Site Investigation (Principal Steps)

Literature search
1. review of published and unpublished information on project area
2. review of general history of site area
3. general appreciation of previous significant undertakings and construction works of relevance
to the site

Aerial photographic study

1. aerial photographs allow broad overview of project area
2. Such photographs allow identification of geomorphological aspects
3. recognition of such features as: topography, drainage patterns, vegetation, land use, and
sources of potential construction materials
4. stereographic pairs of photographs are particularly advantageous
5. the nature of topographic slopes can be identified
6. Additional features recognized include: landslides; major faults; anticlinal, synclinal and
dome structures
7. infra-red photography and sensing can identify water courses and springs
8. radar scanning can be employed for recognition of surface features where weather
interference affects other methods

Reconnaissance of surface geology

1. surface geology mapping
2. account to be taken of findings from literature search and aerial photographs
3. general appreciation of rock types, constituent make-up and structural properties,
geomorphological and weathering aspects

Geophysical survey
1. Offers advantages of being non-destructive, relatively fast and generally of low unit cost;
precision is, however, low
2. especially advantageous for tunnels in locating anomalous conditions which would need
detailed identification by direct methods
3. methods include seismic refraction and reflection surveys, electrical Resistivity soundings,
gravity surveys and magnetic surveys
4. applications of seismic studies include:
a) identification of material types
b) location of anomalous geological conditions e.g. buried valleys, shear zones and
weathered zones
c) location of bedrock horizon
d) assistance in choice of drill hole sites
5. Down-hole geophysical techniques include neutron density, sonic and seismic velocity
determinations, gamma-gamma and electro-resistivity techniques. These have proved useful
in studying stratification, geological structures, rock types and possible existence of cavities
and old mine workings. Down-hole cameras have proved useful in supplementing such work
in specific cases

Exploratory drilling
1. drilling is the most common exploration method used in civil works and provides geological
information specific to the drill hole area
2. the location of drill holes needs careful consideration in order to maximize the information
yielded and this does not necessarily mean arbitrarily spaced holes along the tunnel line
 3. drill holes should be considered to provide detailed exploration of: portals; topographic lows;
locations where deep weathering is suspected; water-bearing locations and important
associated structures; and shear zones
4. drilling of deep tunnel situations provide knowledge of rock types and geological conditions
specific to the tunnel horizon; this assists in the preparation of geological sections
5. soil and soft ground exploration is generally performed to determine thickness, type and
properties as of relevance to the tunnel site location
6. the rock drilling program needs clear specification on the requirements since the purpose may
include;
a) identification of geological types, stratigraphy and structure at tunneling horizon
b) determination of physical properties of rocks
c) establishing fracture pattern data for main rock types
d) determination of permeability and ground water conditions
e) establishing data on in situ stress levels
f) evaluation of rock strength characteristics in relation to blasting or mechanical
excavation
g) provision of data to evaluate probable support requirements
6. Field logs of geological data are probably the most important single aspect of the site
incestigation work; all available information needs to be recorded and suitably presented to
facilitate the searching of particular data which consequently may involve graghic and
narrative recording. The should information in the drilling log include:
a) geological descriptions of rocks and other materials encountered
b) records of any field tests performed
c) graphic details of core material such as lithology and structure
d) details of each core length recovered
e) drilling performance and general behaviuor at various depths
f) visual assessment of return drill fliud such as condition and amount
g) remarks on location of drilling fliud losses and core losses
h) groundwater conditions
i) any special requirements regarding casing or cementation
j) details regarding location of core in boxes

Test pits, drifts

1. allows direct access to a paricualr area through which the tunnel is to be driven; test pits and
drifts allow inspections of the rock conditions to be carried out and any required testing
performed
2. full-scale evaluations can be made
3. potential contractors can gain first-hand impressions of the anticipated tunneling conditions

In-situ testing
1. in-situ rock mechanics investigations provide:
a) evaluation of rock support and reinforcement requirements for temporary and permanent
phases of construction
b) evaluation of rock stability
c) assessment of suitability of various excavation constructions methods
d) provision of rock physical properties to assist tunnel construction evaluation
2. plate loading tests allow evaluation of the in situ deformational behavior of the rocks
associated with the tunnel, and are useful in providing guidance on the anticipated loading
and distribution on the support system
3. in situ stress measurements allow the intensity and direction of the stresses to be taken into
account during the tunnel design stage; flat jack and overcoring techniques are suitable for
tunnel preliminary investigations
 4. Deformation patterns around the tunnel can be assessed using instrumentation within the
excavation or from strain monitoring boreholes located in the rocks surrounding the tunnel.
Such rock deformation requirements are useful in assessing support requirements and
evaluation the effectiveness of various support systems
5. evaluation of loading of support systems using load cells and other forms of instrumentation

Laboratory work
1. determination of rock strength values and deformational behavior in uniaxial and triaxial
stress conditions for pre-and post-failure states
2. determination of elastic constants for the rocks
3. assessment of creep behavior characteristics
4. determination of rock joint strength values and influence of joint infilling (if present)
5. determination of permeability and porosity values
6. assessment of density and susceptibility to loss of strength due to weathering and other
factors
7. rock hardness and abrasive properties

Model testing
1. full-scale models are sometimes employed to assess the merits of particular aspects of the
detailed design
2. small-scale models are useful for testing particular features of the design , and offer a
relatively low cost means of assessment
3. models are useful for conveying a visual impressions of the overall geological setting along
the route of the tunnel
4. a rational design can be produced on the basis of the items
a) tunnel route evaluation
b) assessment of rock breakage and construction method
c) tunnel support evaluation and ground control aspects
d) Consideration of any special features such as ground de-watering, ground treatment, gas
problems etc.
5. Particular modeling techniques are available to assist in assessing designs:
a) Empirical models
b) Physical models
c) Mathematical models
6. Empirical models based on previous measurements or experience are useful tools providing
that they relate to the problem in question
7. Physical models either of full or reduced scale can be employed to investigate various aspects
of a proposed design. Such models often produce qualitative rather than quantitative results
but offer a relatively low cost means of assessment which gives an overall visual impression
of the geological setting along he tunnel route
8. Mathematical models are based on a series of assumptions with which the engineer should be
familiar. Such models can be used to assess a wide range of possible situations, but in general
they have derivation. A strong element of engineering common sense must be used with such
models

Actual construction
1. Detailed assessment of geological features as exposed during actual construction needs to be
recorded and taken into account in updating existing records; this involves regular and
systematic inspection of the tunnel face by a geologist
2. The implications of changes in rock types and their condition, in geological structure and in
hydrological character need assessment by a geologist in relation to the overall tunneling
project and associated works
Post-construction monitoring and performance
1. Monitoring to judge that the tunnel post-construction condition satisfies the expected
stability, performance and levels of safety as anticipated by the design forms an important
part of the overall project