Topic 1: Cell Biology—15 Hours for Both SL and HL

Subtopi
Subtopic c IB Points to Understand
Number
Introduction 1.1  According to the cell theory, living organisms are composed of
to cells cells.

1. Common features of cells:

a. Every living cell is surrounded by membrane, which
separates the cell contents from everything else outside.
b. Cells contain genetic material which stores all instructions
needed for cell’s activities.
c. Many of these activities are chemical reactions, catalysed
by enzymes produced inside the cell.
d. Cell have their own energy release system that powers all
activities.
2. Cell theory: important cellular theory which states that all
organisms are made of one or more cells, cells are the
smallest units of life, and cells come from other cells which
already exist.
a. All organisms are composed of one or more cells,
b. Cells are the smallest units of life,
c. All cells come from pre-existing cells.
3. Origins of the cell theory:
a. Robert Hooke (1662): Devised a compound microscope,
b. Anthonie van Leeuwenhoek (1680): made lenses to form
simple microscopes. A magnification of x240 was
achieved.
c. Robert Brown (1831): Observed and named the cell
nucleus.
d. Matthias Schleiden (1838): established cells as the
natural unit of form and function of living things.
e. Rudolf Virchow (1856): established that cells arise from
division of existing cells.
f. Louis Pasteur (1862): established that life doesn’t
spontaneously generate. Broth was sterilised and then
exposed to air or protected from air-borne spores. Only
the former was contaminated with bacteria.
4. Exceptions to the cell theory:
a. Skeletal muscle:
i. Made of muscle fibres, enclosed in membrane, but
are larger and contain hundreds of nuclei.
b. Giant algae (Acetabularia):
i. Can grow to large lengths – expected to have
many small cells, but they are unicellular (have
single nucleus)
c. Aseptate fungi:
i. Thread-like structures (hyphae)
ii. Not divided into subunits containing single
nucleus,
iii. Long undivided sections of hypha which contain
many nuclei.

 Organisms consisting of only one cell carry out all functions of life
in that cell.

5. Unicellular and Multicellular organisms:

a. Multicellular:
i. Consist of many cells that become specialised by
 differentiation (change in cell to become
specialised)
ii. Tissues form organs that form organ systems,
iii. Cells must express different genes (produce
different proteins)
iv. All cells in an organism have the same genetic
material but if some genes are expressed and
some aren’t, then resulting cells will be different.
b. Unicellular:
i. Formed from one cell that performs all functions of
life.
c. Comparison of two unicellular organisms:

Function Paramecium Chlamydomonas

Nutrition Feeds on smaller Produces its own
organisms by food by
ingesting and photosynthesis using
digesting them in a chloroplast that
vesicles (endocytosis) occupies much of the
cell
Growth Increases in size and Increases in size and
dry mass by dry mass due to
accumulating organic photosynthesis and
matter and minerals absorption of
from food minerals.
Response Reacts to stimuli, e.g. Reacts to stimuli
reverses its direction (senses) where the
of movement when it brightest light is with
touches a solid object its eyeshot and swims
towards it
Excretion Expels waste Expels waste
products of products of
metabolism, (e.g. CO2 metabolism (oxygen
from respiration from photosynthesis
diffuses out of the diffuses out of cell)
cell)
Metabolism Produce enzymes which catalyse different
chemical reactions in cytoplasm
Homeostasis Keeps internal conditions within limits (like
expels excess water by contractile vacuoles)
Reproduction Reproduce asexually using mitosis or sexually
by meiosis and gametes.
6. The Seven Functions of Life:
a. Nutrition – obtaining food to provide energy and materials
needed for growth
b. Growth – An irreversible increase in size
c. Response – the ability to react to changes in the
environment
d. Excretion – getting rid of waste products of metabolism
e. Metabolism – chemical reactions inside cell (cell
respiration)
f. Homeostasis – keeping conditions inside organism within
limits
g. Reproduction – producing offspring sexually or asexually

 Surface area to volume ratio is important in the limitation of cell

size.

7. Units of length in microscopy:

 = 1000 millimetres (mm)
1 metre (m)
1 millimetre (mm) = 1000 micrometres (µm)
1 micrometre (µm) = 1000 nanometres (nm)
8. Calculations using micrographs:

¿ image
actual ¿ cell (¿ mm)=
magnification

9. Importance of SA:V ratio:

a. Rate of reactions is proportional to the volume of the cell,
b. The rate at which substances are removed cross the
plasma membrane at the surface of the cell is dependent
on the surface area.
c. When ratio is small, substances won’t enter cell as quickly
and waste products will accumulate because they will be
produced more rapidly.
d. When ratio is small, cells may overheat as metabolism
produces heat faster that it is lost to the cell’s surface.
e. When ratio is high, the cell will be healthy and will
continue growth.
f. When cell grows, the volume of the cell increases by
cubing the cell radius.
g. When cell grows, the thin surface layer increases by
squaring the cell radius.
10. Increasing the SA:V ratio:
a. Intestinal tissue of the digestive tract may form a ruffled
structure (villi) to increase the surface area of the inner
lining
b. Alveoli within the lungs have membranous extensions
called microvilli, which function to increase the total
membrane surface

 Multicellular organisms have properties that emerge from the

interaction of their cellular components.

11. Multicellular organisms have specific cells for unique

functions:
a. Organisms consisting of a single mass of fused together
are multicellular
b. Functions: specific actions or jobs
c. Emergent properties: characteristics of the whole
organism
i. Arise from interaction of component parts of a
complex structure.

 Specialized tissues can develop by cell differentiation in

 multicellular organisms.

1. Cell differentiation in multicellular organisms:

a. Majority of multicellular organisms are made of highly
specialised cells to perform particular roles and functions.
b. Specialised cells are organised into tissues and organs,
c. Tissue: a group of similar cells that are specialised to
perform a particular function.
d. Organ: a collection of different tissues which performs a
specialised function.
2. Costs of cell specialisation:
a. Specialised cells are efficient at carrying out their
functions,
b. Resulting differences in cells due to division of labour.
c. Specialised cells are dependent on activities of other
cells.
d. Modification of cell structure to support differing functions
as reason for existence of non-typical cells.

 Differentiation involves the expression of some genes and not

others in a cell’s genome.

3. Cell specialisation:
a. Differentiation: the change in a cell to become specialised.
b. Nucleus contains DNA in thread-like chromosomes, linear
sequences of genes.
c. Genes control development of each cell within the mature
organism.
d. Genes: specific region of a chromosome, capable of
determining the development of a specific characteristic of
an organism OR a specific length of the DNA double helix
which codes for protein.
e. When a cell is becoming specialised, some of its genes
are being activated and expressed.

 The capacity of stem cells to divide and differentiate along

different pathways is necessary in embryonic development and
also makes stem cells suitable for therapeutic uses.

1. Stem cells:
a. Stem cells: populations of cells within organisms that
retain the ability to divide and differentiate into various cell
types.
b. Stem cells are not fully differentiated, therefore can
produce various cell types.
c. Stem cells can divide infinitely and produce copious
quantities of new cells – useful for regrowth.
d. Plants contain stem cells in meristematic tissue, which
occur near the root and step tips and are composed of
rapidly reproducing cells that produce new cells capable
of becoming various types of tissue within the root or
stem.
e. Pluripotent/Embryonic cells: retain the ability to form any
type of organism and can even form a complete organism.
f. When stem cells divide to form a type of tissue, they also
produce daughter cells that stay as stem cells, which
enables the continual production of a particular type of
tissue.
g. Problem: these cells can be distinguished only by the
 basis of their behaviour instead of their appearance.
2. Stem cell research and treatments:
a. Therapeutic cloning:
i. Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s disease that are
caused by the loss of proper functioning brain cells
ii. In diabetes, the pancreas is depleted of essential
cells and it is hoped that a stem cell implant could
have effects.
iii. Stargardt’s disease is an inherited disease caused
by both parents passing on a gene to their
offspring that codes for defect in processing of
vitamin A. This can cause vision loss, as vitamin A
is essential for light-sensitive cells in the retina to
function.
iv. Leukaemia is a type of cancer, which start when
mutations occur in genes that control cell division.
To cure leukaemia, cancer cells in bone marrow
that produce excess white blood cells must be
destroyed. This happens by chemotherapy but the
cells are killed, therefore stem cells are extracted
from fluid from pelvis and are returned to patient’s
body.
3. Ethical issues:
a. Use of pluripotent cells is controversial as they are
obtained from embryos, mainly from laboratories for in
vitro fertilisation.
b. Harvesting cells causes death of embryo
c. Sources of stem cells and ethical implications:

Cord blood stem Adult stem cells

Embryonic stem cells
cells
Almost unlimited Easy to obtain and Difficult to obtain due
growth potential store to limited amount and
deep placement in
tissues.
Can differentiate into Commercial collection Less growth potential
any type in the body. and storage services
already available
Higher risk of Fully compatible with Smaller risk of
becoming tumour cells the tissues of adult developing malignant
that grows from baby tumours. Fully
so no rejection compatible with adult
problems occur tissues – no rejection
Smaller risk of genetic Limited capacity to Limited capacity to
damage due to differentiate into differentiate into
accumulation of different cell types. As different cell types.
mutations that with well as limited quantity
adult stem cells that can be obtained
Removal of cells from The umbilical cord is Removal of stem cells
embryo kills it. discarded whether or doesn’t kill adult from
not stem cells are which they are taken.
extracted from it.
Ultrastructur 1.2  Prokaryotes have a simple cell structure without
e of cells compartmentalization.

