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PLATE TECTONICS
Plate tectonics is a scientific theory describing the large-scale motion of seven
large plates and the movements of a larger number of smaller plates of Earth's
lithosphere, since tectonic processes began on Earth between 3.3 and 3.5 billion
years ago.

Plate tectonics is the theory that Earth's outer shell is divided into
several plates that glide over the mantle, the rocky inner layer above
the core. The plates act like a hard and rigid shell compared to
Earth's mantle

Plates

The Earth's crust is made up of seven principal tectonic plates and numerous
other smaller plates. The plates are sections of the crust that "float" on the
mantle, which is made up of molten rock. Where the plate's meet, huge
forces mean that they can form features such as volcanoes, fold mountains,
deep-sea trenches and earthquakes.

There are two main types of tectonic plate. Oceanic crust is often only about
5km thick, but is very dense. Continental crust is considerably thicker, often
being approximately 30km deep, but is less dense.

Convection Currents

The Earth's Tectonic Plates all move very slowly on the mantle, meeting along
the four main boundaries that can be found in the next section. The plates

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 move due to convection currents in the mantle. These are hot currents of
molten rock that slowly move within the mantle and cause the plates above
them to move, usually by as little as one or two centimetres each year.

Destructive Plate Boundaries

Also known as convergent boundaries or compressional boundaries.

 These cause violent volcanoes and earthquakes, as well as deep-ocean

trenches and fold mountains.
 An oceanic plate and continental plate move towards each other.
 The denser oceanic plate dives under the lighter continental one,
creating a deep ocean trench.
 As the oceanic plate goes deeper into mantle it melts in
the subduction zone, due to friction and the increased temperature.
 The newly molten rock is lighter that that which surrounds it, so it will
rise towards the surface and cause volcanoes on the earth's surface.
 The continental crust is crumpled by the collision of the two plates
creating Fold Mountains.
 If the magma rises offshore it will form an Island Arc, like the West
Indies and Japan.

A good example of a destructive plate boundary is where the Nazca plate

dives underneath the South American plate. This has caused volcanoes,
earthquakes and the formation of the Andes Mountain Range.

Constructive Plate Boundaries

Also known as divergent or tensional boundaries.

 Although often not as violent as those on destructive plate boundaries,

volcanoes and earthquakes do occur on constructive plate boundaries. They
also cause mid-ocean ridges to form.
 Two plates move away from each other.

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 Molten rock (magma) rises from the mantle to fill the gap between the
two plates. This forms a mid-ocean ridge.
 Volcanoes can also form here, along the edges of the plate boundary,
due to the rising magma. These volcanoes are called shield volcanoes.

A good example of a constructive plate boundary can be found where the

NorthAmerican plate is moving away from the Eurasian plate. This has
caused theMid-Atlantic ridge to form and has created Iceland through
volcanic activity.

Conservative Plate Boundaries

Also known as passive plate boundaries.

 The main effects of a conservative plate boundary are earthquakes,

which can be fairly violent and frequent.
 Two plates slide past each other, without creating or destroying any
land.
 As they move past each other they often get stuck, building up great
pressure until finally they jolt past each other. This sudden movement is
what causes earthquakes.

The best-known example of a conservative plate boundary is the San

Andreas Fault, where the North American and Pacific plates are actually
moving in the same direction, but at a different speed.

Collision Margins

 Where two continental crusts collide neither can sink.

 Instead they push into each other forcing material to be folded up into
huge mountain ranges.
 Often this movement and pressure can cause earthquakes, but no
volcanoes will occur on these boundaries.

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The best example is found where the Indian plate collided with the Eurasian
plate to form the Himalayas.

VOLCANOS

A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that

allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber
below the surface. Earth's volcanoes occur because its crust is broken into 17
major, rigid tectonic plates that float on a hotter, softer layer in its mantle.

Types of Volcanoes

Volcanoes are formed along two types of plate boundary: destructive and

constructive boundaries. The basic shape of a volcano is similar throughout
the world, however there are many factors which influence how the volcano
is built.

