CHEM 111LEC CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

CHAPTER 1: ENERGY

ENERGY
The exertion of power; the capacity to do work, taking the forms of kinetic energy, potential
energy, chemical energy, electrical energy, etc.

Energy is defined as the ability to produce change or do work. Energy is a changing, doing,
moving, working thing. And that work can be divided into several main tasks we easily recognize:

 Energy produces light.

 Energy produces heat.

 Energy produces motion.

 Energy produces sound.

 Energy produces growth.

 Energy powers technology.

FORMS OF ENERGY

There are many forms of energy, but they all fall into two categories– potential or kinetic.

Potential Energy

Potential Energy is stored energy and the energy of position, or gravitational energy. There are
several forms of potential energy, including:

 Chemical Energy is energy stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules. It is the energy that
holds these particles together.

 Stored Mechanical Energy is energy stored in objects by the application of a force.

 Nuclear Energy is energy stored in the nucleus of an atom—the energy that holds the nucleus
together. The energy can be released when the nuclei are combined or split apart.

 Gravitational Energy is the energy of position or place. A rock resting at the top of a hill
contains gravitational potential energy.

Kinetic Energy

Kinetic Energy is motion—the motion of waves, electrons, atoms, molecules, substances,

and objects.

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CHEM 111LEC CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
 Electrical Energy is the movement of electrons. Everything is made of tiny particles called
atoms. Atoms are made of even smaller particles called electrons, protons, and neutrons.
Applying a force can make some of the electrons move.

 Radiant Energy is electromagnetic energy that travels in transverse waves.

 Thermal Energy, or heat, is the internal energy in substances—the vibration and movement of
atoms and molecules within substances.

 Motion Energy is the movement of objects and substances from one place to another.

 Sound Energy is the movement of energy through substances in longitudinal

(compression/rarefaction) waves.

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

The law of conservation of energy says energy is neither created nor destroyed. Energy can
change form, but the total quantity of energy in the universe remains the same. The only exception to this
law is when a small amount of matter is converted into energy during nuclear fusion and fission.

EFFICIENCY

Efficiency is how much useful energy you can get out of a system. In theory, a 100 percent
energy efficient machine would change all of the energy put in it into useful work.

work output
n=
Qinput

SOURCES OF ENERGY

The ten major energy sources we use today are classified into two broad groups—nonrenewable
and renewable.

 Nonrenewable energy sources

These energy sources are called nonrenewable because they cannot be replenished in a short
period of time. We could run out of economically recoverable nonrenewable resources someday. These
include coal, petroleum, natural gas, propane, and uranium. They are used to generate electricity, to heat
our homes, to move our cars, and to manufacturing plants.

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 Renewable energy sources

These energy sources are called renewable energy sources because their supplies are replenished
in a short time. These include biomass, geothermal, hydropower, solar, and wind.

ENERGY USERS

The Department of Energy uses four categories to classify energy users—residential, commercial,
industrial, and others. These categories are called the sectors of the economy.

 Residential

Residences are people’s homes. Residential use are lumped together because homes use energy in
the same ways—for heating, air conditioning, water heating, lighting, and operating appliances. In 2018,
the Philippines consumed for about 28,261 GWh which comprises 34.21 percent of total consumption. .

 Industrial

The industrial sector includes manufacturing, construction, mining, farming, fishing, and forestry.
This sector consumed 27,587 GWH of energy in 2018, which accounted for 33.39 percent of total
consumption.

 Commercial

Commercial buildings include office buildings, hospitals, stores, restaurants, and schools.

This sector has a total consumption of 29.07 percent with 24,016 GWh.

 Others

This sector consumed 2,753 GWh of energy in 2018, which accounted for 3.33 percent of total
consumption.

Electrochemical Energy

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CHEM 111LEC CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
-The Electrochemical energy is defined as “the energy which converts electrical energy to
chemical energy and vice versa.” The electrochemical energy is related to fuel cells, photo
electrochemical, and energy storage systems such as batteries, super capacitors or ultra-
capacitors.

Redox Reactions
-An oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction is a type of chemical reaction that involves a transfer of
electrons between two species. An oxidation-reduction reaction is any chemical reaction in which
the oxidation number of a molecule, atom, or ion changes by gaining or losing an electron. Redox
reactions are common and vital to some of the basic functions of life, including photosynthesis,
respiration, combustion, and corrosion or rusting.