1. Prokaryotic cells
a. Prokaryotes were the first organism to evolve and have
the simplest cell structure.
b. Mostly small in size and can be found anywhere (usually
 < 1µm in diameter)
2. Features of prokaryotic cells:

a. Prokaryotic cell wall: protects and maintains shape of cell.

Composed of carbohydrate-protein complex called
peptidoglycan. Some bacteria have additional layer of a
polysaccharide outside cell wall, enabling adhesion.
b. Plasma membrane: Controls movement of materials into
and out of cell. Plays a role in binary fission.
c. Cytoplasm: occupies interior of the cell. No
compartmentalisation within cytoplasm because there are
no internal membranes except the plasma membrane – all
cellular processes occur within cytoplasm
d. Flagella: allow cell to move, longer than pili, occur in
bacteria.
e. Pili: hair-like growths used for adhesion and joining
bacterial cells in prep for transfer of DNA (sexual
reproduction)
f. 70S Ribosomes: Sites of protein synthesis that occur in all
prokaryotic cells in large amounts. Give granular
appearance in electron micrograph
g. The nucleoid region: non-compartmentalised with single,
long, continuous, circular thread of DNA – bacterial
chromosome. Involved in cell control and reproduction.
h. Plasmids: small, circular DNA molecules that aren’t
connected to main bacterial chromosome. Replicate
 independently of chromosomal DNA. Plasmid DNA is not
required by cell under normal conditions but may help
adapting to other circumstances.
3. Binary fission
a. All organisms need to produce new cells. According to cell
theory, they can only divide from pre-existing cells.
b. Binary fission: type of reproduction whereby a single-
celled organism makes a copy of itself and splits in two.
c. Replication: the copying process that starts at particular
sequences of bases.
d. After chromosome divides, cell is divided into two
daughter cells, which each have a copy of the
chromosome, making them genetically identical.
e. Steps of cell cycle and binary fission:

 Eukaryotes have a compartmentalized cell structure.

4. Eukaryotic cells
a. Eukaryotes: group of organisms that have a compartment
within the cell that contains the chromosomes called the
nucleus and is bounded by the nuclear envelope that
consists of a double layer membrane.
b. Have more complicated internal structure.
c. Compartmentalisation: division into separate areas or
groups that allows different chemical reactions to be
separated.
d. Eukaryotic cells occur in organisms like fungi, algae,
protozoa, plants and animals.
e. Larger than prokaryotes, with a range of diameter 5-
100µm
f. Nucleus is usually noticeable in the cytoplasm.
g. Organelles: non-cellular structures that carry out specific
functions that enable the compartmentalisation of
eukaryotic cells that doesn’t occur in prokaryotes.
h. Phagocytosis: type of endocytosis.
5. Structure of eukaryotic cells
i. Endoplasmic reticulum: extensive network of
tubules/channels. Transports materials through internal
region of the cell.
i. Smooth ER: doesn’t have organelles like
ribosomes on exterior surface.
ii. Rough ER: has 80S ribosomes on exterior. Has
many unique enzymes embedded in surface:
1. Production of phospholipids,
2. Production of sex hormones,
3. Detoxification of drugs in liver,
4. Storage of calcium ions in muscle cells for
contraction,
5. Transportation of lipid-based compounds,
6. Helping liver release glucose to
bloodstream.
j. 80S ribosomes: protein synthesis in cell. May be free in
cytoplasm or attached to surface of ER. Composed of
RNA and protein.
k. Lysosomes (not in plants): intracellular digestive centres
arising from Golgi apparatus. Doesn’t have internal
structures. Sacs bounded by single membrane that
contain many hydrolytic enzymes that catalyse breakdown
of organic compounds. They fuse with old organelles from
cell to break them down. Also involved in the breakdown
of materials that can enter by phagocytosis. The interior
environment of lysosomes is acidic for enzymes to be
able to hydrolyse large molecules.
l. Golgi apparatus: Consists of flattened sacs that are
stacked called cisternae. Functions in collection,
packaging, modification and distribution of synthesised
materials. Vesicles carry modified materials. Especially
prevalent in glandular cells, which manufacture and
secrete substances.
 m. Mitochondria: rod-shaped organelles that appear
throughout cytoplasm. Close in size to bacterial cell. Have
their own DNA, independent from the cell. They have a
double membrane, the outer being smooth and the inner
being folded into cristae. The matrix is a semi-fluid
substances inside the inner membrane. Cristae allow for
more SA for chemical reactions to occur. These involve
ATP production – powerhouse of the cell. Mitochondria
produce and contain 70S ribosomes.

n. Nucleus: isolated region containing DNA. Bordered by

double membrane – the nuclear envelope, which allows
compartmentalisation of eukaryotic DNA, providing area
where it can carry out functions without distractions.
Nuclear membrane contains pores that allow for
communication with cytoplasm. DNA occurs in form of
chromosomes, which carry information for cell to exist.
DNA is the genetic material of the cell, enabling traits.
When cell isn’t undergoing division, chromosomes can’t
be seen. DNA is in the form of chromatin, formed of
strands of DNA and proteins called histones. This results
in a nucleosome, that consists of 8 histones with a DNA
strand secured by a 9th histone. Usually located in the
centre within the cytoplasm. Ribosome molecules are
manufactured in the nucleolus, that is a part of the
nucleus.
o. Chloroplasts (algae and plants): contain a double
membrane. Contains own DNA and 70S ribosomes. The
interior includes grana, thylakoids, (which are flattened
membrane sacs with components for light absorption) and
stroma, a fluid similar to cytosol, which occurs in grana
within the double membrane. Stroma contains enzymes
and chemicals for photosynthesis. It can reproduce
independently.

p. Centrosomes (centrioles missing in some plants):

Assembly of microtubules, which provide structure and
allow movement. Microtubules are important for cell
division. It is located at one end of the cell, close to the
nucleus.
q. Vacuoles: storage organelles, formed from Golgi
apparatus. Membrane-bound and occupy large space
inside plant cells. Can store different substances. Enable
larger SA:V. Allow uptake of water, which provides rigidity.
6. Comparing prokaryotes and eukaryotes:

Eukaryotes
Prokaryotes
 DNA in ring without protein DNA with proteins as
chromosomes/chromatin
DNA free in cytoplasm (nucleoid DNA enclosed in nuclear envelope
region) (nucleus)
No mitochondria Mitochondria present
70S ribosomes 80S ribosomes
No internal compartmentalisation Internal compartmentalisation
Size < 10 µm Size > 10 µm
Have outside boundary that involves plasma membrane
Carry out all seven functions of life
DNA is present in both cell types
7. Comparing plant and animal cells:

Plant cells
Exterior includes outer cell wall and
plasma membrane inside
Chloroplasts in cytoplasm area
Large centrally located vacuoles
Carbohydrates stored as starch
No centrioles within centrosome
area
Rigid cell wall present, fixed
angular shape of cell
8. Outermost parts of cells:
Animal cells
Exterior includes a plasma
membrane without cell wall
No chloroplasts
Vacuoles usually not present/small
Carbohydrates stored as glycogen
Contain centrioles within
centrosome area
Without cell wall – flexible, rounded
shape

Cell wall of peptidoglycan

Bacteri
a
Fungi Cell wall of chitin
Yeasts Cell wall of glucan and mannan
Algae Cell wall of cellulose
Plants Cell wall of cellulose
No cell wall, plasma membrane that secretes sugar and
Animals
glycoproteins that forms extracellular matrix.
 Electron microscopes have a much higher resolution than light
microscopes.
r. May enlarge objects x500 000, while light microscopes
can only magnify x2000.
s. Use electrons for high-resolution images (clarity)
t. Light microscopes allow for observing living specimens.

Membrane 1.3  Phospholipids form bilayers in water due to the amphipathic

structure properties of phospholipid molecules.