Volcanoes occur where molten rock (magma) is allowed to escape to the

surfaceo f the earth. This usually occurs at plate boundaries through cracks
in thecrust called vents.

Once it has reached the surface, the magma becomes known as lava. The
composition of the lava determines the shape of the final volcano.

Volcanoes also throw out ash, steam, dust, pumice, and gases, which can be
poisonous. However it is the lava that mainly helps to shape the
volcano.There are three main volcanic cones: acid lava cones, composite
cones and basic lava cones.

Acid cone volcanoes are steep sided due to the fact that the lava is thick and
acidic, meaning that it doesn't flow far before solidifying, for example Mt.
Pelee.

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Shield cone volcanoes are wide-based, with gentle slopes. Their lava is runny
and thin, which means that it can travel a long way before cooling and
solidifying. Often these eruptions are non-violent and can last for years, such
as the one at Kilaueain Hawaii.

Composite Cone volcanoes are steep-sided,and made of alternate layers of

ash and lava. Often the lava cools to create a plug in the vent, meaning that a
huge explosion is needed to remove it.The best example is Mt. St. Helens.

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 Examples

Mt. St. Helen's, May 1980 (The U.S.A.)

 Erupted on the morning of May 18th 1980, after being inactive for over
120 years.

 Caused by the subduction of the oceanic Juan de Fuca plate under the
continental North American plate, on the West Coast of the United States.
The volcano forms part of the Rockies Range of mountains.

 After minor earthquakes and a small eruption during March, scientists

carefully monitored the mountain. By the beginning of May a bulge had

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 developed on the North side of the mountain. This activity forced the Local
Authorities to create a "Red Zone" around the volcano, from where any
residents were evacuated, and no one was allowed to re-enter. This saved a
lot of people from the disaster.

 At approximately 8.30 a.m. on the 18th May, the volcano erupted a

small amount of ash and stem. Then, a couple of minutes later, something
occurred that nobody could have predicted. An earthquake caused the bulge
to collapse down the side of the mountain. This released the full power of
the explosive gases behind as the mountain literally blew its own side off.

 The material from the massive landslide sped down the mountain,
filling Spirit Lake and then racing on as a mud flow (it had mixed with the lake
water) down the Toutle River and Kalama River.

 The explosions from the side of the mountain sent a speeding cloud of
gas, steam and dust across the ground to the North of the volcano, flattening
everything in its path. The trees of the forests around the mountain were
toppled as if they were matchsticks, with the majority of them facing in the
same direction.

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 These explosions also instantly melted all of the snow on the
mountain, adding to the mudflows that were racing down the mountain and
into the rivers. These flows took all with them, including huge trees and even
bridges.

 During the remainder of the day huge gas and ash eruptions occurred,
spreading a massive cloud of ash that took 7 days to entirely circle the world.
The town of Yakima, 120 miles away, was so badly affected by the dust and
ash that residents could only go outside if they wore facemasks.

 The mountain managed to reduce its height by nearly 400 metres and
blew an amphitheatre shape hole in its side, 3km long and 500 metres wide.

 61 people were killed by the eruption, mainly by the poisonous gases,

but also by being caught up in the massively swollen rivers.

 No wildlife, either plants or trees, survived within the 25km blast zone.
However vegetation has already made great strides to re-colonise the area.

Mt. Pinatubo, June 1991 (The Philippines)

 Mt. Pinatubo had not erupted for over 600 years. Its slopes had
become fertile, well-cultivated paddy fields. People did not expect it to erupt.

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 On 12th June the mountain erupted. Measurements and predictions by
scientists had meant that over 200,000 people had been evacuated by the
time that the mountain erupted.

 The eruption sent a huge cloud of gas and ash up into the atmosphere.
Torrential rain then caused much of the ash to be deposited back on the
ground as mud.

 An area of over 600km in radius had ash falls from the volcano, with
nearly 50cm falling near the mountain itself.

 Most terrifying of all were the lahar's that was produced. These are

huge, speeding mudslides, formed by the ash and the torrential rain that
swept down covering entire villages in a think layer of mud, often up to 10
feet deep. They destroyed over 200,000 homes and covered 50,000 hectares
of farmland.

