GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RAILWAYS TRACKS

Introduction
The train speed and the maximum load which a train can carry influences the safety and
operations of trains. To ensure the safe and smooth running of trains at maximum permissible
speeds and carrying the heaviest axle loads, a proper track geometry should be put in place.
Geometric design of railway tracks includes all those parameters which determine or influence
the geometry of the railway track. Geometric parameters considered include:
1. Track gradients
2. Track curvature (horizontal and vertical curves)
3. Track alignment

Why are we so concerned about geometric design?? –A proper geometric design ensures a safe
and smooth running of trains at maximum permissible speeds carrying the heaviest possible
axle load.

Necessity of Geometric Design

1. To ensure the smooth and safe running of trains.
2. To achieve maximum speed.
3. To carry heavy axle loads.
4. To avoid accidents and derailments due to a defective permanent way.
5. To ensure that the track requires least maintenance.
6. For good aesthetics.

I. Gradients
Gradient is defined as the amount of slope in the longitudinal direction of the railway track.
Gradients are provided to negotiate rise or fall in the level of the railway track. A rising
gradient is one in which the track rises in the direction of movement of traffic and a
downward or falling gradient is one in which the track loses elevation in the direction of
traffic movement.
Gradients are represented by the horizontal distance travelled for a unity rise or fall in
elevation or as a percent rise or fall. Examples of the presentation are 1in n (e.g 1in 400),
1:n (e.g 1:400), or as 0.25%.
Gradients determines the maximum load that can be hauled by a locomotive on that section.
Necessity of Providing Gradients
To reach various stations at different elevations.
To follow the natural contours of the ground.
To reduce the cost of earthworks.

Types of Gradients in Railway Engineering.

a) Ruling gradient
It is the steepest gradient that exist on a section and is basically the design gradient based on
how much load the locomotive can carry up along the section without a major loss in speed
(permissible speed). For any section on a railway track, gradient provided should be flatter than
this gradient (after considering grade compensational on curves).

b) Pusher or Helper gradient

In some instances, the terrain might not allow the provision of the ruling gradient and as such,
gradients are made steeper than the ruling gradient such that one locomotive is not adequate to
pull the entire load thus an extra locomotive is required. When the gradient of the ensuing
section is so steep as to necessitate the use of an extra engine for pushing the train, it is known
as a pusher or helper gradient.

c) Momentum gradient
In this case, the gradient is steeper than the ruling gradient but can be overcome by a train due
to the momentum gathered while running on the section. For instance, a train coming down a
falling gradient acquires enough speed and momentum which gives additional kinetic energy
to the train hence allowing it to negotiate gradients steeper than the ruling gradient. Sections
with momentum gradients should not have obstacles e.g signal which may bring the train to a
critical juncture.

Gradients in Station Yards

Gradients in station yards are quite flat:
1. To prevent standing vehicles from rolling and moving away from the yard due to
combined effects of gravity and strong winds.
2. To reduce additional resistive prices required to start a locomotive.
3. Station yards are not levelled completely. Certain gradients are provided to ensure
good drainage. Recommended gradient is 1:1000 whilst maximum allowed is 1:400
 II. Curves
A. Horizontal Curves
Horizontal curves are provided on a railway track to bypass obstacles, to provide longer and
easily traversed gradients and to pass the railway line through obligatory or desirable locations.
Horizontal curves are provided when a change in track direction is required. Horizontal curves
are classified as under:
a. Simple curves- This has only one radius throughout
b. Compound curves- This comprises two or more simple curves, both curving in
the same way or similar flexure
c. Reverse curves- This is made up two or more simple curves of contrary flexure
d. Transition curves- Constantly changing radius

a. Simple circular curves

Simple curves are horizontal curves which consists of a single arc of a circle. Simple circular
curves are designated either by their degree of radius. They are inserted between two straights
or between two transition curves. A simple curve is defined either by its radius or by its degree.
The degree (D) is the angle subtended at its centre by a 30.5m chord.
Since the circumference of a circle = 2πR and the angle subtended at the centre by a circle is
360o, the angle subtended by a 30.5m chord (degree of curve)
3600
= 2𝜋𝑅 𝑥 30.5

=1750/R
R is the radius of curve (m)

Example
What is the radius of a 2o curve??