1. Phospholipids:
a. Phospholipids: lipids formed from two non-polar,
hydrophobic fatty acids, a hydrophilic, polar phosphate
group and glycerol. An important component of cell
membranes.
b. Hydrophilic properties: hydrogen bonds can easily form
between phosphate head and water molecules.
c. Hydrophobic properties: fatty acid tail doesn’t form
 hydrogen bonds with water molecules.
d. Amphipathic properties: molecule with both hydrophobic
and hydrophilic regions.
e. Polar: having a region of electrical charge.
f. Non-polar: without region of electrical charge.
2. Protein components:
a. Proteins of plasma membranes are globular proteins.
b. Some occur partially or fully buried in lipid bilayer –
integral proteins.
c. Peripheral proteins: superficially attached on either
surface of lipid bilayer.
3. Carbohydrate components:
a. Relatively short chain polysaccharides,
b. Occur on outer surface of plasma membrane
c. Some molecules are attached to glycoproteins and some
to glycolipids. These form glycocalyx, which functions as
cell-cell recognition, acting as receptor sites for chemical
signals and binding of cells into tissues.
4. Evidence for Davson-Danielli model of membrane structure:
a. cell contents flow out when the cell surface is ruptured – a
membrane barrier is present
b. water-soluble compounds enter cells less readily than
compounds that dissolve in lipids; this implies that lipids
are a major component of the cell membrane
c. in the presence of water (the environment of life)
phospholipid molecules arrange themselves as a bilayer,
with the hydrocarbon tails facing together, forming a
stable, strong barrier
d. protein is also present in cell membranes as a major
component – approximately sufficient to cover both
external surfaces of a lipid bilayer.
5. Fluid mosaic model

6. Evidence for modern fluid mosaic model by Singer-

Nicholson:
a. attempts to extract the protein from plasma membranes
indicated that, while some occurred on the external
surfaces and were easily extracted, others were buried
within or across the lipid bilayers; these proteins were
more difficult to extract
b. freeze-etching studies of plasma membranes confirmed
that when a membrane is, by chance, split open along its
mid-line, some proteins are seen to occur buried within or
across the lipid bilayers
c. experiments in which specific components of membranes
were ‘tagged’ by reaction with marker chemicals (typically
fluorescent dyes) showed component molecules to be
continually on the move within membranes – a plasma
 membrane could be described as strong but ‘fluid’
d. lipid bilayers contain molecules of an unusual lipid,
cholesterol, the presence of which disturbs the close-
packing of the bulk of the phospholipids of the bilayer; the
quantity of cholesterol present may vary with the ambient
temperatures that cells experience
e. on the outer surface of the plasma membrane, antenna-
like carbohydrate molecules form complexes with certain
of the membrane proteins (forming glycoproteins) and
lipids (forming glycolipids).

 Membrane proteins are diverse in terms of structure, position in

the membrane and function.

1. Membrane functions:
a. Primary function to form barrier through which ions and
hydrophilic molecules cannot pass easily.
b. Carried out by phospholipid bilayer.
c. Proteins in the membrane carry out six functions:

Hormone binding sites (receptors)

Immobilised enzymes with active site on the outside
Cell adhesion to form tight junctions between groups of cells in tissues
and organs.
Cell-cell communication (neurotransmitters at synapses)
Channels for passive transport to allow hydrophilic particles across by
facilitated diffusion
Pumps for active transport which use ATP to move particles across
membrane.
2. Types of proteins
a. Integral: hydrophobic, embedded in hydrocarbon chain in
centre of the membrane. Many are transmembrane and
extend across the membrane, with hydrophilic parts
projecting through regions of phosphate heads.
b. Peripheral: Hydrophilic on the surface, not embedded in
membrane. Attached to surface of integral proteins
(reversible) May have single hydrocarbon chain attached
to anchor protein to membrane surface.
3. Six general protein functions
a. sites for hormone-binding: have specific shapes exposed
to exterior that fit the shape of specific hormones.
Attachment between protein and hormone causes change
of shape which results in message being relayed to
interior of cell.
b. Enzymatic action: enzymes attached to membranes
catalyse chemical reactions. Enzymes can be on cell
interior or exterior. They are grouped to allow for
metabolic pathway.
i. Metabolic pathways: chemical pathway where a
series of enzymes produce intermediate
compounds to produce a final product required by
the organism.
c. Cell adhesion: to form junctions between groups of cells in
tissues and organs.
d. Cell-to-cell communication: carbohydrate molecules
attached to proteins that provide an identification label
that represents the cell of different types of species.
e. Channels for passive transport: proteins contain channels
that span membrane, which provides passages for
hydrophilic substance transport by facilitated diffusion.
i. In passive transport: material moves through
channel high → low concentration.
f. Pumps for active transport:
i. In active transport: proteins shuttle substance
from one side of membrane to another by
changing shape. This process requires adenine
triphosphate (ADP) and doesn’t require a
difference in concentration to occur.

 Cholesterol is a component of animal cell membranes.

1. Cholesterol
a. Cholesterol: lipid steroid found in animal membranes
b. Acts as fluidity buffer that prevents change.
c. Has effect of disturbing close-packing of phospholipids,
increasing flexibility of membrane.
 d. Plant cells don’t have cholesterol, depend on
modifications of phospholipid fatty acids (saturation) to
maintain characteristic.
e. Cholesterol molecules allow membranes to function
effectively at wide range of temperatures.

Membrane 1.4  Particles move across membranes by simple diffusion, facilitated

transport diffusion, osmosis and active transport.

1. Passive transport
a. Doesn’t require energy from ATP. Occurs in areas of
different concentrations of a substance. Movement occurs
from an area of higher concentration to a lower
concentration, along concentration gradient.
b. Diffusion: type of passive transport, which involves the
spreading of particles in liquids and gases due to particles
being in continuous random motion. Net movement
occurs from higher to lower concentration (down
gradient.) Doesn’t require energy.
i. Simple diffusion: involves particle movement
between phospholipids in the membrane. Occurs
only if phospholipid bilayer is permeable to
particles. Non-polar particles (O2) can diffuse. If
the concentration inside the cell is low due to
aerobic respiration and the concentration outside
of cell is higher, O2 will pass into cell through
plasma membrane. As the centre of membranes is
hydrophobic, ions with positive and negative
charges cannot pass. Polar molecules have partial
positive and negative charges and can diffuse at
low rates between the phospholipids (urea or
ethanol)
ii. Facilitated diffusion: type of diffusion involving a
membrane specific carrier proteins capable of
transporting ions and other particles that cannot
diffuse between phospholipids through the plasma
membrane. Carrier proteins change shape to
accomplish this, yet it doesn’t require energy.
Potassium channels that allow potassium to
move along a concentration gradient in nerve
cells. Potassium channels: transmembrane
proteins that allow K+ to move in and out of cell.
c. Osmosis: allows movement of H2O molecules through
membranes. They can move aquaporins which are
proteins with specialised channels. H2O move directly
through the membrane. H2O moving in and out of the cell
to keep the proper H2O concentrations in the cell. Partially
permeable membrane allows only certain substances to
pass through. A concentration gradient of H2O allows
movement to occur as a result of the difference between
solute solutions on either side of the membrane.
i. Osmolarity: solute concentration
ii. Hypertonic solutions are solutions with a lower
solute concentration and higher solvent
concentration. They have a higher concentration
than a hypotonic solutions. Water moves from
hypotonic to hypertonic.
iii. Hypotonic solutions: solutions with a higher
concentration of solute and lower solvent
 concentration
iv. Isotonic solutions: have an equal concentration of
solutes and solvents and when they occur on
either side of the membrane, they stop net
movement of H2O.
d. Passive transport will occur until an equilibrium is
reached.

2. Size and charge

a. Size and polarity determine the ease with which
substances can cross membranes. These and the ability
of molecules are arranged in the following manner:

3. Active transport
a. Process requiring energy from ATP, movement against
concentration gradient. Carried out by globular proteins in
membranes – “pump proteins”
b. Sodium-Potassium pump: Type of active transport carried
out by membrane proteins which keep the Na and K at
proper levels. A protein binds with sodium and potassium
to move them through membrane against concentration
gradient. Sodium is transported out of cell, while
potassium is transported into the cell. Functions in nerve
cells and allows continual action.
i. Nerve impulse involves rapid movements of Na+
and K+ across axon membrane. Axon is part of a
neuron (nerve cell) and consists of tubular
membrane with cytoplasm.
ii. Concentration gradients occur by facilitated
diffusion by concentration gradient between the
inside and outside of the cell.
iii. A protein in phospholipid bilayer opens to the
intracellular side and attaches three intracellular
Na+.
iv. Binding of Na+ causes ATP phosphorylation. ATP
has 3 phosphates attached, when phosporylation
occurs, it loses one resulting in ADP.
v. Phosphorylation: causes protein to change shape,
expelling Na+ to the exterior.
 vi. Two extracellular K+ bind to different protein
regions that causes release of the phosphate
group.
vii. Loss of phosphate group restores original shape,
causing release of K+ into intracellular space.