 Although a relatively small number of people were killed (350), the

effects of the eruption were devastating. Diseases such
as malaria and cholera spread quickly in the refugee camps set up to help
the evacuee's. Over the next few years, heavy rains caused ash and dust
from the eruption to create more devastating lahars.

Earthquakes

An earthquake is what happens when two blocks of the earth

suddenly slip past one another. The surface where they slip is called
the fault or fault plane. ... Scientists can't tell that an earthquake is a
foreshock until the larger earthquake happens.

Main Concepts

Earthquakes occur along faults, which are large cracks in the earth's crust.
Most of these are associated with the larger plate boundaries, along which
the largest earthquakes usually occur.

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 They are caused by the sudden jerking movements of the fault, either
laterally or vertically, and are almost impossible to predict.

Earthquakes are measured in two ways:

 The Richter scale measures the magnitude of an earthquake using an

instrument called a seismograph. The Richter scale is logarithmic, meaning
that an earthquake measuring 7 is 10 times more powerful than one
measuring 6, and 100 times more powerful than one measuring 5.

 The mercalli scale measures the damage caused by an earthquake. It

rates each quake from I to XII, depending on how much damage was done,
and is dependent not only on the magnitude of depth of the earthquake.

The point at which an earthquake actually begins, deep below the earth's
surface is called the focus. If the focus is deep then the effects of the
earthquake may be less as the shockwaves have more rock to move through.
Obviously this also depends on what type of rock it is. The point directly
above the focus, on the earth's surface, is called the epicentre. The effects of
the earthquake are usually worst here, and then radiate out from this spot.

Effects of Earthquakes

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 The effects of an earthquake can be easily split up into two sections. Primary
effects are those that occur immediately as the earthquake happens. These
include buildings collapsing, roads and bridges being destroyed and railway
lines being buckled. All occur due to the shaking of the ground.

Secondary effects are the subsequent effects of the quake, and can be even
more devastating then the primary ones. The main secondary effects are:

 Fires: usually from ruptured gas lines. This was the main cause of
death and damage after the San Francisco earthquake in 1906.

 Tidal waves: A tidal waves caused by an earthquake is called a

tsunami. They can travel very quickly across entire oceans, before engulfing
land 1000's of miles away. The 1964 Alaskan earthquake caused considerable
damage in several Californian coastal areas. Although Los Angeles has
escaped so far, its is still considered to be a tsunami hazard prone area.

 Landslides can often be triggered by earthquakes, causing huge

amounts of material to be moved very quickly. This is actually what occurred
just before the volcanic eruption on Mt. St. Helens. They are most likely to
occur where the land is steep, saturated or weak.

 Diseases can spread very quickly in the unsanitary conditions often left

behind by massive earthquakes. Water becomes contaminated very quickly,
and in Less Economically Developed Countries (LEDC's) especially; access for
the medical services can be badly hampered by the damage caused by the
quake. The most common diseases to be associated with earthquakes are
therefore water-borne ones like cholera and typhoid.

Examples

Turkey. August 1999

 Centred around Izmit in Northwest Turkey, the earthquake occurred on

Tuesday 17th August 1999. It affected an area over a radius of 80km.

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 Primary effects included a death toll of approximately 5,500, with
another 30,000 injured and 250,000 made homeless. Over 100,000 buildings
collapsed. Infrastructure damage included a 1km stretch of elevated road,
numerous railway bridges, and 120 of the city's 150 quays.

 Of 1200 people rescued on the day of the quake, only 300 survived
because of the totally inadequate hospital facilities.

 Secondary effects included outbreaks of cholera and typhoid, due to

the polluted water supply. People made homeless by the quake had no
escape from the intense heat, dust and stench of rotting bodies. A few days
after the quake there was no water, electricity or sewage systems working.

 The threat of disease was so great that rescue workers had to wear
protective gloves and masks, and the cities Gocuk, Yalova and Izmit had large
areas quarantined.