ANS: 875m

RESEARCH ON THE METHODS OF SETTING OUT A CIRCULAR CURVE!!!

The maximum degree of a curve on a track depends on various factors such as gauge, wheel
base of the vehicle, maximum permissible speed and superelevation.

Table 1: Maximum permissible degree of curves

Gauge Plain track On Turnouts

Max Degree Min R(m) Max Degree Min R(m)
BG 10 175 8 218
MG 16 109 15 116
NG 40 44 17 103

Properties of a Circular Curve

AO and BO- tangents of a circular curve

O- Point of intersection

T1 and T2- Tangent points

OT1 and OT2- Tangent lengths

T1T2- Chord

EF- Versine of the circle

NB: Versine- Is the perpendicular distance of the midpoint of a chord from the arc of the
circular curve.
 Formulae

Tangent length = OT1 = OT2 = R tan ∅/2

Length of long chord = T1T2 = 2RSin ∅/2

2𝜋𝑅 𝜋𝑅∅
Length of the curve = 𝑥∅=
360 180

where ∅ is the angle of deflection.

Grade Compensation on Curves

Horizontal curves provide extra resistance to the movement of trains. Whenever a trains
is moves along a curve, an additional tractive force will be required to maintain the
same speed. However, the gradient at this point is compensated. This means that the
gradient of a curved section should be flatter than the ruling gradient because of the
extra resistance offered by the curve so as to maintain the same travelling speed. This
is because the total resistance due to the gradient and track curvature will exceed the
ruling gradient. To avoid the total resistance beyond the permissible ruling gradient, the
gradients are reduced on curves. This gradient reduction on horizontal curves is known
as grade compensation.
The gradients are compensated to the following extent:
BG tracks: 0.04% per degree of curve or 70/R, whichever is minimum
MG tracks: 0.035% per degree of curve or 52.5/R, whichever is minimum
NG tracks: 0.02% per degree of curve or 35/R, whichever is minimum
R—radius of the curve in metres.

Example
Find the steepest gradients on a 2o curve for a BG line with a ruling gradients of 1:200

Proposed solution
Ruling gradient = 1:200 = 0.5%
Compensation for a 2o curve = 0.04 x 2 = 0.08%
Compensation gradient = 0.5 - 0.08 = 0.42%
=1:238
Therefore the steepest gradient on the curved track is 1:238
Widening of gauge on horizontal curves
A train on a straight track assumes the central position with the flanges of the wheels being
clear of the rails. However, the situation changes on a curved track. As soon as the vehicle
moves onto a curve, the flange of the outside wheel of the leading axle continues to travel in a
straight line till it rubs against the rail. Due to the coning of wheels, the outside wheel travels
a longer distance compared to the inner wheel. This, however, becomes impossible for the
vehicle as a whole since the rigidity of the wheel base causes the trailing axle to occupy a
different position. In an effort to make up for the difference in the distance travelled by the
outer wheel and the inner wheel, the inside wheels slip backward and the outer wheels skid
forward. Due to impounding action of the wheels on curves, the gauge of the track gets widened
and the rails get tilted outward. To prevent the tendency of tilting the rail outward, the gauge
of the track on curves is suitably widened. The amount of widening of gauge depends on the
radius of the curve, gauge and rigid wheel base of the vehicles.

13 (𝐵+𝐿)2
Extra width on curves (w) =
𝑅

B-wheel bases of the vehicle (m)

R-radius of the curve (m)

L- 0.02 (𝒉𝟐 + 𝑫𝒉)𝟏/𝟐 – lap of the flange (m)

h- Depth of the flange below top of the rail (cm)

D-diameter of the wheel of the vehicle (cm)

w- Extra width on curves (cm)

NB: The extra width of the gauge should not exceed 25mm for B.G. tracks and 16mm for
M.G. tracks.
Superelevation
When a train negotiates a curve, it is subjected to a constant radial acceleration which produces
centrifugal force acting horizontally at the centre of gravity of the vehicle and radially away
from the centre of the curve. In order to counteract this force and thus provide a comfortable
ride, the outer rail of the track is raised slightly higher than the inner rail. The difference in
elevation between the outer rail and inner rail is called superelevation or cant. Superelevation
(cant) is the difference in height between outer and inner rail on a curve. It is provided by
gradually lifting the outer rail above the level of the inner rail. The inner rail is usually taken
as the reference rail and is normally maintained in its original level.