 The fluidity of membranes allows materials to be taken into cells

by endocytosis or released by exocytosis.

4. Endocytosis and exocytosis as types of active transport

a. Vesicle: small sac of membrane with a droplet of fluid
inside. They are spherical and are normally present in
eukaryotic cells. They are formed when a small region of
a membrane are pulled from the rest of the membrane.
This is carried out by proteins using energy from ATP.
b. Endocytosis: active transport in which substances are
brought into the cell. Occurs when portion of plasma
membrane is pinched off to enclose macromolecules. This
process involves a change in shape. It results in vesicle
formation that enters the cytoplasm. Membrane ends
reattach due to the hydrophilic and hydrophobic
properties. This wouldn’t occur if not for plasma
membrane’s fluid nature.
i. Phagocytosis: active transport of large particulate
matter
ii. Pinocytosis: active transport of extracellular fluids
c. Exocytosis: active transport in which substances are
released from the interior of the cell.
i. Protein exocytosis: begins at rough ER ribosomes.
Begins with production of protein by ribosomes of
rough ER that enters lumen, which is the inner
space of the endoplasmic reticulum. It exists the
ER to enter the cis side of the Golgi apparatus,
involving vesicles. As it moves through the Golgi
apparatus, it is modified and exits on trans side.
Finally, the modified protein moves and fuses with
plasma membrane, secreting cellular contents.
ii. Pancreas cells: production of insulin and its
secretion into bloodstream to regulate blood sugar
content.
iii. Neurotransmitters: released at synapses in
nervous system.

5. Fluidity of membranes
a. Fluidity: a property giving the ability to change shape,
allows membranes to form vesicles transporting
 substances from outside the cell into the interior.
b. Allows fusion of vesicles with plasma membrane, allows
release of produced materials to cell exterior.

 Vesicles move materials within cells.

1. Vesicles
a. Vesicles are small storage structures surrounded by
membrane in cells.
b. They are used to move materials around inside cells.
c. Example 1: occurs in secretory cells, where a protein is
synthesised by ribosomes on rough ER and accumulates
there. Vesicles containing protein will bud off rER and
carry the protein to Golgi apparatus, which gives protein
the final form. Then it moves to plasma membrane where
it is secreted.
d. Example 2: in growing cells, area of plasma membrane
must increase. Phospholipids are synthesised next to rER
and are inserted to rER membrane. Ribosomes on rER
synthesise membrane proteins which also enter the
membrane. Fusion occurs, increasing the area by a very
small amount. This can be used to increase the size of
organelles in the cytoplasm like lysosomes and
mitochondria.

The origin 1.5  Cells can only be formed by division of pre-existing cells.
of cells
1. Cell theory
a. All organisms are composed of one or more cells,
b. Cells are the smallest units of life.
c. All cells come from pre-existing cells.

 The first cells must have arisen from non-living material.

2. Louis Pasteur’s experiment

a. Used swan-necked flasks with samples of broth,
b. The broth was boiled to kill any present organisms
c. Fundi and other organisms appeared in the control group,
yet none were found in the boiled broth, illustrating that
 cells can only arise from pre-existing cells.

3. Origin of first cells

a. until 19th century, biologists believe that life could appear
from non-living material – “spontaneous generation.” This
has been falsified.

 The origin of eukaryotic cells can be explained by the

endosymbiotic theory.

1. Endosymbiotic theory
a. Symbiosis: is when two organisms live together
b. Theory presented by Lynn Margulis in 1981,
i. About 200,000,000 years ago, a bacterial cell took
a residence inside eukaryotic cell,
ii. the eukaryotic cell acted as predator
iii. eukaryotic and prokaryotic formed a symbiotic
relationship which is a condition in which two or
more species have a close relationship.
iv. The bacterial cell went through evolution to
become mitochondrion.
c. Evidence for endosymbiotic theory:
i. Mitochondria
1. are about the size of bacterial cells,
2. divide by fission like bacteria,
3. divide independently of host cell,
4. have their own 70S ribosomes for protein
production,
5. have their own circular DNA which
resembles prokaryotic DNA,
6. have two membranes on exterior,
consistent for engulfing process.
ii. DNA
1. Provides code
2. Most scientists believe that the more DNA
two species have in common, the more
they resemble one another.
iii. Chloroplasts
1. Reproduce by binary fission like
prokaryotes,
 2. Contain circular DNA, not associated with
histone proteins,
3. Contain 70S ribosomes like prokaryotes,
4. Transcribe mRNA from DNA and
synthesise proteins in ribosomes like
prokaryotes,
5. Similar in size to prokaryotes.
2. Origin of eukaryotic cell
a. As explained by endosymbiotic theory

Cell division 1.6  Mitosis is division of the nucleus into two genetically identical
daughter nuclei.

1. Cell division cycle

a. Cell division cycle is the cycle of growth and division of
pre-existing cells to form new cells.
b. Has three main stages:
i. Interphase,
ii. Division of nucleus by mitosis that results in two
nuclei, each with an identical set of chromosomes,
iii. Cytokinesis is the division of cytoplasm and whole
cell.

2. Mitosis
a. Mitosis: the division of nucleus into two genetically
 identical daughter nuclei
b. Allows cell to divide into two identical daughter cells with
one nuclei,
c. Prior to it occurring, DNA replication occurs during
interphase,
i. Each chromosome is converted from single DNA
molecule into two identical DNA molecules
(chromatids)
ii. During mitosis one of the chromatids pass to each
daughter nucleus.
d. Involved whenever cells with genetically identical nuclei
are required in eukaryotes (growth, tissue repair,
reproduction)
e. A continuous process but is divided into four phases:
prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
3. Phases of mitosis
a. Prophase:
i. Chromosomes become shorter and fatter due to
coiling –
supercoiling,
ii. The
nucleolus
breaks
down.
iii. Microtubules
grow from
MTOC
(microtubule
organising centres) to form a spindle-shaped array
that links the poles of the cell.
iv. At the end, the nuclear membrane breaks down.
b. Metaphase:
i. Spindle microtubules continue to grow and attach
centromeres to each chromosome.
ii. These attachment points
on opposite sites of each
centromere allow
chromatids of a
chromosome to attach
microtubules from
different poles.
iii. Microtubules are all put
under tension to test
whether the attachment
is correct. This happens
by shortening of
microtubules at
centromere.
iv. When attached correctly, chromosomes remain on
equator of the cell.
v. The nuclear membrane has broken down and
chromosomes have moved to equator.
c. Anaphase:
i. Usually the shortest phase of mitosis,
ii. Begins with splitting of two sister chromatids,
 iii. These chromatids are now chromosomes and
move towards
opposite poles of
the cell,
iv. Chromatid
movement arises
from shortening
of microtubules of
the spindle,
v. Due to
centromere being
attached to
microtubules, they move towards pole first,
vi. At the end, each pole of the cell has a complete,
identical set of chromosomes.
d. Telophase:
i. Chromatids have reached poles and are now
chromosomes.
ii. At each pole, the chromosomes are pulled into
tight group near MTOC and a nuclear membrane
reforms.
iii. Chromosomes uncoil and a nucleolus is formed,
iv. Mitosis is usually already dividing and the two
daughter cells enter interphase.
4. Mitotic index
a. Mitotic index: ratio between number of cells in mitosis in
tissue and the total number of observed cells.
number of cells∈mitosis
b. mitotic index=
total number of cells

 Chromosomes condense by supercoiling during mitosis.

1. Supercoiling of chromosomes
a. During mitosis, two chromatids that make up chromosome
have to be separated and moved to opposite poles of the
cell.
b. Human nuclei are on average < 5 µm in diameter but DNA
molecules are 50,000µm long.
c. Condensation of chromosomes: essential process of
packaging chromosomes into shorter structures during
prophase. This process occurs by repeatedly coiling the
DNA molecule to make the chromosome shorter and
wider (supercoiling) Proteins called histones that are
associated with DNA in eukaryotic chromosomes help
with supercoiling and involves enzymes.

 Cytokinesis occurs after mitosis and is different in plant and

animal cells.

