Active Filters

Prof.Satheesh Monikandan B
HOD-ECE
sathy24@gmail.com

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA

 Introduction

 Filters are circuits that are capable of passing signals

within a band of frequencies while rejecting or blocking
signals of frequencies outside this band. This property of
filters is also called “frequency selectivity”.
 Filter can be passive or active filter.

Passive filters:
filters The circuits built using RC, RL, or RLC
circuits.

Active filters : The circuits that employ one or more

op-amps in the design an addition to
resistors and capacitors

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA

 Types of Filters

• There are two broad categories of filters:

– An analog filter processes continuous-time signals
– A digital filter processes discrete-time signals.
• The analog or digital filters can be subdivided into
four categories:
– Low pass Filters
– High pass Filters
– Band stop Filters
– Band pass Filters

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA

 Analog Filter Responses

H(f) H(f)

0 f 0 f
fc fc

Ideal “brick wall” filter Practical filter

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA

 Ideal Filters

Lowpass Filter Highpass Filter

M(ω)

Stopband Passband
Passband Stopband

ωc ω ωc ω

Bandstop Filter Bandpass Filter

M(ω)

Passband Stopband Passband Stopband Passband Stopband

ωc ωc ω ωc ωc ω
1 2 1 2

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA

 Passive Filters
• Made up of passive components - resistors, capacitors and
inductors
• No amplifying elements (transistors, op-amps, etc)
• No signal gain
• 1st order - design is simple (just use standard equations to
find resonant frequency of the circuit)
• 2nd order - complex equations
• Require no power supplies
• Buffer amplifiers might be required
●
Desirable to use inductors with high quality factors

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA

 Inductor - BIG PROBLEM!

• Physical size, and large inductance values are required.

• Tuning inductors to the required values is time-consuming
and expensive for larger quantities of filters.
• Often prohibitively expensive.
●
Difficult to implement at frequencies below 1 kHz.
●
Lossy

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA

 Active Filter

• No inductors
• Made up of op-amps, resistors and capacitors
• Provides arbitrary gain
• Generally easier to design
• High input impedance prevents excessive loading of the driving
source
• Low output impedance prevents the filter from being affected
by the load
• Easy to adjust over a wide frequency range without altering the
desired response

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA

 Applications

 Active filters are mainly used in communication and

signal processing circuits.
 They are also employed in a wide range of applications
such as entertainment, medical electronics, etc.

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA

 Op Amp Advantages

• Advantages of active RC filters include:

– Reduced size and weight

– Increased reliability and improved performance
– Simpler design than for passive filters and can realize a
wider range of functions as well as providing voltage gain
– In large quantities, the cost of an IC is less than its passive
counterpart

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA

 Op Amp Disadvantages

• Active RC filters also have some disadvantages:

– limited bandwidth of active devices limits the highest
attainable pole frequency and therefore applications nearby
100 kHz (passive RLC filters can be used up to 500 MHz)
– require power supplies (unlike passive filters)
– increased sensitivity to variations in circuit parameters
caused by environmental changes compared to passive
filters.

• For many applications, particularly in voice and data

communications, the economic and performance advantages of
active RC filters far outweigh their disadvantages.

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA

 Categories of Filters
Low Pass Filters: High Pass Filters:
Pass all frequencies from dc Pass all frequencies that are
up to the upper cutoff above its lower cutoff
frequency. frequency
A
A v(dB)
v(dB)

-3dB { -3dB {

f
f f1
f2

Low-pass response High-pass response

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA
 Categories of Filters
Band Pass Filters: Band Stop (Notch) Filters:
Pass only the frequencies Eliminate all signals within
that fall between its values the stop band while passing
of the lower and upper all frequencies outside this
cutoff frequencies. band.
A v(dB)
A v(dB)

-3dB { -3dB {

f f
f1 f2 f1 f2

Band Pass Response Band Stop Response

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA
 Filter Response Characteristics
Av

Butterworth
Bessel
Chebyshev

f
09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA
 A low-pass filter is a filter that passes frequencies from 0Hz
to critical frequency, fc and significantly attenuates all other
frequencies.

roll-off rate
Vo

Actual response Ideal response

 Ideally, the response drops abruptly at the critical

09/12/15 fH
frequency, Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA
Passband of a filter is the
range of frequencies that
are allowed to pass
through the filter with
roll-off rate
minimum attenuation
(usually defined as less
than -3 dB of attenuation).