Necessity of superelevation
 To ensure a better distribution of load on both rails.
 To reduce the wear and tear of the rails and rolling stock
 To neutralise the effect of lateral forces
 To provide comfort to passengers.

Equilibrium Speed
When the speed of the train negotiating a curved trade is such that the resultant force of the
weight of the vehicle and of radial acceleration is perpendicular to the plane of rails, the vehicle
is not subjected to any unbalanced radial acceleration hence is said to be in equilibrium. This
speed as known as equilibrium speed. At equilibrium speed, the effect of the centrifugal force
is completely balanced by the cant provided.
Maximum Permissible Speed
This is the highest speed permitted to a train on a curve taking into consideration the radius of
curvature, actual cant, cant deficiency, cant excess, and the length of transition. On curves
where the maximum permissible speed is less than the maximum sectional speed of the section
of the line, permanent speed restriction becomes necessary.

Cant Deficiency (Cd)

Occurs when a train travels around a curve at a higher speed than the equilibrium speed. Cant
deficiency may be defined as the difference between the cant necessary for the maximum
permissible speed on the curve and actual cant provided. Higher cant deficiency causes more
unbalanced centrifugal force (and discomfort to the passengers) hence requiring stronger tracks
and fastenings to withstand resultant greater laterals forces. NB: Maximum allowable cant
deficiency for BG= 100mm and MG = 50mm.

Cant excess (Ce)

Occurs when a train travels around a curve at a speed lower than the equilibrium speed. It is
therefore the difference between the actual cant provided and the theoretical cant required for
such a low speed. NB: Maximum allowable cant excess for BG= 75mm and MG = 65mm.

Centrifugal force on a curved track

A train has a tendency to travel in a straight direction (tangential to the curve) even when it
moves on a circular curve. As a result the train is subjected to a constant radial acceleration.

𝑣2
𝑎=
𝑅

v- velocity (m/s) and R-radius of curve (m)

This radial acceleration produces a centripetal force, F, which acts in a radial direction away
from the centre:

F = mass x acceleration

𝑣2
=mx
𝑅

𝑊 𝑣2
= 𝑥
𝑔 𝑅
 F - Centrifugal force

W- Weight of train

To counteract the effect of the centrifugal force, the outer rail on the curve is elevated with
respect to the inner rail (superelevation). Equilibrium is reached when both wheels exert an
equal pressure on the rails. In this state of equilibrium, the difference in the heights of the
outer and inner rails of the curve is known as equilibrium superelevation.
If θ is the angle that the inclined plane makes with the horizontal,
𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒
tan θ = =
𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 𝐺

𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹
Also, tan θ = =
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑊

𝑒 𝐹
Thus, =
𝐺 𝑊

𝐺 𝑊 𝑣2
e=Fx but F = 𝑥
𝑊 𝑔 𝑅

𝑊 𝑣2 𝐺
= 𝑥 𝑥
𝑔 𝑅 𝑊

𝐺𝑣 2
=
𝑔𝑅

e –equilibrium superelevation

G - Gauge

g- acceleration due to gravity

R- Radius of the curve

v- velocity

𝐺𝑣 2
Also, e =127𝑅

e – super elevation (mm)

v – speed (km/h)
 R – Radius of curve (m)

G – dynamic gauge in (mm) = gauge + rail head width (mm)

=1750 (BG) and 1058 (MG)

Also, superelevation can also be determined as follows:

(i) Superelevation for BG in cm

𝑣 𝐷
=( )2 x
10 13

Where v - equilibrium speed (km/h)

D- degree of curve

(ii) Superelevation for MG in cm

3
NB. It is taken as 5 of the value determined using the preceding formula

Example
Determine the super elevation for a 1o curve for an equilibrium speed of 75km/hr