1. Cytokinesis
a. Cytokinesis: involves division of cytoplasm that occurs
after mitosis. It occurs differently in plant and animal cells.
b. In plant cells:
i. Cell wall involved,
ii. cell plate: structure which forms in plant cells to
allow cytokinesis, forms midway between two
groups of chromosomes, which are results of
mitosis. Cell plate begins to form in central area of
cell. It the continues to form towards both sides.
This continues until the two nuclei cell is separated
 into two halves. Each becomes a one nucleus cell
that is called daughter cell.
iii. Golgi apparatus forms vesicles of new cell wall
materials, which along the line of the equator of
the spindle, known as cell plate.
c. In animal cells:
i. No cell wall and no cell plate involved,
ii. Occurs when plasma membrane pinches inward
from the outside. The pinching inward continues
until cytoplasm of the cell with two nuclei is
separated into two, resulting in daughter cells.

d. Follows telophase, the last phase of mitosis,

 Interphase is a very active phase of the cell cycle with many

processes occurring in the
nucleus and cytoplasm.

1. Interphase
a. The longest part of the
cell cycle of variable
length,
b. Very active phase in the
life of a cell when
metabolic reactions
occur,
c. In interphase, number
of mitochondria in
cytoplasm increase due
to growth and division of mitochondria.
d. Consists of three phases:G1 phase, S phase and G2
phase.
e. S phase: cell replicates all genetic material in nucleus, so
that after mitosis both cells have complete set of genes,
f. Some cells don’t enter the G2 phase because they will
never divide therefore there’s no need to prepare for
mitosis. They enter the G0 phase which can be both
temporary and permanent.
2. DNA packaging in chromosomes
a. Total length of human DNA is over 2 m, shared between
46 chromosomes.

 Cyclins are involved in the control of the cell cycle.

1. Cyclins
a. Cyclins: group of proteins used to ensure tasks are
performed at correct time and that the cell only moves to
next stage of the cell cycle at an appropriate time,
b. Cyclins bind to enzymes called cyclin-dependent kinases
that become active and attach phosphate groups to other
proteins in the cell. Attachment of phosphate triggers
activation of other proteins that carry out tasks specific to
the phases of the cycle.
c. There are four main types of cyclin in human cells.

2. Discovery of cyclins
a. Serendipitous discovery by Tim Hunt and his sea urchin
egg experiment.

 Mutagens, oncogenes and metastasis are involved in the

development of primary and secondary tumours.

1. Cancer
a. Tumours: abnormal groups of cells that develop at any
stage of life in any part of body,
i. In some cases cells adhere to each other and do
not invade nearby tissues or move to body parts,
and are unlikely to cause harm and are classified
as benign.
ii. In others, cells can become detached and move
elsewhere in the body and develop into secondary
tumours that are malignant and likely to be life-
threatening.
b. Cancer: diseases due to malignant tumours that have
diverse causes.
c. Carcinogens: chemicals and agents that cause cancer.
Where carcinomas are malignant tumours
d. all mutagens are carcinogenic, both chemical and high
energy radiation like X-rays and short-wave UV light. This
occurs because mutagens are agents that cause
mutations that can cause cancer.
e. Mutation: random change to the base sequence of genes.
 f.
Oncogenes: few genes that can become cancer-causing
after undergoing mutation. They are involved in control of
cell cycle and cell division, so mutations in them can result
in uncontrolled cell division and tumour formation.
2. Smoking and cancer
a. Correlation: in science is a relationship between two
variable factors.
i. Positive: when one factor increases and the other
one also increases, they also decrease together.
ii. Negative: one factor decreases and the other
increases.
b. In medical research, data shows that the more cigarettes
smoked per day, the higher the death rate due to cancer.

Topic 2: Molecular Biology—21 Hours for Both SL and HL

Subtopic Subt IB Points to Understand

opic
Num
ber
Molecule 2.1  Molecular biology explains living processes in terms of the chemical
s to substances involved.
metabolis
m 1. Molecular biology
a. Explains the range of living processes in terms of chemical
substances involved. This approach has revolutionised biology
knowledge.
b. Elements: units of pure substance that make up the world. The Earth
is composed of 92 elements in varying quantities. 16 elements are
required by cells, so are essential for life.
i. Four major elements that living matter consists of are: carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.

2. Predominating elements
a. Living things contain H2O and most other molecules contain carbon
compounds with hydrogen and oxygen, including carbohydrates,
lipids and nucleic acids. These are known as organic compounds.

 Carbon atoms can form four covalent bonds allowing a diversity of stable
compounds to exist.

1. Significance of carbon
a. Atoms bond to form molecules that produce a stable arrangement of
electrons in the outer shells of each atom. Atoms are most stable
when the outer shell of electrons is complete.
b. Carbon can form four strong, stable covalent bonds.
c. Covalent bonds: strongest bonds found in biological molecules.
Therefore, they require the most energy to break. Carbon atoms are
able to form covalent bonds with oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur,
forming organic molecules.
d. Carbon atoms can react with each other to form stable chains that
can be straight, branched or rings.
e. Four covalent bonds of C atoms point to the corner of a regular
tetrahedron (pyramid with triangular base) This occurs due to four
pairs of electrons repelling each other, positioning themselves as far
apart as possible.
 f. Carbon atoms can form more than one bond between them. They can
form a double bond which makes the molecule unsaturated.
g. all organic compounds can be divided into function groups that give
them characteristic chemical properties.

2. Drawing molecules:

a. Ribose: C5H10O5
i. Molecule is a five-membered ring with a side chain,
ii. Four carbon atoms are in the ring
and one forms the side chains,
iii. the carbon atoms can be
numbered starting with number 1 on
the right,
iv. the hydroxyl groups (OH) on
carbon atoms 1, 2 and 3 points up,
down and down respectively.

b. Glucose: C6H12O6
i. Molecule is six-membered ring with a side chain,
ii. five carbon atoms are in the ring
and one forms side chain,
iii. carbon atoms are
numbered starting with 1 on the
right,
iv. the hydroxyl (OH) on
1,2,3,4 point down, down, up
and down respectively.
 c. Saturated fatty acids:
i. Carbon atoms form unbranched chain,
ii. in saturated fatty acids they are bonded to each other by
single bonds,
iii. one end of the chain the carbon atom is part of carboxyl
group,
iv. at the other end the carbon atom is bonded to the hydrogen
atoms,
v. all other carbon atoms are bonded to two hydrogen atoms.
d. Amino acids:
i. a carbon atom in the
centre of the molecule is
bonded to:
1. an amine group,
2. a carboxyl group,
3. a hydrogen
atom,
4. the R group, a
variable part of
amino acids.
3. Identifying molecules based on their contents
a. Proteins contain C, H, O and N whereas carbohydrates and lipids
contain C, H and O, but not N.
b. Many proteins contain S but carbohydrates and lipids don’t.
c. Carbohydrates contain H and O in 2:1,
d. Lipids contain less O than carbohydrates.

 Life is based on carbon compounds including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins

and nucleic acids.

1. Classifying carbon compounds

a. Carbohydrates: composed of C, H and O (2:1),
b. Lipids: insoluble in water, fats in solid at room temperature and oils if
liquid at room temperature.
c. Proteins: composed of one or more amino acid chains, which contain
C, H, O, N but two of the 20 amino acids contain S,
d. Nucleic acids: chains of subunits called nucleotides, which contain C,
H, O, N and P. There are two types:
i. Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
ii. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

 Metabolism is the web of all the enzyme-catalysed reactions in a cell or

organism.

1. Metabolism as enzyme-catalysed reaction

 a. Metabolism: sum total of all cellular reactions in cell or organism.
i. Consists of pathways by which a type of molecule is
transformed into another in series of small steps.
b. Catalyst: substance that increases the rate of reaction without being a
reactant or product.
i. Catalysts can be protein molecules (enzymes) that catalyse
one reaction each.
ii. Most of these reactions happen in the cytoplasm, yet some
are extracellular, like digestion in small intestine.
2. Factors determining if reaction occurs
a. Identity of colliding molecules,
b. Orientation of colliding molecules,
c. Speed of molecules at collision.
3. Metabolism = Anabolism + Catabolism
a. Some enzyme-catalysed reactions convert large molecules (like food)
into smaller simpler molecular forms – catabolism.
b. Others convert small, simple molecules into larger complex molecules
– anabolism.

 Anabolism is the synthesis of complex molecules from simpler molecules

including the formation of macromolecules from monomers by condensation
reactions.

1. Anabolism
a. Anabolism: reactions that build up larger molecules from smaller
ones.
i. Protein synthesis through ribosomes,
ii. DNA synthesis during replication,
iii. Photosynthesis, production of C6H12O6 from H2O and CO2,
iv. Synthesis of complex carbohydrates like starch, cellulose and
glycogen.
b. Examples of condensation: to reform larger biochemically significant
molecules – reverse of hydrolysis.

 Catabolism is the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler molecules

including the hydrolysis of macromolecules into monomers.

