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Aflatoxins: Causes & Effects

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ISSN: 972-7027 1 A Monthly Magazine of Agricultural and Biological Sciences
Volume XIII, Issue No. 09 Publishing Date: 1, February 2015 Pages: 148 75.00

N E W S L E T T E R
Aflatoxins: Causes & Effects
Sahil V. Patel1, Tejas C. Bosamia2, Hiren N. Bhalani2, Pratibha Singh3, Abhay Kumar1
1 Crop Improvement Unit, Directorate of Groundnut Research, Ivnagar Road, Junagadh 362 001, Gujarat
2 Dept. of Plant Biotechnology & Biotechnology, Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh 362 001, Gujarat
3Dept. of Biochemistry, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, 560 012, Karnataka

Aflatoxins are a group of naturally occurring
mycotoxins that are produced by Aspergillus flavus and
Aspergillus parasiticus, species of fungi that typically
affect corn and peanuts, which are ingredients, used in
both food and feed products. Aflatoxins, probably the
most studied and widely known mycotoxins, were first
noted in the early 1960’s and named after the
discovery that the source of turkey X disease was
Aspergillus flavus toxins (Williams et al., 2004).
Under favourable temperature and humidity
conditions these fungi grow on certain foodstuffs such
as groundnuts, maize, rice, figs and other dried foods,
spices and crude vegetable oils and tree nuts like
almonds, walnuts, pistachios and Brazil nuts, as a result
of fungal contamination before and after harvest.
Aflatoxins can accumulate through the food chain
posing a serious health concern to both humans and
animals. Aflatoxins are highly carcinogenic and
mutagenic in nature (Hudler, 1998) and have been
associated with various diseases, such as aflatoxicosis.
Aflatoxin contamination is influenced by
environmental factors such as geography, and
agriculture/ agronomic practices. The presence of
aflatoxins especially aflatoxin B1 on food such as
peanuts, milk, and corn can increase a person's risk
of liver cancer. Production of aflatoxin is optimal at
relatively high temperatures, so contamination is most
acute and widespread in warm, humid climates of the
tropical and subtropical regions of the world; even
aflatoxins have also been found in temperate countries
of Europe and North America.
Several types of aflatoxins are produced in nature.
Aflatoxin B1 is the most common in food and amongst
the most potent genotoxic and carcinogenic aflatoxins.
It is produced both by A. flavus and A. parasiticus.
Aflatoxin M1 is a major metabolite of aflatoxin B1 in
humans and animals, which may be present in milk
from animals fed with aflatoxin B1 contaminated feed.
The Table 1 shows a number of commodities that are
currently known to be contaminated with mycotoxins.
Aflatoxin-producing members of Aspergillus are
common and widespread in nature. The production of
aflatoxin due to the colonization and contamination by
the fungus can occur in crop plant in the field, at
harvest, during post harvest operations or when the
crop product is in storage. The rate and level of
contamination are dependent on temperature,
humidity and soil and storage conditions. The most
effective way to reduce aflatoxin contamination in
susceptible crops is particularly by stopping or
reducing the growth of the causative toxigenic fungi.
Traditionally, this can be achieved through the use of
fungicides for reducing fungal infections in growing
crops, by using correct storage methods for harvested
crops and the use of effective anti-mould preservatives
and adherence to proper postharvest processing,
transport and distribution practices.
Many mycotoxins, including aflatoxins, can form
during the growing stages of certain crops. Climate,
sources of fungal inoculum (or suitability of the fungal
substrate), potential insect vectors and the plant
response (or the plant susceptibility to fungal
infestation) can interact to result in specific mycotoxin
occurrence. Damage caused by insects can expose
susceptible tissues to colonization by toxigenic fungi
with subsequent mycotoxin formation.
Following harvest and during shipment and storage
of agricultural commodities, toxigenic mould growth
and potential mycotoxin production are influenced by
many factors including moisture level, temperature,
aeration, infestation by insects and other
microorganisms, storage time, chemical treatments,
spore infection density and storage conditions
(especially leakage of water or condensation).
By far the most critical environmental factors
determining whether a substrate will support mould
growth are moisture content, temperature and time.
Thus, drying, proper storage and suitable