RULES FOR ASSIGNING OXIDATION STATES

The oxidation state (OS) of an element corresponds to the number of electrons, e-, that an atom loses,
gains, or appears to use when joining with other atoms in compounds. In determining the oxidation state
of an atom, there are seven guidelines to follow:
1. The oxidation state of an individual atom is 0.
2. The total oxidation state of all atoms in: a neutral species is 0 and in an ion is equal to the ion
charge.
3. Group 1 metals have an oxidation state of +1 and Group 2 an oxidation state of +2
4. The oxidation state of fluorine is -1 in compounds
5. Hydrogen generally has an oxidation state of +1 in compounds
6. Oxygen generally has an oxidation state of -2 in compounds
7. In binary metal compounds, Group 17 elements have an oxidation state of -1, Group 16 elements
of -2, and Group 15 elements of -3.

Note: The sum of the oxidation states is equal to zero for neutral compounds and equal to the charge for
polyatomic ion species.

EXAMPLE 11: ASSIGNING OXIDATION STATES

Determine the Oxidation States of each element in the following reactions:
a. Fe(s)+O2(g)→Fe2O3(g)
b. Fe2+
c. Ag(s)+H2S→Ag2S(g)+H2(g)
SOLUTIONS
A. Fe and O2 are free elements; therefore, they each have an oxidation state of 0 according to Rule
#1. The product has a total oxidation state equal to 0, and following Rule #6, O has an oxidation
state of -2, which means Fe has an oxidation state of +3.
B. The oxidation state of Fe corresponds to its charge; therefore, the oxidation state is +2.
C. Ag has an oxidation state of 0, H has an oxidation state of +1 according to Rule #5, S has an
oxidation state of -2 according to Rule #7, and hence Ag in Ag2S has an oxidation state of +1.

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CHEM 111LEC CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

EXAMPLE 2: ASSIGNING OXIDATION STATES

Determine the Oxidation State of the bold element in each of the following:
a. Na3PO3
b. H2PO4-
SOLUTIONS
a. The oxidation numbers of Na and O are +1 and -2. Because sodium phosphite is neutral, the sum
of the oxidation numbers must be zero. Letting x be the oxidation number of phosphorus, 0=
3(+1) + x + 3(-2). x=oxidation number of P= +3.
b. Hydrogen and oxygen have oxidation numbers of +1 and -2. The ion has a charge of -1, so the
sum of the oxidation numbers must be -1. Letting y be the oxidation number of phosphorus, -1= y
+ 2(+1) +4(-2), y= oxidation number of P= +5.

EXAMPLE 3: IDENTIFYING REDUCED AND OXIDIZED ELEMENTS

Determine which element is oxidized and which element is reduced in the following reactions (be sure to
include the oxidation state of each):
a. Zn + 2H+ → Zn2+ + H2
b. 2Al + 3Cu2+→2Al3+ +3Cu
c. CO32- + 2H+→ CO2 + H2O
SOLUTIONS
a. Zn is oxidized (Oxidation number: 0 → +2); H+ is reduced (Oxidation number: +1 → 0)
b. Al is oxidized (Oxidation number: 0 → +3); Cu2+ is reduced (+2 → 0)
c. This is not a redox reaction because each element has the same oxidation number in both
reactants and products: O= -2, H= +1, C= +4.

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

Redox reactions are comprised of two parts, a reduced half and an oxidized half, that  always occur
together. The reduced half gains electrons and the oxidation number decreases, while the oxidized half
loses electrons and the oxidation number increases. Simple ways to remember this include the mnemonic
devices OIL RIG, meaning "oxidation is loss" and "reduction is gain," and LEO says GER, meaning
"loss of e- = oxidation" and "gain of e- = reduced." There is no net change in the number of electrons in a
redox reaction. Those given off in the oxidation half reaction are taken up by another species in the
reduction half reaction.
The two species that exchange electrons in a redox reaction are given special names. The ion or molecule
that accepts electrons is called the oxidizing agent; by accepting electrons it causes the oxidation of
another species. Conversely, the species that donates electrons is called the reducing agent; when the
reaction occurs, it reduces the other species. In other words, what is oxidized is the reducing agent and
what is reduced is the oxidizing agent. (Note: the oxidizing and reducing agents can be the same element
or compound, as in disproportionation reactions).

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CHEM 111LEC CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
A good example of a redox reaction is the thermite reaction, in which iron atoms in ferric oxide lose (or
give up) O atoms to Al atoms, producing Al2O3.

Fe2O3(s)+2Al(s)→Al2O3(s)+2Fe(l)
Example 4: Identifying Oxidized Elements
Using the equations from the previous examples, determine what is oxidized in the following reaction.
Zn + 2H+ → Zn2+ + H2
SOLUTION
The oxidation state of H changes from +1 to 0, and the oxidation state of Zn changes from 0 to +2. Hence,
Zn is oxidized and acts as the reducing agent.
Example 5: Identifying Reduced Elements
What is reduced species in this reaction?
Zn + 2H+ → Zn2+ + H2
SOLUTION
The oxidation state of H changes from +1 to 0, and the oxidation state of Zn changes from 0 to +2. Hence,
H+ ion is reduced and acts as the oxidizing agent.