1. Catabolism
a. Catabolism: breakdown of complex molecules into simpler molecules
including hydrolysis of macromolecules. This process releases energy
in ATP form, which can be used by cell.
i. Digestion of food in mouth, stomach and small intestine,
ii. Cell respiration where glucose or lipids are oxidised to H2O
and CO2,
iii. Digestion of complex carbon compounds in dead organic
matter by decomposers.
 Urea as an example of a compound that is produced by living organisms but
can also be synthesised.

1. Synthesis of urea
a. Urea: nitrogen-containing compound with simple molecular structure.
A component of urine, where it was first discovered. Produced when
excess amino acids are in body, to excrete N from amino acids.
b. Produced in liver by a cycle of reactions catalysed by enzymes.
c. Transported by blood stream into kidneys where it is filtered and
released as urine.
d. Can be synthesised artificially by:
ammonia +carbon dioxide → ammonium carbonate → urea+ water
2. Falsification of vitalism theory
a. Vitalism: a vital force could spark life created the molecules of living
matter.
b. Due to synthesis of urea by Friedrich Wohler in 1828, this theory was
falsified.
Water 2.2  Water molecules are polar and hydrogen bonds form between them.

1. Polarity of different molecules

2. Water as solvent of life

a. Water: molecules are formed by covalent bonds between an oxygen
atom and two hydrogen atoms.
b. bond between hydrogen and oxygen is a polar covalent bond, due to
the unequal sharing of electrons, as the nucleus of O is more
attractive to electrons than nuclei of H.
c. due to unequal electron sharing of electrons in H2O, as they partial
positive charge and oxygen has partial negative charge
i. therefore, H2O is bent. And H are on the same side of the
molecule and form one pole and oxygen forms the opposite
pole.
d. Anions: negatively charged particles (negative ions)
e. Cations: positively charged particles (positive ions)
i. Ionic bond: formed when positively charged particles attract
negatively charged particles
ii. H2O has partial charges, so attraction
is decreased
iii. Hydrogen bond: attraction between
water molecules. More of a weak
intermolecular force that forms when a
hydrogen atom in one polar molecule
is attracted when a slightly negative
atom of another polar covalent molecule.
iv. Water molecules are small, so there are many per unit volume
of water and large numbers of hydrogen bonds.

 Hydrogen bonding and bipolarity explain the cohesive, adhesive, thermal and
solvent properties of water.

3. Properties of H2O
a. Cohesion: binding together of two molecules of the same type,
i. Water molecules stick to each other due to hydrogen bonding,
which is useful for water transport in plants.
b. Adhesion: formation of hydrogen bonds can form between H2O and
other polar molecules, causing H2O to stick to them.
i. This is useful in leaves, where H2O adheres to cellulose
molecules in cell walls.
ii. When water evaporates from cell walls, it’s lost from leaf by
network of air spaces, adhesive forces cause water to be
drawn out of nearest xylem vessels. This keeps walls moist so
 they can absorb CO2 for photosynthesis.
c. Thermal properties:
i. High specific heat capacity: hydrogen bonds restrict motion of
H2O and increases in the temperature require hydrogen bonds
to be broken, which requires energy.
1. amount of energy needed to raise temperature is large,
so temperature of water remains stable.
ii. High latent heat of vaporisation: when a molecule evaporates
and separates from other molecules in a liquid and becomes
vapour.
1. Requires heat (latent heat of vaporisation)
2. Has a cooling effect,
3. Sweating is a good evaporative coolant.
iii. High boiling point: highest temperatures that it can reach in a
liquid state.
1. Water has hydrogen bonds that require energy to be
broken.
2. its boiling point is high, so water is liquid over a broad
range of temperatures.
d. Solvent temperatures:
i. Polar nature of water → forms shells around charged and
polar molecules, preventing them from clumping together and
keeping
ii. Water forms hydrogen bonds with polar molecules,
iii. Partially negative oxygen pole is attracted to cations and its
partially positive hydrogen pole is attracted to anion – both
dissolve.

 Substances can be hydrophilic or hydrophobic.

1. Hydrophilic substances
a. Hydrophilic: substances that are chemically attracted to water,
b. All substances that dissolve in water are hydrophilic (polar molecules
like glucose, cations and anions such as sodium and chloride ions.
2. Hydrophobic substances
a. Hydrophobic: substances that are insoluble in water but can dissolve
in other solvents like propanone.
b. Molecules are hydrophobic when they have no negative or positive
charger and are nonpolar.
c. Lipids are hydrophobic.
d. When nonpolar molecule is surrounded by H2O, hydrogen bonds form
but not between nonpolar molecule and the water molecules. If two
molecules are surrounded by H2O
 Thermal properties of water with methane

Carbohy 2.3  Monosaccharide monomers are linked together by condensation reactions to

drates form disaccharides and polysaccharide polymers.
and lipids
1. Carbohydrates
a. Any group of molecules referred to as ‘sugar’
2. Monosaccharides
a. Single sugar units
i. Smallest unit of carbohydrates
ii. Glucose, fructose, galactose
iii. Trioses with 3 carbons (C3H6O3)
iv. Pentose with 5 carbons (C5H10O5)
v. Hexose with 6 carbons (C6H12O6)
vi. Fit formula CnH2nOn
b. Alpha and beta glucose:

3. Disaccharides
a. Formed by condensation reactions by monosaccharides
i. Maltose = glucose + glucose,
ii. Sucrose = glucose + fructose
4. Polysaccharides
a. Built from many monosaccharide residues condensed together,
b. Macromolecule: large, complex organic molecules
c. Cellulose: major component of plant cell walls, support plant parts like
roots, stems and leaves.
i. Polysaccharide found in cell wall of plants.
ii. Linear molecule composed of β-glucose bound in 1-4
arrangement,
iii. Indigestible for animals (lack of enzyme that breaks down)
1. Cows can digest because of bacteria in stomach,
2. Caecotrophs (rabbits) re-ingest specialised faeces that
contain digested cellulose that’s broken down in
caecum.
d. Starch:
i. Energy storage polysaccharide found in plants,
ii. Composed of α-glucose subunits (in 1-4 arrangement),
iii. Available in two forms:
1. Amylose: linear (helical) molecule with 1,4 linkages
2. Amylopectin: branched with 1,4 and 1,6 linkages
e. Glycogen:
i. Polymer of α-glucose
ii. Chemically similar to amylopectin but larger and with more
branching.
iii. Body energy reserves that are used and

 Fatty acids can be saturated, monounsaturated or polyunsaturated.

1. Saturated fatty acids

a. Carbons carry as many hydrogen atoms as they can – saturated.
b. These are found in animal products like butter, bacon and fat in red
meat.
c. Solid at room temperature
 2. Monounsaturated fatty acids
a. Fatty acids that have one double bond,
b. The absence of two consecutive hydrogen atoms causes the
molecule to bend.
3. Polyunsaturated fatty acids
a. At least two double bonds
b. Origin: plants (olive oil),
c. Two or more carbons are not carrying the maximum number of atoms,
d. Lipids that contain polyunsaturated fatty acids are liquid at RTP,
e. the molecule has many bends due to electron repulsion.

 Unsaturated fatty acids can be cis or trans isomers.

1. Hydrogenation
a.
2. Cis fatty acids
a.

 Triglycerides are formed by condensation from three fatty acids and one
glycerol.

Proteins 2.4  Amino acids are linked together by condensation to form polypeptides.
 There are 20 different amino acids in polypeptides synthesized on
ribosomes.
 Amino acids can be linked together in any sequence giving a huge range of
possible polypeptides.
 The amino acid sequence of polypeptides is coded for by genes.
 A protein may consist of a single polypeptide or more than one polypeptide
linked together.
 The amino acid sequence determines the three-dimensional conformation of
a protein.
 Living organisms synthesize many different proteins with a wide range of
functions.
 Every individual has a unique proteome.

Enzymes 2.5  Enzymes have an active site to which specific substrates bind.
 Enzyme catalysis involves molecular motion and the collision of substrates
with the active site.
 Temperature, pH and substrate concentration affect the rate of activity of
enzymes.
 Enzymes can be denatured.
 Immobilized enzymes are widely used in industry.

Structure 2.6  The nucleic acids DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides.
of DNA  DNA differs from RNA in the number of strands present, the base
and RNA composition and the type of pentose.
 DNA is a double helix made of two antiparallel strands of nucleotides linked
by hydrogen bonding between complementary base pairs.