Pages 140-142 Volume XIII, Issue No. 09

ISSN: 972-7027 1 A Monthly Magazine of Agricultural and Biological Sciences
Table 1. Natural occurrence of selected Mycotoxin.
S. No. Mycotoxinsa Major producing fungi Typical substrate in nature Biological effect
1 Alternaria (AM) mycotoxins Alternaria alternata Cereal grains, tomato, animal feeds M, Hm
2 Aflatoxin (AF) B1 Aspergillus flavus, Peanuts, corn, cottonseed, cereals, H,C,M,T
figs, most tree nuts, milk, sorghum,
3 and other aflatoxins Aspergillus parasiticus
walnuts
4 Citrinin (CT) Penicillium citrinum Barley, corn, rice, walnuts Nh,C(?),M
5 Cyclopiazonic acid (CPA) Aspergillus flavus, P. cyclopium Peanuts, corn, cheese Nr,Cv
6 Deoxynivalenon (DON) Fusarium graminearum Wheat, corn Nr
7 Cyclochlorotine (CC) P. islandicum Rice H,C
8 Fumonisins (FM) F. moniliforme Corn, sorghum H,Nr,C(?),R
9 Luteoskyrin (LT) P. islandicum, P. rugulosum Rice, sorghum H,C,M
10 Moniliformin (MN) F. moniliforme Corn Nr,Cv
Aspergillus ochraceus, Barley, cereals, feeds, maize, oats,
11 Ochratoxin A (OTA) Nh,T
P. verrucosum rice, wheat
12 Patulin (PT) P. patulum, P. urticae, Aspergillus clavatus Apple, apple juice, beans, wheat Nr,C(?),M
P. puberulum,
13 Penicillic acid (PA) Barley, corn Nr,C(?),M
Aspergillus ochraceus
14 Penitrem A (PNT) P. palitans Feedstuffs, corn Nr
15 Roquefortine (RQF) p. roqueforti Cheese Nr
16 Rubratoxin B (RB) P. rubrum, P. purpurogenum Corn, soybeans H,T
17 Sterigmatocystin (ST) Aspergillus versicolor, Aspergillus nidulans Corn, grains, cheese H,C,M
18 T-2 Toxin F. sporotrichioides Corn, feeds, hay D,ATA,T
12-13, Epoxytrichothecenes other than
19 F. nivale Corn, feeds, hay, peanuts, rice D,Nr
T-2 and DON
20 Zearalenone (ZE) F. graminearum Cereals, corn, feeds, rice G,M
transportation are of prime importance in prevention. References:
The prevention of mycotoxin contamination in storage Boutrif, E. (1998). "Prevention of aflatoxin in
is largely a matter of strict moisture control of the pistachios. Food, nutrition and agriculture 21.
crop. There must be no insect activity, as insects can FAO, United Nations.
create favourable microclimates for toxigenic fungal Chu, F. S. (1995). Mycotoxin analysis. In: I.J.Jeon and
growth; no moisture migration; no condensation or W.G. Ikins (eds). Analyzing Food for Nutrition
water leaks; and no rodent activity, as the moisture Labeling and Hazardous Contaminants, pp 283-
level could be increased by urination. In summary, 332. Marcel Dekker, New York, NY.
conditions which restrict fungal growth will almost Hudler, George W. (1998). Magical Mushrooms,
invariably limit or exclude mycotoxin production. Mischievous Molds: The Remarkable Story of the
Where harvesting occurs in dry weather, mycotoxin Fungus Kingdom and Its Impact on Human
contamination does not usually reach alarming Affairs. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-
proportions. It becomes a problem where harvesting is 691-07016-2.
done in very humid weather. In many developing Williams JH, Phillips TD, Jolly PE, Stiles JK, Jolly CM,
countries, the combination of insufficient drying Aggarwal D (2004). "Human aflatoxicosis in
equipment coupled with humid atmospheric developing countries: a review of toxicology,
conditions results in unacceptable levels of aflatoxin in exposure, potential health consequences, and
harvested groundnuts, tree nuts and other foods. interventions". Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 80 (5): 1106–
It is apparent that aflatoxin contamination is 22.
influenced by weather conditions such as rainfall and
temperature. Surveillance and monitoring of farm as
well as food and feed products are yet to be conducted
in a systematic way from many countries in Asia.
Nevertheless, it is fortunate that several important
groundnut producing countries have recognized the
problem and are supporting research and
monitoring/control activities aimed at mitigating the
problem.

Pages 140-142
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