Transition region shows

the area where the fall-off
occurs.
Stopband is the range of frequencies that have the most
attenuation.

Critical frequency,
frequency fc, (also called the cutoff frequency)
defines the end of the passband and normally specified at the
point where the response drops – 3 dB (70.7%) from the
09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA
passband response.
 Vo

 At low frequencies, XC is very high and the capacitor

circuit can be considered as open circuit. Under this
condition, Vo = Vin or AV = 1 (unity).
 At very high frequencies, XC is very low and the Vo is
small as compared with Vin. Hence the gain falls and
09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA
drops off gradually as the frequency is increased.
 The bandwidth of an ideal low-pass filter is equal to
fc:

BW = f c

The critical frequency of a low-pass RC filter occurs

when
XC = R and can be calculated using the formula
below: 1
f c=
2π RC

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA

Passive single pole low pass filter
R

Vi C Vo or
ω0
XC H ( s )=
s +ω 0
V o= Vi
X C+ R where
1 s= jω
jωC 1
V o= V i= Vi ω
1
jωC
+R
1+ jω CR φ( ω)=−tan
−1
( )
ω0

1 1
H ( jω)= where ωo=
ω RC
1+ j
ω0

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA

 1
H ( jω)= ω → 0 ⇒ |Vo| = |Vi| ← max.
1+ jω CR
value
1 ω → ∞ ⇒ |Vo| = 0 ← min. value
V o= Vi
1+ jω CR vo
vo max

1 vo
ω= ⇒ |Vo| = ??
max

2
RC
ω
1 ωc
V o= Vi
1+ j H ( jω)
1
1 1
∣V o∣= 2 2 ∣V i∣= ∣V i∣ 1
√ 1 +1 √2 2

1
ω c =ω o = (cut-off frequency ) ω
RC ωc
09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA
 Bode Plot (single pole)
1 1 R
H ( jω)= =
1+ jω CR ω
1+ j
( ) ωo Vi C Vo

1
∣H ( jω)∣= Single pole low-pass filter

√
2
ω
⇒ 1+
( )
ωo

( √ ( ))
2
ω
∣H ( jω)∣dB =20 log 10∣H ( jω)∣=20 log10 1/ 1+
ωo

For ω>>ωo
ω
∣H ( jω)∣dB≈−20 log10
( ) ωo

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA

 Single-Pole Passive Filter

R v out ZC1/ sC
= =
v in R+ Z C R+1 /sC
vin C vout 1 1/ RC
¿ =
sCR+1 s+ 1/ RC

• First order low pass filter

• Cut-off frequency = 1/RC rad/s
• Problem : Any load (or source) impedance
will change frequency response.

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA

 Single-Pole Active Filter

R
vin C
vout

• Same frequency response as passive filter.

• Buffer amplifier does not load RC network.
• Output impedance is now zero.

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA

 One-pole (first-order)
low-pass filter.

 The critical frequency,

frequency fc is determined by the values of R
and C in the frequency-selective RC circuit.
 Each RC set of filter components represents a pole.
pole
 Greater roll-off rates can be achieved with more poles.
poles
 Each pole represents
09/12/15 a -20dB/decade
Active increaseMB,
Filters by Prof.Satheesh in roll-off.
INA
 The number of poles determines the roll-off rate of the
filter. For example, a Butterworth response produces
-20dB/decade/pole.
This means that:

 One-pole (first-order) filter has a roll-off of -20 dB/decade

 Two-pole (second-order) filter has a roll-off of -40 dB/decade
 Three-pole (third-order) filter has a roll-off of -60 dB/decade

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA

 The number of filter poles can be increased by
cascading.
cascading To obtain a filter with three poles,
cascade a two-pole with one-pole filters.

Three-pole (third-order) low-pass filter.