 It took the Government in Ankara 48 hours to organise emergency

troops to go to the area. Locals were totally unprepared for the disaster,
despite it being a common earthquake area.

Kobe, Japan. January 1995

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 The earthquake occurred at 5.46am on the 17th January 1995. It
measured 7.2 on the Richter Scale and lasted 20 seconds.

 Kobe lies on the Nojima fault, a destructive boundary, where the

Philippine plate dives below the Eurasian plate. This plate boundary is the
reason for Japan's existence but also means that there is a constant
earthquake threat.

 Kobe was unlucky in the sense that the focus of the earthquake was
very close to the surface and the epicentre was right beside the city.

 Primary effects included a death toll of approximately 5,500, with

another 30,000 injured and 250,000 made homeless. Over 100,000 buildings
collapsed. Infrastructure damage included a 1km stretch of elevated road,
numerous railway bridges, and 120 of the city's 150 quays.

 Secondary effects included the fact that electricity, gas, water and

sewage systems were all hugely disrupted. Emergency services found it very
difficult to get into the city due to the massive destruction of the roads. Many
temporary shelters were required, as well as food and medicines. Cold
weather meant that diseases spread quickly.

 A week after the earthquake fires still were burning, 2 million homes
still were without power and 1 million were without water. The fires

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 destroyed over 7,000 more homes. Hundreds of aftershocks, 74 strong
enough for people tofeel, meant people were too afraid to return to their
homes for weeks after the event.

 Tough new laws, building codes and emergency plans were brought in
after criticism of the Japanese Government. Work is continuing to try to
predict future earthquakes, but as yet there is very little way of giving any
significant warning time.

Fold Mountains

Fold mountains are mountains that form mainly by two or more of tectonic plates
when are pushed together Earth's crust. Before either plate tectonic theory
developed, or the internal architecture of thrust belts became well understood,
the term was used for most mountain belts, such as the Himalayas.

Fold mountains are created where two or more of Earth's tectonic

plates are pushed together. At these colliding, compressing
boundaries, rocks and debris are warped and folded into rocky
outcrops, hills, mountains, and entire mountain ranges. Fold
mountains are created through a process called orogeny.

The Formation of Fold Mountains

Form along both destructive and collision plate boundaries, in other

words where two plates are pushing towards each other.

The best examples are the Himalayas, the Rockies, the Andes and the Alps,
all of which are huge fold mountain ranges caused by the collision of two
plates.

The general theory is that as two plates, with land masses on them, move
towards each other they push layers of accumulated sediment in the sea
between them up into folds. Thus most fold mountains will continue to grow,
as the plates constantly move towards each other.

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 The Formation of Fold Mountains at Destructive Plate Boundaries:

 As already seen, at a destructive plate boundary the oceanic plate is

subducted beneath the continental one. The molten material then rises to
the surface to form volcanoes, either in an island arc (e.g. the West Indies) or
on the continental land mass (e.g. the volcanoes of the Andes). In both cases
Fold Mountains can be formed.

 When the Nazca plate dives under the South American one, their

motion forward also has been pushing sediment together. This, over millions
of years, has been pushed up into huge fold mountains: The Andes. Within
them there are also volcanoes as the mountains are above the subduction
zone.

 If an island arc has been formed, the same idea occurs. Over millions
of years the movement of the two plates together will push the island arc
nearer to the continent. As this occurs the sediments on the seabed are
folded up to become huge mountains.

The Formation of Fold Mountains at Collision Margins:

 These occur less frequently, but two excellent examples are the
Himalayas, where the Indian plate is moving North and East towards the
stationary European plate, and the Alps, formed by the collision between the
African and Eurasian plates.

 In these examples both plates are Continental ones, and so can neither
sink nor be destroyed. The material between them is therefore forced
upwards to form the mountains.

 For the Himalayas the material that now forms the mountains was
originally on the bottom of the non-existent Tethy's Sea. As the Indian plate
pushed towards the Eurasian one, the sediments were folded up to form the
Himalayas, leaving the only trace of the sea to be the fossilised shells that
you can find high up in the mountains.