Combination Reactions

Combination reactions are among the simplest redox reactions and, as the name suggests, involves
"combining" elements to form a chemical compound. As usual, oxidation and reduction occur together.
The general equation for a combination reaction is given below:

A+B→AB
Example 6: Combination Reaction
Consider the combination reaction of hydrogen and oxygen

H2+O2→H2O(5)(5)H2+O2→H2O
SOLUTION
0 + 0 → (2)(+1) + (-2) = 0
In this reaction both H2 and O2 are free elements; following Rule #1, their oxidation states are 0. The
product is H2O, which has a total oxidation state of 0. According to Rule #6, the oxidation state of oxygen
is usually -2. Therefore, the oxidation state of H in H 2O must be +1.

Decomposition Reactions
A decomposition reaction is the reverse of a combination reaction, the breakdown of a chemical
compound into individual elements:

AB→A+B
Example 7: Decomposition Reaction
Consider the decomposition of water:

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CHEM 111LEC CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
H2O→ H2+O2
Calculation:
(2)(+1) + (-2) = 0 → 0 + 0
Explanation: In this reaction, water is "decomposed" into hydrogen and oxygen. As in the previous
example the H2O has a total oxidation state of 0; thus, according to Rule #6 the oxidation state of oxygen
is usually -2, so the oxidation state of hydrogen in H2O must be +1.

Single Replacement Reactions

A single replacement reaction involves the "replacing" of an element in the reactants with another
element in the products:

A+BC→AB+C
Example 8: Single Replacement Reaction
Equation:

Cl2+NaBr–––→NaCl+Br2
Calculation:
(0) + ((+1) + (-1) = 0) -> ((+1) + (-1) = 0) + 0
Explanation: In this equation, Br is replaced with Cl, and the Cl atoms in Cl 2 are reduced, while the Br ion
in NaBr is oxidized.

Double Replacement Reactions

A double replacement reaction is similar to a double replacement reaction, but involves "replacing" two
elements in the reactants, with two in the products:

AB+CD→AD+CB
Example 9: Double Replacement Reaction

MgSO4(aq)+Na2C2O4(aq)→MgC2O4(s)+Na2SO4(aq)

Combustion Reactions
Combustion reactions almost always involve oxygen in the form of O 2, and are almost always exothermic,
meaning they produce heat. Chemical reactions that give off light and heat and light are colloquially
referred to as "burning."

CxHy+O2→CO2+H2O
Example 9: Combustion Reaction

2C8H18+25O2→16CO2(g)+18H2O

Disproportionation Reactions

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In disproportionation reactions, a single substance can be both oxidized and reduced. These are known as
disproportionation reactions, with the following general equation:
2A→A+n + A−n
Disproportionation reactions do not need begin with neutral molecules, and can involve more than two
species with differing oxidation states (but rarely).
Example 10: Disproportionation Reaction
Disproportionation reactions have some practical significance in everyday life, including the reaction of
hydrogen peroxide, H2O2 poured over a cut. This a decomposition reaction of hydrogen peroxide, which
produces oxygen and water. Oxygen is present in all parts of the chemical equation and as a result it is
both oxidized and reduced. The reaction is as follows:

2H2O2(aq)→2H2O(l)+O2(g)

DISCUSSION
On the reactant side, H has an oxidation state of +1 and O has an oxidation state of -1, which changes to
-2 for the product H2O (oxygen is reduced), and 0 in the product O2O2(oxygen is oxidized).

Balancing a simple redox reaction using the half-reaction method

Redox reactions can be split into reduction and oxidation half-reactions. Chemists use half-reactions to
make it easier to see the electron transfer, and it also helps when balancing redox reactions. Let's write the
half-reactions for another example reaction:
Steps:
Identify If the Charges are Equal
Identify the Oxidation Reaction and Reduction Reaction
Get the half Reduction/ Oxidation Reaction
Balanced the half reaction charges (addition of e-)
Combining the Balanced Half Reaction.

Example:
Al(s)+Cu2+(aq)→Al3+(aq)+Cu(s)

Solution:
Reduction half-reaction:
Cu2+(aq)→Cu(s)
Cu2+(aq)+2e−→Cu(s)
Oxidation half-reaction:
Al(s)→Al3+(aq)
Al(s)→Al3+(aq)+3e−

3× [Cu2+(aq)+2e−→Cu(s)]                  
2× [Al(s)→Al3+(aq)+3e−]   
2Al(s) + 3Cu2+ → 3Cu(s) + 2Al3+

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Balancing Redox Reactions Using the Half Reaction Method

Many redox reactions occur in aqueous solutions or suspensions. In this medium most of the reactants and
products exist as charged species (ions) and their reaction is often affected by the pH of the medium. The
following provides examples of how these equations may be balanced systematically. The method that is
used is called the ion-electron or "half-reaction" method.