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA

 A high-pass filter is a filter that significantly attenuates or
rejects all frequencies below fc and passes all frequencies
above fc.
 The passband of a high-pass filter is all frequencies above
the critical frequency.

Vo

Actual response Ideal response

 Ideally, the response rises abruptly at the critical frequency,

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA
fL
Advantages of active filters over passive filters
1. By containing the op-amp, active filters can be
designed to provide required gain, and hence no
signal attenuation as the signal passes through
the filter.
2. No loading problem,
problem due to the high input
impedance of the op-amp prevents excessive
loading of the driving source, and the low output
impedance of the op-amp prevents the filter from
being affected by the load that it is driving.
3. Easy to adjust over a wide frequency range
without altering the desired response.
09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA
Single-pole active low-pass filter and response curve.

 This filter provides a roll-off rate of -20 dB/decade

above the critical frequency.
09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA
 The op-amp in single-pole filter is connected as a
noninverting amplifier with the closed-loop voltage
gain in the passband is set by the values of R1 and R2 :

R1
Acl ( NI )= +1
R2

 The critical frequency of the single-pole filter is :

1
f c=
2π RC

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA

 Sallen-Key is one of the most common configurations for
a second order (two-pole) filter.

 There are two low-pass

RC circuits that provide
a roll-off of -40
dB/decade above fc
(assuming a Butterworth
characteristics).
 One RC circuit consists
of RA and CA, and the
second circuit consists of
Basic Sallen-Key low-pass filter. R and C .
B B
09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA
 The critical frequency for the Sallen-Key filter is :

1
f c=
2π √ R A R B C A C B

For RA = RB = R and CA = CB = C, thus the critical

frequency :
1
f c=
2π RC

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA

 A three-pole filter is required to provide a roll-off rate of
-60 dB/decade.
dB/decade This is done by cascading a two-pole
Sallen-Key low-pass filter and a single-pole low-pass filter.
filter

Cascaded low-pass filter: third-order configuration.

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA
 A four-pole filter is required to provide a roll-off rate of
-80 dB/decade.
dB/decade This is done by cascading a two-pole
Sallen-Key low-pass filter and a two-pole Sallen-Key low-
pass filter.

Cascaded low-pass filter: fourth-order configuration.

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA

• Determine the capacitance values required to produce a
critical frequency of 2680 Hz if all resistors in RC low pass circuit
is 1.8kΩ

1
f c=
2π RC
1
C= =0 .033 μF
2πf c R

CA1=CB1=CA2=CB2=0.033
µf
• Both stages must have the same fc. Assume equal-value of
capacitor
09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA
 Low-Pass and High-Pass
Designs

High Pass Low Pass

v out 1 1
= =
v in 1
+1
1+ sRC v out 1/ RC
sCR sCR =
sRC s v in s +1/ RC
¿ =
RC ( s +1/ RC ) ( s+ 1/ RC )
09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA
 The critical frequency of a high-pass RC filter occurs
when
XC = R and can be calculated using the formula
below:
1
f c=
2π RC

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA

 Figure below shows the basic High-Pass filter circuit :

At critical frequency,
Resistance = Capacitance
R= X c
1
R=
ωc C
1
R=
2πf c C
So, critical frequency ;
1
f c=
09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh2π RC INA
MB,
 In high-pass filters, the roles of the capacitor and resistor are
reversed in the RC circuits as shown from Figure (a). The
negative feedback circuit is the same as for the low-pass filters.
 Figure (b) shows a high-pass active filter with a -20dB/decade
roll-off

09/12/15
Single-pole activeActive Filtersfilter
high-pass by Prof.Satheesh
and responseMB, INA
curve.
 Components RA, CA, RB, and CB form the second order
(two-pole) frequency-selective circuit.
 The position of the resistors and capacitors in the
frequency-selective circuit are opposite in low pass
configuration.
 There are two high-
pass RC circuits that
provide a roll-off of -40
dB/decade above fc
 The response
characteristics can be
optimized by proper
selection of the
feedback resistors,
resistors R1
09/12/15
and R2. Active FiltersSallen-Key
Basic by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA
high-pass filter.
 The critical frequency for the Sallen-Key filter is :