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Human uses of Fold Mountains

Humans use Fold Mountains for a wide variety of purposes:

Farming is a primary activity in all of the fold mountain ranges around the
world. Mainly, due to the height and steepness of many of the slopes, this is
restricted to cattle and sheep farming. However in the foothills of the
Himalayas the Nepalese people use terraces in the mountainside to help
them grow crops, and some southern facing Alpine slopes are used for vines
and fruits.

In the Alps a system called transhumance was used. This basically is the

seasonal movement of grazing animals between the high ground in the
warmer summer months and the valley floors in the colder autumn months.
Nowadays transhumance is a little outdated as modern technology has
meant that farmers can stay in one place all year.

Tourism is another major use of the Fold Mountains of the world. Because
they are in more economically developed countries,the Alps and the Rockies
are perhaps the best examples of the impact of tourism.However, it is an
increasing industry in both the Andes and the Himalayas,as people look for
less crowded places to go to.

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 The main tourist attraction in the Rockies and the Alps is skiing.
Hundreds of thousands of people ski each year and this has brought great
changes and problems to the main areas.

 The increase in tourism has meant much-improved infrastructure, a

huge increase in hotels and restaurants and the development of entire
resorts. It has brought a large amount of much needed money into these
areas and allowed local people to diversify from farming into many other
jobs.

 Fold Mountains have a lot of other things to attract visitors. These

include hill walking, the attractive scenery, river rafting, and climbing. All
these have contributed to areas in the Alps and the Rockies becoming all
year round holiday resorts.

Forestry is another big business in these mountainous regions. Examples of

cultivated coniferous forests can be seen in the Alps, where the trees have
been deliberately planted as crops. However in the foothills of the Himalayas
large-scale deforestation is also taking place, with logging companies cutting
down vast tracts of the deciduous rainforest there.

Many of the Fold Mountain regions of the world are prime spots for the
generation of hydroelectric power (HEP). They have a plentiful supply of

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 water; deep, narrow valleys with quick flowing rivers, and they are sparsely
populated, meaning that few people are displaced when a reservoir is
created.

The HEP is then used either for electricity in cities some distance away, or as
a power source for local industries, such as saw and paper mills.

The Problems of Living in Fold Mountain Areas

 Mountainous regions are particularly difficult to build in due to the

steep sided valleys and cold climate. Roads and other communications links
have to snake their way up wherever they can, and often these roads are not
big enough to adequately service a large community.

 The climate is very cold and wet, meaning that most industrial and
agricultural activity is difficult. For farmers they have a very short growing
season, and it is difficult to use machinery on the steep slopes.

 Avalanches are a constant threat, as was seen to devastating effect in

Ranrahirca, Peru, in 1962. Huge amounts of money are spent each year to try
and combat the avalanche threat, especially with the large amount of tourists
using the mountains.

Tsunamis
A tsunami is a huge wave, usually caused by volcanic or earthquake activity under the ocean, which can eventually crash
onto the shoreline. The effects on a community can be devastating.

What causes a tsunami?

When an earthquake, volcano or landslide happens on the ocean floor, water is displaced. This
water forms the start of the tsunami.

When the waves reach shallower water:

 their height can increase by several metres

 the shallow water slows the wave
 the waves get closer together

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It is hard to see that a tsunami is approaching. The most obvious sign is the coastal water retreats
just before the waves reach the shore. This is actually the trough of the wave following behind.

What effects does a tsunami have?

The main impact a tsunami has is flooding. The waters are also able to erode the foundations of
coastal structures.

FLOODS
River flooding and management issues
The likelihood of a river bursting its banks and flooding is determined by various factors in the surrounding landscape.
Floods can be catastrophic, but they can also have positive long-term effects.

Causes of flooding

A flood occurs when a river bursts its banks and the water spills onto the floodplain. Flooding
tends to be caused by heavy rain: the faster the rainwater reaches the river channel, the more
likely it is to flood. The nature of the landscape around a river will influence how quickly
rainwater reaches the channel.