Example 1 -- Balancing Redox Reactions Which Occur in Acidic Solution

Organic compounds, called alcohols, are readily oxidized by acidic solutions of dichromate ions. The
following reaction, written in net ionic form, records this change. The oxidation states of each atom in
each compound is listed in order to identify the species that are oxidized and reduced, respectively.

Cr2O72-  +  C2H6O      Cr3+       +       C2H4O 

dichromate  ethanol              chromium(III)  acetaldehyde

An examination of the oxidation states, indicates that carbon is being oxidized, and chromium, is being
reduced. To balance the equation, use the following steps:

 First, divide the equation into two halves; one will be an oxidation half-reaction and the other a
reduction half- reaction, by grouping appropriate species.  The nature of each will become evident
in subsequent steps.

Cr2O72-      Cr3+

C2H6O      C2H4O
 Second, if necessary, balance all elements except oxygen and hydrogen in both equations by
inspection.   In other words, balance the non-hydrogen and non-oxygen atoms only.  By
following this guideline in the example above, only the chromium reaction needs to be balanced
by placing the coefficient, 2 , in front of Cr+3 as shown below.

Cr2O72-      2 Cr3+

C2H6O     C2H4O 
 
 The third step involves balancing oxygen atoms.  To do this, add water (H2O) molecules. Use 1
molecule of water for each oxygen atom that needs to be balanced.  Add the appropriate number
of water molecules to that side of the equation required to balance the oxygen atoms as shown
below.

Cr2O72-     2 Cr3+  +  7 H2O

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C2H6O     C2H4O 
 
 The fourth step involves balancing the hydrogen atoms. To do this one must use hydrogen ions
(H+). Use one (1) H+ ion for every hydrogen atom that needs to balanced. Add the appropriate
number of hydrogen ions to that side of the equation required to balance the hydrogen atoms as
shown below

14 H+  +  Cr2O72-      2 Cr3+  +  7 H2O

C2H6O     C2H4O  +  2 H+ 

 
 The fifth step involves the balancing charges. This is done by adding electrons (e-). Each electron
has a charge equal to (-1). To determine the number of electrons required, find the net charge of
each side the equation.

14 H+  +  Cr2O72-      2 Cr3+  +  7 H2O 

+12                                  +6

C2H6O     C2H4O  +  2 H+ 

 0                    +2

The electrons must always be added to that side which has the greater positive charge as shown
below.

6 e-  +  14 H+  +  Cr2O72-      2 Cr3+  +  7 H2O 

+6                                                +6

C2H6O     C2H4O  +  2 H+  +  2 e- 

 0                    0

note: the net charge on each side of the equation does not have to equal zero.

The chromium reaction can now be identified as the reduction half-reaction and the
ethanol/acetaldehyde as the oxidation half-reaction. The reduction half-reaction requires 6 e-,
while the oxidation half-reaction produces 2 e-. 
 

 The sixth step involves multiplying each half-reaction by the smallest whole number that is
required to equalize the number of electrons gained by reduction with the number of electrons
produced by oxidation. Using this guideline, the oxidation half reaction must be multiplied by "3"
to give the 6 electrons required by the reduction half-reaction.

6 e-  +  14 H+  +  Cr2O72-      2 Cr3+  +  7 H2O

3 x (C2H6O     C2H4O  +  2 H+  +  2 e-)

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The seventh and last step involves adding the two half reactions and reducing to the smallest
whole number by cancelling species which on both sides of the arrow.

6 e-  +  14 H+  +  Cr2O72-  +  3 C2H6O     2 Cr3+  +  7 H2O  +  3 C2H4O  +  6 H+  +  6 e-

Note that the above equation can be further simplified by subtracting out 6 e- and 6 H + ions from
both sides of the equation to give the final equation.

8 H+  +  Cr2O72-  +  3 C2H6O     2 Cr3+  +  7 H2O  +  3 C2H4O

Note: the equation above is completely balanced in terms of having an equal number of atoms
as well as charges.

1. Petrucci, et al. General Chemistry: Principles & Modern Applications. 9th ed. Upper Saddle
River, New Jersey: Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2007.
2. Sadava, et al. Life: The Science of Biology. 8th ed. New York, NY. W.H. Freeman and Company,
2007

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