1
f c=
2π √ R A R B C A C B

For RA = RB = R and CA = CB = C, thus the critical

frequency :
1
f c=
2π RC

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA

 As with the low-pass filter, first- and second-order high-
pass filters can be cascaded to provide three or more poles
and thereby create faster roll-off rates.
A six-pole high-pass filter consisting of three Sallen-Key
two-pole stages with the roll-off rate of -120 dB/decade.
dB/decade

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh

Sixth-order high-pass filter MB, INA
 A band-pass filter passes all signals lying within a
band between a lower-frequency limit and upper-
frequency limit and essentially rejects all other
frequencies that are outside this specified band.

Actual response Ideal response

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA
 The bandwidth (BW) is defined as the difference
between the upper critical frequency (fc2) and the
lower critical frequency (fc1).

BW = f c2 − f c1
09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA
 The frequency about which the pass band is centered is
called the center frequency,
frequency fo and defined as the
geometric mean of the critical frequencies.

f o= √ f c1 f c2

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA

 The quality factor (Q) of a band-pass filter is the
ratio of the center frequency to the bandwidth.
fo
Q=
BW
 The higher value of Q, the narrower the bandwidth
and the better the selectivity for a given value of fo.
 (Q>10) as a narrow-band or (Q<10) as a wide-band
 The quality factor (Q) can also be expressed in
terms of the damping factor (DF) of the filter as :

1
Q=
DF
09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA
 OP AMP BANDPASS FILTERS

A bandpass filter consists of three separate components

1. A unity-gain low-pass filter whose cutoff frequency is w c2,
the larger of the two cutoff frequencies
2. A unity-gain high-pass filter whose cutoff frequency is w c1,
the smaller of the two cutoff frequencies
3. A gain component to provide the desired level of gain in
the passband.
These three components are cascaded in series. The resulting
filter is called a broadband bandpass filter, because the
band of frequencies passed is wide.

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA

 R A1 C A2
C A1
R A2 R B2
V in C B1
R B1 V out
R1 C B2
R3
R2
Two-pole high-pass Two-pole low-pass R4

 Band-pass filter is formed by cascading a two-pole high-

pass and two pole low-pass filter.
 Each of the filters shown is Sallen-Key Butterworth
configuration,
09/12/15 so thatActive
the roll-off
Filtersrate are -40dB/decade.
by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA
 A v (dB)
Low-pass response High-pass response
0

−3

f c1 fo f c2 f

 The lower frequency fc1 of the passband is the critical

frequency of the high-pass filter.
 The upper frequency fc2 of the passband is the critical
frequency of the low-pass filter.

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA

  The following formulas express the three frequencies of
the band-pass filter.
1 1
f c1 =
2π √ R A1 R B1 C A1 C B1
f c2 = √
2π √ R A2 R B2 C A2 C B2
f 0 = f c1 f c2

 If equal-value components are used in implementing

each filter, 1
f c=
09/12/15 2π RC
Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA
 It has outputs for low-pass, high-pass, and band-
pass.
 The center frequency is set by the integrator RC
circuits.
 The critical frequency of the integrators usually
made equal

 The band-pass output peaks sharply the center

frequency
09/12/15 giving it Active
a high Filters
Q. by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA
  Band-stop filter is a filter
which its operation is
opposite to that of the band-
pass filter because the
frequencies within the
bandwidth are rejected,
rejected and
the frequencies above fc1
and fc2 are passed.
passed

Actual response
 For the band-stop
filter, the bandwidth is a
band of frequencies
between the 3 dB points,
just as in the case of the
band-pass filter
response.
09/12/15 Active
Ideal Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA
response
 OP AMP BANDREJECT FILTERS

Like the bandpass filters, the bandreject filter consists of

three separate components
• The unity-gain low-pass filter has a cutoff frequency of w c1,
which is the smaller of the two cutoff frequencies.
• The unity-gain high-pass filter has a cutoff frequency of w c2,
which is the larger of the two cutoff frequencies.
• The gain component provides the desired level of gain in the
passbands.
The most important difference is that these components are
connected in parallel and using a summing amplifier.