DNA 2.7  The replication of DNA is semi-conservative and depends on complementary

replicatio base pairing.
n,  Helicase unwinds the double helix and separates the two strands by breaking
transcript hydrogen bonds.
ion and  DNA polymerase links nucleotides together to form a new strand, using the
translatio pre-existing strand as a template.
n  Transcription is the synthesis of mRNA copied from the DNA base
sequences by RNA polymerase.
 Translation is the synthesis of polypeptides on ribosomes.
 The amino acid sequence of polypeptides is determined by mRNA according
to the genetic code.
 Codons of three bases on mRNA correspond to one amino acid in a
polypeptide.
 Translation depends on complementary base pairing between codons on
mRNA and anticodons on tRNA.

Cell 2.8  Cell respiration is the controlled release of energy from organic compounds
respiratio to produce ATP.
n  ATP from cell respiration is immediately available as a source of energy in
the cell.
 Anaerobic cell respiration gives a small yield of ATP from glucose.
 Aerobic cell respiration requires oxygen and gives a large yield of ATP from
glucose.

Photosyn 2.9  Photosynthesis is the production of carbon compounds in cells using light
thesis energy.
 Visible light has a range of wavelengths with violet the shortest wavelength
and red the longest.
 Chlorophyll absorbs red and blue light most effectively and reflects green
light more than other colours.
 Oxygen is produced in photosynthesis from the photolysis of water.
 Energy is needed to produce carbohydrates and other carbon compounds
from carbon dioxide.
 Temperature, light intensity and carbon dioxide concentration are possible
limiting factors on the rate of photosynthesis.
 Topic 3: Genetics—15 Hours for Both SL and HL

Subtopic Subtopic IB Points to Understand

Number
Genes 3.1  A gene is a heritable factor that consists of a length of DNA and influences
a specific characteristic.

1. Genetics as a branch in biology

a. Storage of information in living organisms,
b. Comes from genesis that means origins,
2. What is a gene?
a. A heritable factor that consists of a length of DNA
b. Heritable: a genetic trait passed on from parent to offspring,
c. Influences a specific characteristics
3. Comparing numbers of genes

 A gene occupies a specific position on a chromosome.

4. Gene location
a. Locus: specific place where a gene is found on a chromosome,

 The various specific forms of a gene are alleles.

5. Gregor Mendel
a. The father of genetics,
b. Crossed varieties of pea plants to deduce that the
differences between the varieties that he crossed
together due to heritable factors,
c. Pairs of heritable factors are alternatives of the same
gene
6. Alleles as different forms of the same gene
d. Allele: version of a gene, that differ by one or more bases,
e. They occupy the same position on the chromosome (one locus)
f. only one allele can occupy the locus of the gene on a chromosome,
g. most plant and animal cells have two copies of each chromosome,
h. different alleles allow for a single trait to have variants,
7. Cystic fibrosis:
i. Mucus: thick, slippery fluid that is used in many organs,
j. CTFR: gene found on chromosome 7 that plays role in mucus
production,
k. the mutated allele affects production, and excessive quantities of
mucus in organs
i. causes respiratory and digestion issues
 Alleles differ from each other by one or only a few bases.

8. The base difference in cystic fibrosis

a. When a base (A,T,C,G) is misplaced or substituted for a different
one, it can have dramatic results,
b. In cystic fibrosis, the difference between the two gene versions can
mean the difference in healthy and non-healthy organs.
9. Change of bases in ABCC11
c. ABCC11: determines if cerumen (ear wax) is wet or dry,
d. Sits on chromosome 16 and has two alleles (G for dry and A for
wet),

 New alleles are formed by mutation.

10. Mutations
a. Mutation: random change. No mechanism for particular mutation
being carried out.
b. Base substitution mutation: accidental change in one base of a
genetic sequence. Most significant type of mutation.
c. Eliminated after death if in body cells BUT develop into gametes
that are passed onto offspring, causing genetic disease.
11. Sickle Cell Anaemia
d. Causes:
i. Mutation of gene coding for alpha-globin polypeptide (in
haemoglobin) [Hb]
ii. HbA is the common gene  when base substitution occurs,
the 6th codon is converted from GAG to GTG (new allele =
HbS)
iii. Mutation inherited if in sex cells (gametes)
12. Cystic fibrosis

 The genome is the whole of the genetic information of an organism.

13. The Genome:

a. Genome: entire base sequence of each DNA molecule
b. In humans, it consists of 46 molecules that form chromosomes in
the nucleus + DNA molecule in mitochondrion.
i. Human genome contains 3 billion base pairs
ii. Base pair: a matching pair of nucleotides (A-T or C-G)
c. In plants, DNA molecules of chromosomes in nucleus + molecules
in mitochondrion AND chloroplast
d. In prokaryotes, smaller and consists of DNA in circular
chromosome + plasmids.
e. Sequence: order of bases in DNA fragment (locating A, T, C, G in
all genes of organism)
i. Highly specialised laboratory equipment is used
ii. Sequencers: machines that determine the order of bases in
a DNA fragment.
f. Limited organisms have had genes sequenced  baker’s yeast,
fruit fly, humans.

 The entire base sequence of human genes was sequenced in the Human
Genome Project.

14. The Human Genome Project

a. Began in 1990
b. Aim: to find the base sequence of the entire human genome
 c.

Applications:

 The causes of sickle cell anaemia, including a base substitution mutation,

a change to the base sequence of mRNA transcribed from it and a change
to the sequence of a polypeptide in haemoglobin.
 Comparison of the number of genes in humans with other species.

Nature of Science:

 Developments in scientific research follow improvements in technology:

gene sequencers, essentially lasers and optical detectors, are used for the
sequencing of genes.

Chromosomes 3.2  Prokaryotes have one chromosome consisting of a circular DNA molecule.
 Some prokaryotes also have plasmids but eukaryotes do not.
 Eukaryote chromosomes are linear DNA molecules associated with
histone proteins.
 In a eukaryote species there are different chromosomes that carry
different genes.
 Homologous chromosomes carry the same sequence of genes but not
necessarily the same alleles of those genes.
o Diploid nuclei have pairs of homologous chromosomes.
o Haploid nuclei have one chromosome of each pair.
 The number of chromosomes is a characteristic feature of members of a
species.
 A karyogram shows the chromosomes of an organism in homologous
pairs of decreasing length.
 Sex is determined by sex chromosomes and autosomes are
chromosomes that do not determine sex.

Meiosis 3.3  One diploid nucleus divides by meiosis to produce four haploid nuclei.
 The halving of the chromosome number allows a sexual life cycle with
fusion of gametes.
 DNA is replicated before meiosis so that all chromosomes consist of two
sister chromatids.
 The early stages of meiosis involve pairing of homologous chromosomes
and crossing over followed by condensation.
 Orientation of pairs of homologous chromosomes prior to separation is
random.
 Separation of pairs of homologous chromosomes in the first division of
meiosis halves the chromosome number.
 Crossing over and random orientation promotes genetic variation.
 Fusion of gametes from different parents promotes genetic variation.

Inheritance 3.4 1. Key terminology

a. Genotype: symbolic representation of the pair of alleles that is
possessed by an organism (two letters)
b. Phenotype: characteristics/traits of an organism,
c. Dominant allele: an allele that has same effect on phenotype
whether paired with the same allele or a different one. Always
expressed in phenotype.
d. Recessive allele: allele that has an effect only if homozygous,
e. Codominant alleles: pair of alleles that affect phenotype in a
heterozygote.
f. Locus: position on homologous chromosomes of a gene. Each is
found on specific chromosome pair.
g. Homozygous: two identical alleles of a gene,
 h. Heterozygous: two different alleles of a gene,
i. Carrier: individual who has recessive allele that doesn’t affect
phenotype,
j. Test cross: testing heterozygote plant/animal by crossing with
homozygous recessive (aa)

 Mendel discovered the principles of inheritance with experiments in which

large numbers of pea plants were crossed.

2. Gregor Mendel
a. Austrian monk,
b. The father of genetics,
c. Crossed varieties of pea plants to deduce that the differences
between the varieties that he crossed together due to heritable
factors,
d. Pairs of heritable factors are alternatives of the same gene.
3. Mendel’s results
e. Used artificial pollination in series of experiments,
f. Artificial pollination: process in which humans control plant
fertilisation by transferring the pollen from one specific flower to
another.

4. Inheritance
a. Inheritance: passing on a trait from one generation to the next.

 Gametes are haploid so contain only one allele of each gene.

5. Gametes
a. Gametes: cells that fuse to produce single cell
i. Also known as sex cells,
ii. Zygote: single cell produced when male and female
gametes fuse.
iii. Male and female gametes vary in size and motility,
iv. Parents pass on genes on their offspring in gametes,
v. Gametes contain one chromosome of each type  haploid.
vi. Haploid: Nuclei possessing only one set of chromosomes
are haploid (symbolised by n),

 The two alleles of each gene separate into different haploid daughter
nuclei during meiosis.
 Fusion of gametes results in diploid zygotes with two alleles of each gene
that may be the same allele or different alleles.