The following factors may encourage flooding:

Helicopter carrying British aid across flood water, Mozambique

 A steep-sided channel - a river channel surrounded by steep slopes causes fast surface run-off.
 A lack of vegetation or woodland - trees and plants intercept precipitation (ie they catch or
drink water). If there is little vegetation in the drainage basin then surface run-off will be high.
 A drainage basin, consisting of mainly impermeable rock - this will mean that water
cannot percolate through the rock layer, and so will run faster over the surface.
 A drainage basin in an urban area - these consist largely of impermeable concrete, which
encourages overland flow. Drains and sewers take water quickly and directly to the river channel.
Houses with sloping roofs further increase the amount of run-off.

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Flood management techniques include river engineering, afforestation and planning controls to
restrict urban development on floodplains.

The impact of flooding

Floods can cause damage to homes and possessions as well as disruption to communications.
However, flooding can also have positive impacts on an area.

Flooding deposits fine silt (alluvium) onto the floodplain, making it very fertile and excellent for
agriculture. People living on or near floodplains may rely upon regular flooding to help support
their farming and therefore provide food.

LEDCs tend to be affected more than MEDCs by the effects of flooding. This is partly because
LEDCs have more farms, and farming communities are attracted to fertile flood plains. LEDCs
often do not have the resources to prevent flooding or deal with the aftermath of flooding.

MEDC case study: flooding in Boscastle, UK (2004)

Causes

 Over 60 mm of rainfall (typically a month's rainfall) fell in two hours.

 The ground was already saturated due to the previous two weeks of above average rainfall.

 The drainage basin has many steep slopes, and has areas of impermeable slate causing rapid surface
run-off.

 Boscastle is at the confluence (where tributaries meet) of three rivers - Valency, Jordan, and Paradise.
A large quantity of water all arrived within a short space of time causing the rivers to overflow.

 The flooding coincided with a high tide, making the impact worse.

Effects

 Homes, businesses and cars belonging to more than 1,000 people were swept away.

 Income from tourism was lost. This had an impact on livelihoods and the local economy.

 There were vast numbers of subsequent insurance claims.

 No lives were lost, partly due to the rapid response of the emergency services.

LEDC case study: causes and effects of flooding in Mozambique (2000)

The Mozambique floods of 2000 show that what happens in one country can very often affect
another.

The flooding was triggered by exceptionally heavy rain in South Africa, lasting for five weeks in
early 2000. Botswana was particularly badly hit, receiving 75 per cent of its yearly rainfall in

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three days. On 22 February, Cyclone Eline hit, bringing more heavy rainfall. The rain from
Botswana and other Southern African countries ran into the Limpopo, Zambezi and other rivers
which flow through Mozambique to the sea. These rivers eventually burst their banks, causing
severe flooding in Mozambique.

In addition, the loss of grassland and draining of marshland for farms contributed to more
rapid surface run-off.

The results were disastrous: services were cut off and many people were stranded, homeless or
had died through drowning or disease. Urbanisation in South Africa may have contributed to the
large quantities of surface water run-off swelling the rivers.

River management

The Kariba dam on the Zambezi river

Steps can be taken to manage flooding. Often these steps involve trying to lengthen the amount
of time it takes for water to reach the river channel, thereby increasing the lag time. Flood
management techniques can be divided into hard- and soft-engineering options.

Hard options tend to be more expensive and have a greater impact on the river and the
surrounding landscape.

Soft options are more ecologically sensitive.

Hard-engineering options

Dam construction

 Dams are often built along the course of a river in order to control the amount of discharge.
Water is held back by the dam and released in a controlled way. This controls flooding.
 Water is usually stored in a reservoir behind the dam. This water can then be used to generate
hydroelectric power or for recreation purposes.
 Building a dam can be very expensive.

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 Sediment is often trapped behind the wall of the dam, leading to erosion further downstream.
 Settlements and agricultural land may be lost when the river valley is flooded to form a
reservoir.
River management

 The river channel may be widened or deepened allowing it to carry more water. A river channel
may be straightened so that water can travel faster along the course. The channel course of the river
can also be altered, diverting floodwaters away from settlements.
 Water is usually stored in a reservoir behind the dam. This water can then be used to generate
hydroelectric power or for recreation purposes.
 Altering the river channel may lead to a greater risk of flooding downstream, as the water is
carried there faster.