Answer: 43mm (BG) and 26mm (MG)

Negative super elevation

When the main line lies on a curve and has a turnouts of contrary flexure leading to a branch
line, the super elevation necessary for the average speed of trains running over the main line
curve cannot be provided. On the figure below, AB, which is the outer rail of the main line
curve, must be higher than CD. However for the branch line, CF should be higher than AE or
point C should be higher than point A. These two contradictory conditions cannot be met within
one layout. In each a case, the branch line has a negative super elevation and speeds on both
tracks must be restricted, particularly on the branch line.
The provision of negative superelevation for the branch line and the reduction in speed over
the main line can be calculated as follows:

(1.) Equilibrium super elevation

𝐺𝑣 2
e = 127𝑅

(2.) The equilibrium superelevation, e, is reduced by the permissible cant deficiency Cd and
the resultant super elevation to be provided is:
x = e-Cd
x- superelevation, e- equilibrium superelevation
Cd- cant deficiency (75mm for BG and 50mm for MG)
NB: The value for Cd is generally higher than that of e and therefore x is normally
negative. The branch line thus has a negative superelevation of x.
(3.) The maximum permissible speed on the mainline, which have a superelevation of x is
then calculated by adding the allowable cant deficiency (x + Cd). The safe speed is also
calculated and the smaller of the two values is taken as the maximum permissible speed
on the mainline curve.

Safe Speeds on transitioned curves

𝐺𝑣 2
The following equations for BG and MG are derived from e =
127𝑅

(1.) For BG
V = 0.27√(𝐶𝑎 + 𝐶𝑑 ) 𝑋 𝑅
𝐺𝑣 2
NB. This equation has been derived from e=127𝑅, assuming G = 1750mm for 52kg rails

(2.) For MG

V=0.347√(𝐶𝑎 + 𝐶𝑑 )𝑅

NB. Assumption that centre to centre distance between rail heads of MG track is 1058mm.

(2.) For NG
V=3.65√𝑅 − 6
(Subject to a maximum of 50km/hr)
 Where V- maximum speed (km/hr)
Ca- actual cant (mm) equilibrium super elevation
Cd- permitted cant deficiency (mm)
R- Radius in (m)
NB. These speeds on curves can be practically changed by relevant authorities after
consideration of certain factors like the condition of the track the standard of
interlocking, the type of locomotive and rolling stock used.

b. Transition Curves
As soon as a train commences motion on a circular track from a straight line track, it is
subjected to a sudden centrifugal force, which not only causes discomfort to the
passengers but also distorts the track alignment and affects the stability of the rolling
stock. In order to smoothen the shift from the straight to the curve, transaction curves
are provided on other side of the circular curve so that the centrifugal force is built up
gradually as the super elevation slowly runs out at a uniform rate. This thus provides a
comfort ride.
Transition curves are provided to decrease smoothly the radius of curvature from
infinity (on a straight alignment) to a specified radius on a circular curve to allow a
smooth negotiation of the curve, to provide a gradual increase in superelevation and to
gradually increase or decrease centrifugal forces induced on the curve.

Requirements of an Ideal Transition Curve

(1.) Should be tangential to the straight line of the track. This should start from the
straight part of the track with a zero curvature.
(2.) Should join the circular curve tangentially. This should finally have the same
curvature as that of the circular curve.
(3.) Its curvature should increase at the same rate as the super elevation.
(4.) The length of the transition curve should be adequate to attain the final super
elevation.

