y in.H.
8!l in.4 C;" . ;
<.rne.kpt syl, i. !4
n.rp. YOl a l;H4 eAr.
π/<kM. πg59!H
8"k;" €i eяr% 5
‘<%Pn.7’ oN;Hm e  5
syl 8.$;.r. syP5r
n.rp.k e  µ.H
af;" e5/?kMm,
eяr%Ol e%y5! e.Y rkk
tχ u./Mm, e.Yr
rk u6rD eN./Mm .Cy
in.H.
Špke!ht, 9leelm [Liebknecht,
Wilhelm] (1826–1900) – eяr%, r<.;
e.Y rk i5k;" µkf5;
. r, eяr% r–я!X5k
tχO s.r\m . r\m
or.
\kmrk, <y (1871–1919) – r<.;
e.Yr i5k;" . rl
or, i2H af;"
iH$p π$9 . rl or.
<nH r–я!X5k tχO
s.r\m . r\m or.
1897-PnH eяr% r–я!X5
i5k;"l V9p CM 8/=!r.
eяr% mUsk tχ 5
ZN95rl im or. 1919
я!$Ol e"rp tχ5rl H
ey5ptp <y;.!%k
elptr.
\ eXp<P5 – rAm
eXp<P5 !p rkDm.
ef, rl (1861–1920) – eяr%
H$ r–я!X5k tχO
uNpπ!r, e.Y/C; . rl
or, ";.l". 1890 µ.l eяr%
e.Y/Cp eHk M[9
. Dm, 1903 µ.l a.
e5Dm in.r. 1913 µ.l
r<.; e.Y/C4 e5;"l
.  in.r. 1893-PnH 1920
  i Ol χ/χ i e
9t, eяr% r–я!X5;"
π"Z"5 ”hsfl uNpπ!r. µ.l
up <$ <H V9 r-<.χ5
e=5r. tχ; e.Y rk
i5k; . e"r;.r, µ.;Hk
e  5 8.$;.r.
e, 9. i. [e, Z.] (1870-1924) –
ik  M=;. 9C.
2r<l<, el (1866–1938) –
el{5; e.Yr tχO . r.
i2m af;" r<.
<uPs πU<9 . r. aV.
n.rp. Z  5 <%/e2r.
µ.l up <$ <H r- <.χ5
e=5r, µ.;H aC;"
uNpπ!r.
ep, π5t”s (1859–1947) – π
π$t7g eH iDp πµr,
qr";.". ar % !9 π5t”s
ep <rnH π$t7g e.Yr
i5k;" N, .;Hm M=;Hp 
;.C e["!r. Mt7 µ.
rk;"!r, e.Yr,
πkM;<.r irH
χ;.n."5! ir µ.;H
a %pπ tk <pπ-
e.Yr? 5 π4 !kM4
%.! YOl VrD 6m eAr.
qr";.. `<π5 l; .
ZN9<5$l or. µ.l up <$
<H r-<.χ5 e=5y in.r.
µ.H (1924), i2H (1929–31)
e.Y/tχ aCCl uNpπ!y
in.r.
ey %5r, <5©p (1818–1866) –
eяr%, ae%$k; e.Y rk
i5k;"l µkf5 . r; %rks,
eCel© X2r,  sY5r.
el<s, l (1859–1914) – πenj,
r<. <uPs i5k;" o
µkf5; . r; /=5r
1885–89, 1893–98, 1902–14 8m
82l X?%A uNpπ!r;
X?%A;"l <uPsk tχk
M[9 . rl or. 1904-8m
827l P’ L’ Humanite (‘%.Mm’)
ey"<5t  8mπ;H, .%H i9
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