Soft-engineering options

Afforestation

 Trees are planted near to the river. This means greater interception of rainwater and lower river
discharge. This is a relatively low cost option, which enhances the environmental quality of the
drainage basin.
Managed flooding

It is also called ecological flooding.

 The river is allowed to flood naturally in places, to prevent flooding in other areas - for example,
near settlements.
Planning

 Local authorities and the national government introduce policies to control urban development
close to or on the floodplain. This reduces the chance of flooding and the risk of damage to property.
 There can be resistance to development restrictions in areas where there is a shortage of
housing. Enforcing planning regulations and controls may be harder in LEDCs.
Different interest groups have different views about flood management techniques:

 Governments and developers often favour large hard engineering options, such as dam building.
Building a dam and a reservoir can generate income. Profits can be made from generating electricity
or leisure revenue.
 Environmental groups and local residents often prefer softer options, such as planting trees. Soft
options cause little damage to the environment and do not involve the resettlement of communities.

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  Effective flood management strategies should be economically, environmentally and socially
sustainable. Sustainable strategies allow management without compromising the needs of future
generations.

The Impact of Natural Hazards

MEDC's v LEDC's

Natural hazards will affect More Economically Developed Countries

(MEDC's)in a differing way to those that occur in Less Economically
Developed Countries(LEDC's).

 Health Care: MEDC's have the medical resources and money to quickly

get appropriate aid to areas after a natural disaster. LEDC's often have to rely
on aid from overseas as their health system, which is inadequate. This
overseas aid takes time to arrive, which could mean far more casualties.

 Emergency Services: In MEDC's who have a volcanic or earthquake risk,

such as Japan and New Zealand,there are well thought out emergency
procedures. Practices in schools and places of work mean that people know
what to do it the event of a natural disaster. The Government's and military
have special emergency plans to help with the situation.

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 Often LEDC's do not have these emergency plans, and so (as seen in
TURKEY)far more damage can be done before the emergency services reach
the stricken area.

 Building Technology:  Countries such as Japan and the United States

have been at the fore front of developing buildings that have more chance of
resisting an earthquake. Most houses in San Francisco are made of wood, to
make them more flexible and allow them to move with the quake. Larger
skyscrapers are built with flexible foundations, which literally allow them to
sway during a quake, rather than being rigid and falling down. Many
countries in areas prone to natural hazards have building codes to say where
they can and cannot build, and how high the buildings can be. New Zealand
is a good example of where this occurs. LEDC's don't tend to have the
technology available or money to pay for it, and sooften their buildings are
very susceptible to earthquakes. One example was the Armenian earthquake
in 1988, which was 0.1 less on the Richter scale than Kobe, but killed 20,000
more people. Most of the Armenian houses were built of stone and so
collapsed instantly.

 Scientific Prediction: Scientists work throughout the world, trying to

predict earthquakes and volcanoes. So far they have found it very difficult to
predict earthquakes, although scientists monitoring the San Andreas Fault in
California have planted a huge number of seismographs in the ground to try

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 to detect even the faintest of tremors. Volcanoes generally are easier to
predict, although the specific time of the eruption is not so easy to do.
Scientists can measure changes within the mountain that helps them to
predict that the volcano is going to erupt. This usually allows the Local
Authorities sufficient time to evacuate people from the danger area (as seen
at both Mt. St. Helens and Mt. Pinatubo). However they still find it very
difficult to accurately predict the size of the eruption.MEDC's do tend to have
more investment for this type of research and development than LEDC's.

 Recovery:  MEDC's tend to be able to recover quickly from a natural

disaster, due to having the investment and technology needed to return the
area to as good as new as soon as possible. Because LEDC's often have to
rely on aid from overseas, this quick recovery is often impossible for them.

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*****the END of Topic*****

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