Length of a transition curve

Empirical formulae have been laid down for determining the length of transition
curve. They take into account internationally accepted norms for permissible rate of
change of cant, cant deficiency and radial acceleration.
 The length of a transition curve is given as the maximum of the following cases:
𝐶𝑎 𝑥 𝐶𝑑
L=0.008Ca x Vm = 125

𝐶𝑑 𝑥 𝑉𝑚
L=0.008Cd x Vm = 125

L=0.72Ca
L- length of the transition curve (m)
Cd- cant deficiency (mm)
Ca- actual cant or superelevation (mm)
Vm - maximum permissible speed (km/hr)

It is generally preferred to give as long a transition as possible because this will give a margin
for some increase of speed at a later date. For designing layout on curve on high speed routes,
future high speeds may therefore be considered for determining the transition length.
III. Vertical Curves
Whenever, there is a change in the gradient of the track, an angle is formed at the junction of
the gradients. This vertical kink at the junction is smoothened by the use of curve, so that bad
lurching is not experienced. The effects of change of gradient cause variation in the draw bar
pull of the locomotive. Whenever there is a change in gradient along a railway track, a vertical
curve should be provided. A change in gradient may cause a bunching of vehicles in the sags
and a variation in the tension of couplings in the summits resulting in the train parting and an
uncomfortable ride. To avoid these ill effects, the change in gradient is smoothened by
providing a vertical curve. A rising gradient is normally considered positive and a falling
gradient is considered negative.

a. Summit Curves
When a train climbs a certain upgrade at a uniform speed and passes over the summit of the
curve, an acceleration begins to act upon it and makes the trains to move faster and increases
the draw bar pull behind each vehicle, causing a variation in the tension in the couplings.
b. Sag Curves
When a train passes over a sag, the front of the train ascends an up-grade while rear vehicles
tend to compress the couplings and buffers, and when the whole train has passed the sag, the
couplings are again in tension causing a jerk. Due to above reasons, it is essential to introduce
a vertical curve at each sag and at each summit or apex.

RESEARCH ON THE METHODS OF SETTING OUT A VERTICAL CURVE!!!

Length of a vertical curve

A parabolic curve is set out, tangent to the two intersecting grades, with its apex at a level
halfway between the points of intersection of the grade line and the average elevation of the
two tangent points. The length of the vertical curve depends upon the algebraic difference in
grade as shown in figure above and determined by the rate of change gradient of the line.

L=RQ
L-length of the vertical curve
R-Radius of the vertical curve
Q-Difference in the percentage of gradients (expressed in radians)
TRACK RESISTANCE
Introduction
Various forces offer resistance to the movement of a train on the track. These resistances may
be the result of movement of the various parts of the locomotives as well as the friction between
them, the irregularities in the track profile, or the atmospheric resistance to a train moving at
great speed. The tractive effort of a locomotive should be sufficient to overcome these
resistances so that the desired speed can be maintained. With this in mind, the tractive power
of a locomotive should be adequate enough to overcome these resistances in order to haul the
train at a specified speed.

i. Resistance Due To Friction

This is the resistance offered by the friction between the internal parts of locomotives and
wagons as well as between the metal surface of the rail and the wheel to a train moving at a
constant speed. This resistance is independent of speed. The total frictional resistance is given
by the empirical formula
R1= 0.0016W
Where R1 is the frictional resistance and W is the weight of the train in tonnes.

ii. Resistance Due To Wave Action

When a train moves, a certain resistance develops due to the wave action in the rail. Similarly,
track irregularities such as longitudinal unevenness and differences in cross levels also offer
resistance to a moving train. The resistance due to wave action and track irregularities is given
by:
R2 = 0.00008WV
Where R2 is the wave resistance, W is the weight of the train in tonnes, and V is the speed of
the train in km/h.

iii. Resistance Due To Wind

When a vehicle moves, a certain resistance develops since the vehicle has to move against
wind. Wind resistance consists of side resistance, head resistance and tail resistance but its
exact magnitude depends upon the size and shape of the vehicle, its speed and the wind
direction as well as its velocity. Wind resistance depends upon the exposed area of the vehicle
and the velocity and direction of the wind. Studies also support the fact that the important
factors that affect wind resistance are the exposed area of the vehicle and the relative velocity
of the wind vis-à-vis that of the vehicle. The following formula has been empirically
established to determine the wind resistance:
R3 = 0.0000006WV2
Where R3 is the wind resistance in tonnes, V is the velocity of the train in km/hr, and W is the
weight of the train in tonnes.