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA

 Band-Stop (Notch) Filter
The notch filter is designed to block all frequencies that fall within its
bandwidth. The circuit is made up of a high pass filter, a low-pass filter
and a summing amplifier. The summing amplifier will have an output
that is equal to the sum of the filter output voltages.

Low pass Av(dB)

filter low-pass high-pass

f1
Summing
amplifier
{
-3dB

High pass
filter
Σ
v in v out

f2
f
f1 f2

Block diagram Frequency response

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA
 CL

RL RL
Ri Rf
+

+ +
Ri vo
vi +
RH
CH R
H

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA

  There are 3 characteristics of filter response :
i) Butterworth characteristic
ii) Chebyshev characteristic
iii) Bessel characteristic.

Comparative plots of three types of filter response

characteristics.

 Each of the characteristics is identified by the shape of the

response curve.
09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA
Filter response is characterized
by flat amplitude response in
the passband.

Provides a roll-off rate of -20

dB/decade/pole.

Filters with the Butterworth

response are normally used
when all frequencies in the
passband must have the
same gain.
gain

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA

Filter response is characterized
by overshoot or ripples in the
passband.
 Provides a roll-off rate
greater than -20dB/decade/pole.
 Filters with the Chebyshev
response can be
implemented with fewer
poles and less complex
circuitry for a given roll-off
Rate.

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA

Filter response is characterized by
a linear characteristic,
characteristic meaning
that the phase shift increases
linearly with frequency.
Filters with the Bessel response
are used for filtering pulse
waveforms without distorting the
shape of waveform.

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA

 The damping factor (DF) of an active filter determines which
response characteristic the filter exhibits.
 This active filter consists
of an amplifier,
amplifier a negative
feedback circuit and RC
circuit.
circuit
 The amplifier and
feedback are connected in a
non-inverting configuration.
configuration

General diagram of active

filter
09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA
 The value of DF required to produce a desired response
characteristics depends on order (number of poles) of the filter.
 A pole (single pole) is simply one resistor and one capacitor.
capacitor
 The more poles filter has, the faster its roll-off rate

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA

 Pole

• A pole is nothing more than an RC circuit

• n-pole filter → contains n-RC circuit.

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA

 Frequency transfer function of filter
H(jω)
( I ) Low-Pass Filter ( IV ) Band-Stop ( Notch ) Filter
∣H ( jω)∣=1 f<fo ∣H ( jω)∣=0 f L< f < f H
∣H ( jω)∣=0 f>fo ∣H ( jω)∣=1 f < f L and f > f H

( II) High-Pass Filter (V ) All-Pass (or phase-shift ) Filter

∣H ( jω)∣=0 f<fo ∣H ( jω)∣=1 for all f
∣H ( jω)∣=1 f>fo has a specific phase response

( III) Band-Pass Filter

∣H ( jω)∣=1 f L< f < f H
∣H ( jω)∣=0 f < f L and f > f H

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA

 Higher Order Op Amp Filters

 Higher order active filters have multiple poles in

their transfer functions, resulting in a sharper
transition from the passband to the stopband and
thus a more nearly ideal frequency response.

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA

 The bandwidth of a low-pass filter is the
same as the upper critical frequency.
 The bandwidth of a high-pass filter extends
from the lower critical frequency up to the
inherent limits of the circuit.
 The band-pass passes frequencies between
the lower critical frequency and the upper
critical frequency.

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA

 A band-stop filter rejects frequencies
within the upper critical frequency and
upper critical frequency.
 The Butterworth filter response is very flat
and has a roll-off rate of –20 dB
 The Chebyshev filter response has ripples
and overshoot in the passband but can
have roll-off rates greater than –20 dB

09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA

 The Bessel response exhibits a linear phase
characteristic, and filters with the Bessel
response are better for filtering pulse
waveforms.
 A filter pole consists of one RC circuit. Each
pole doubles the roll-off rate.
 The Q of a filter indicates a band-pass
filter’s selectivity. The higher the Q the
narrower the bandwidth.
 The damping factor determines the filter
response characteristic.
09/12/15 Active Filters by Prof.Satheesh MB, INA