iv. Resistance Due To Gradient

When a train moves on a rising gradient, it requires extra effort in order to move against gravity.
When a train ascends a slope, extra effort is required to overcome the resistance offered by the
gradient. When the train descends a slope, the resistance offered by the gradient helps in the
movement of the train. The resistance due to rising gradient is determined as follows:
𝑾 ∗ % 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆
𝑹𝟒 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎
R4 is the resistance due to gradient, W is the weight of the train in tonnes and %slope is the
percent rise of the ascending gradient.

v. Resistance Due To Curvature

When a train negotiates a horizontal curve, extra effort is required to overcome the resistance
offered by the curvature of the track. Curve resistance is caused basically because of the
following reasons:
(a) The vehicle cannot adapt itself to a curved track because of its rigid wheel base. This is why
the frame takes up a tangential position as the vehicle tries to move in a longitudinal direction
along the curve. On account of this, the flange of the outer wheel of the leading axle rubs
against the inner face of the outer rail, giving rise to resistance to the movement of the train.
(b) Curve resistance can sometimes be the result of longitudinal slip, which causes the forward
motion of the wheels on a curved track. The outer wheel flange of the trailing axle remains
clear and tends to derail. The position worsens further if the wheel base is long and the curve
is sharp.
(c) Curve resistance is caused when a transverse slip occurs, which increases the friction
between the wheel flanges and the rails.
(d) Poor track maintenance, particularly bad alignment, worn-out rails, and improper levels,
also increase resistance.
(e) Inadequate superelevation increases the pressure on the outer rail and, similarly, excess
superelevation puts greater pressure on the inner rails, and this also contributes to an increase
in resistance.
The value of curve resistance can thus be determined by the following equation:
Curve resistance for BG (R5) = 0.0004WD
Curve resistance for MG (R5) = 0.0003WD
Curve resistance for NG (R5) = 0.0002WD

vi. Resistance Due To Starting And Accelerating

Trains face these resistances at stations when they start, accelerate, and decelerate. The values
of these resistances are as follows:
Resistance on starting, R6 = 0.15 W1 + 0.005 W2
Resistance due to acceleration, R7 = 0.028aW
where W1 is the weight of the locomotive in tonnes, W2 is the weight of the trailing vehicles in
tonnes, W is the total weight of the locomotive and vehicle in tonnes. i.e. W1 + W2, and a is the
acceleration, which can be calculated by finding the increase in velocity per unit time, i.e., (V2
– V1)/t, where V2 is the final velocity. V1 is the initial velocity, and t is the time taken.

TRACTIVE EFFORT
Tractive effort of a locomotive is the force that the locomotive can generate for hauling the
load. The tractive effort of a locomotive should be enough for it to haul a train at the maximum
permissible speed. Tractive effort is generally equal to or a little greater than the hauling
capacity of the locomotive. If the tractive effort is much greater than what is required to haul
the train, the wheels of the locomotive may slip. A rough assessment of the tractive effort of
different types of locomotive are provided in the following sections.

Steam Locomotive
The tractive effort of a steam locomotive can be calculated by equating the total power
generated by the steam engine to the work done by the driving wheels. Assume P to be the
difference in steam pressure between the two sides of the cylinder, A the area of the piston of
the engine, d the diameter of the piston of the engine, L the length of the stroke of the engine,
D the diameter of the wheel of locomotive, and Te the mean tractive effort of the locomotive.
Work done by two-cylinder steam engine = 2 X difference in steam pressure X area of the
piston X 2 X length of the stroke
= 2P x A x 2L
= 2P x (πd2/4) x 2L
= πPd2L
Work done in one revolution of the driving wheel of the locomotive:
= tractive effort x circumference of the wheel
= Te X πD
Thus πPd2L = Te X π D
Te = Pd2L/D
Thus it is clear from above Equation that tractive effort increases with an increase in steam
pressure difference and the diameter and length of the piston, but decreases with an increase in
the diameter of the driving wheel of the locomotive.

Diesel Locomotive
Tractive effort of a diesel-elective locomotive can be assessed by the following empirical
formula.
(308 𝑥 𝑅𝐻𝑃)
𝑇𝑒 =
𝑉
where Te is the tractive effort of a diesel-electric locomotive (kg), RHP is the rated horsepower
of the engine, and V is the velocity in km/hr.

Electric Locomotive
Tractive effort of an electric locomotive varies inversely with the power of speed. The
empirical formulae for calculating the approximate value of tractive effort are as follows:
For a dc electric locomotive: Te = a / V3
For an ac electric locomotive: Te = a / V5
where a is a constant depending upon the various characteristics of the locomotive. .
HAULING POWER OF A LOCOMOTIVE
Hauling power of a locomotive depends upon the weight exerted on the driving wheels and the
friction between the driving wheel and the rail. The coefficient of friction depends upon the
speed of the locomotive and the condition of the rail surface. The higher the speed of the
locomotive, the lower will be the coefficient of friction, which is about 0.1 for high speeds and
0.2 for low speeds. The condition of the rail surface, whether wet or dry, smooth or rough, etc.,
also plays an important role in deciding the value of the coefficient of function. If the surface
is very smooth, the coefficient of friction will be very low.

Hauling power = number of pairs of driving wheels X weight exerted on each driving axle X
coefficient of friction

Thus, for a locomotive with three pairs of driving wheels, an axle load of 20 tonnes, and a
coefficient of friction equal to 0.2, the hauling power will be equal to 3 x 20 x 0.2 tonne, i.e.,
12 tonnes.

Example: Calculate the maximum permissible load that a BG locomotive with three pairs of
driving wheels bearing an axle load of 22 tonnes each can pull on a straight level track at a
speed of 80 km/h. Also calculate the reduction in speed if the train has to run on a rising gradient
of 1 in 200. What would be the further reduction in speed if the train has to negotiate a 4° curve
on the rising gradient? Assume the coefficient of friction to be 0.2.

ANS= hauling power = 13.2 tonnes

Max permissible load = 1115 tonnes (assume only resistance due to friction, wave motion
and wind since its on a level straight track)
Reduction in speed (due to gradient effect) = 31.87km/hr (80-48.13km/hr which is the new
speed due to gradient)
Reduction in speed (due to curvature effect) = 4.45km/hr (from 48.13-43.68km/hr which
is the new speed due to curvature)
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are the elements of a simple circular curve?
2. A 5º curve diverges from a main curve of 4º in an opposite direction in the layout of a
B.G. yard. If the speed on the main curve is restricted to 54.53 km/h, determine the
speed restriction on the branch line. Assume permissible cant deficiency as 7.5cm.
3. What do you understand by cant deficiency? If an 8º curve track diverges from main
curve of 5º in an opposite direction in the layout of a B.G. yard, calculate the super
elevation and the speed on branch line, if the maximum speed permitted on the main
line is 45 km/hr.
4. Calculate the superelevation, maximum permissible speed and transition length for a 3°
curve on a BG transitioned curve with a maximum sanctioned speed of 110km/h. The
speed for calculating the equilibrium superelevation as decided by the Chief Engineer
is 80km/h and the booked speed of goods trains is 50km/h.
ANS:
Superelevation = 135mm
Maximum permissible speed = 100km/hr
Transition curve length = 108m
5. The wheelbase of a vehicle on a BG track is 6m. The diameter of the wheels is 1524mm
and the flanges project 32mm below the top of the rail. Determine the extra width of
the gauge required on a curve of radius 168m.

ANS = 32.1mm

6. Calculate the length of a vertical curve with a 4000m radius with a rising gradient of 1
in 100 meeting a falling gradient of 1 in 200.

ANS = 60m

7. Calculate the maximum permissible train load that can be pulled by a locomotive with
four pairs of driving wheels with an axle load of 28.42 t each on a BG track with a
ruling gradient of 1 in 200 and a maximum curvature of 3°, travelling at a speed of 48.3
km/h. Take the coefficient of friction to be 0.2.
8. A BG locomotive has three pairs of driving wheels with an axle load of 20 tonnes. If
this locomotive runs at a speed of 120 km/hr, what is the train weight in tonnes that the
locomotive can pull on a straight level track? What is the train weight that the same
locomotive will be able to haul on a 2° curve and a 1in100 gradient?