6. Fusion
a. Fusion: two cells that join together as one

 Dominant alleles mask the effects of recessive alleles but co-dominant

alleles have joint effects.
 Many genetic diseases in humans are due to recessive alleles of
autosomal genes, although some genetic diseases are due to dominant or
 co-dominant alleles.

7. Cystic fibrosis
a. What is cystic fibrosis?
i. Inherited disorder that causes severe damage to lungs,
digestive system and other organs
ii. affects cells that produce mucus, sweat and digestive
juices,
iii. normally mucus/sweat/digestive juices are thin and slippery,
iv. a defective gene causes secretions to be sticky and thick,
v. production of excessively thick, sticky mucus, resulting in
respiratory
b. Causes:
i. CTFR: a gene on chromosome 7, which plays role in
production of mucus. Mucus: a slimy protective secretion.
ii. An accidental change in a genetic sequence (mutation) of
the CTFR gene causes cystic fibrosis.
c. Recessive autosomal genetic diseases:
i. if anyone wants to find out if the offspring will have cystic
fibrosis, the genotypes of the parents should be determined
(genes of an organism for a particular trait) The following
steps would be used:
1. Use A to represent the allele for healthy mucus
production, and a for the allele for cystic fibrosis.
The allele that causes the disease is recessive so
the only way to get it is to have the genotype aa.
2. There are three possible genotypes: AA, Aa, and
aa. The mother must have at least one A since she
does not have cystic fibrosis. She must have at least
one a since her father was aa (he had cystic
fibrosis). We can eliminate the possibility that she is
AA so she must be Aa. In order to have cystic
fibrosis, the man in the couple cannot possess an A
allele. He can only be
aa.
3. Gametes (A and a for
the woman, a and a for
the man) are placed in
the side and top boxes
of the Punnett grid,
which is then filled in:
4. There is a 50% chance that their child will be aa and
have cystic fibrosis.
8. Huntington’s disease
a. What is it?
b. Causes:

 Some genetic diseases are sex-linked. The pattern of inheritance is

different with sex-linked genes due to their location on sex chromosomes.
 Many genetic diseases have been identified in humans but most are very
rare.
 Radiation and mutagenic chemicals increase the mutation rate and can
cause genetic diseases and cancer.

Genetic 3.5  Gel electrophoresis is used to separate proteins or fragments of DNA

modification according to size.
and
biotechnology 1. Gel electrophoresis
a. Gel electrophoresis: process of passing electricity through gel
matrix to separate fragments/molecules of proteins/nucleic acids.
 i.DNA sample is cut into fragments by specialised enzymes.
ii.Fragments vary in size and electrical charge magnitude.
iii.Fragments are put into wells at end of block of gel.
iv. Electric current run through gel.
v. Particles are separated between two ends of gel by size
and electrical charge.
vi. Separation process leaves pattern of bands different for
unique sample of DNA.
b. All DNA molecules carry negative charges  movement in same
direction but at different

 PCR can be used to amplify small amounts of DNA.

2. Polymerase Chain Reaction

a. Collection and Isolation of a DNA sample,
b. DNA in thermocycler, which contains free nucleotide phosphates
(A, T, C, G nucleotide phosphates)
i. Thermocycler: a machine used to produce many copies of
DNA from a cycle.
c.

 DNA profiling involves comparison of DNA.

 Genetic modification is carried out by gene transfer between species.
 Clones are groups of genetically identical organisms, derived from a single
original parent cell.

9. Cloning
a. Clone: an organism that has identical genetic material as its parent
cell.
10. Mimi the Mouse exercise + Process:
a. Isolation of donor cells (somatic and egg cell)
b. Removal of nucleus from egg cell, adding egg cell to Nuclear
Transfer Dish.
c. Transfer somatic cell nucleus to enucleated egg cell. This will take
time!
d. Stimulate cell division
e. Add drop of liquid chemical that mimics cellular events when egg
cell is fertilised by sperm cell from male mouse.
f. Implantation of embryo into surrogate mother,
11. Materials for cloning lab:
 a. Microscope,
b. Petri dishes,
c. Sharp pipette + Blunt pipette
d. Chemical stimulating cell division

 Many plant species and some animal species have natural methods of
cloning.
 Animals can be cloned at the embryo stage by breaking up the embryo
into more than one group of cells.
 Methods have been developed for cloning adult animals using
differentiated cells.
 Topic 4: Ecology—12 Hours for Both SL and HL

Subtopic Subtopic IB Points to Understand

Number
Species, 4.1  Species are groups of organisms that can potentially interbreed to
communities and produce fertile offspring.
ecosystems  Members of a species may be reproductively isolated in separate
populations.
 Species have either an autotrophic or heterotrophic method of
nutrition (a few species have both methods).
 Consumers are heterotrophs that feed on living organisms by
ingestion.
 Detritivores are heterotrophs that obtain organic nutrients from
detritus by internal digestion.
 Saprotrophs are heterotrophs that obtain organic nutrients from
dead organisms by external digestion.
 A community is formed by populations of different species living
together and interacting with each other.
 A community forms an ecosystem by its interactions with the
abiotic environment.
 Autotrophs obtain inorganic nutrients from the abiotic
environment.
 The supply of inorganic nutrients is maintained by nutrient cycling.
 Ecosystems have the potential to be sustainable over long
periods of time.

Energy flow 4.2  Most ecosystems rely on a supply of energy from sunlight.
 Light energy is converted to chemical energy in carbon
compounds by photosynthesis.
 Chemical energy in carbon compounds flows through food chains
by means of feeding.
 Energy released from carbon compounds by respiration is used in
living organisms and converted to heat.
 Living organisms cannot convert heat to other forms of energy.
o Heat is lost from ecosystems.
 Energy losses between trophic levels restrict the length of food
chains and the biomass of higher trophic levels.

Carbon cycling 4.3  Autotrophs convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrates and other
carbon compounds.
 In aquatic ecosystems carbon is present as dissolved carbon
dioxide and hydrogen carbonate ions.
 Carbon dioxide diffuses from the atmosphere or water into
autotrophs.
 Carbon dioxide is produced by respiration and diffuses out of
organisms into water or the atmosphere.
 Methane is produced from organic matter in anaerobic conditions
by methanogenic archaeans and some diffuses into the
atmosphere or accumulates in the ground.
 Methane is oxidized to carbon dioxide and water in the
atmosphere.
 Peat forms when organic matter is not fully decomposed because
of acidic and/or anaerobic conditions in waterlogged soils.
 Partially decomposed organic matter from past geological eras
was converted either into coal or into oil and gas that accumulate
in porous rocks.
 Carbon dioxide is produced by the combustion of biomass and
fossilized organic matter.
 Animals such as reef-building corals and mollusca have hard
parts that are composed of calcium carbonate and can become
 fossilized in limestone.

Climate change 4.4  Carbon dioxide and water vapour are the most significant
greenhouse gases.
 Other gases including methane and nitrogen oxides have less
impact.
 The impact of a gas depends on its ability to absorb long wave
radiation as well as on its concentration in the atmosphere.
 The warmed Earth emits longer wavelength radiation (heat).
 Longer wave radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gases that
retain the heat in the atmosphere.
 Global temperatures and climate patterns are influenced by
concentrations of greenhouse gases.
 There is a correlation between rising atmospheric concentrations
of carbon dioxide since the start of the industrial revolution 200
years ago and average global temperatures.
 Recent increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide are largely due
to increases in the combustion of fossilized organic matter.

 
Topic 5: Evolution and Biodiversity—12 Hours for Both SL and HL

Subtopic Subtopic IB Points to Understand

Number
Evidence for 5.1 Understandings:
evolution
 Evolution occurs when heritable characteristics of a species change.

1. Evolution summarised
a. Evolution: process of cumulative change in the heritable
characteristics of a population. It occurs by natural selection.
b. Heritable: a genetic trait which can be passed on to offspring.
c. Charles Darwin + Alfred Russell Wallace presented the theory
of evolution by natural selection in 1858.

 The fossil record provides evidence for evolution.

 Selective breeding of domesticated animals shows that artificial
selection can cause evolution.
 Evolution of homologous structures by adaptive radiation explains
similarities in structure when there are differences in function.
 Populations of a species can gradually diverge into separate species
by evolution.
 Continuous variation across the geographical range of related
populations matches the concept of gradual divergence.

Applications:

 Comparison of pentadactyl limb of mammals, birds, amphibians and

reptiles with different methods of locomotion.
 Development of melanistic insects in polluted areas.

Nature of Science:

 Looking for patterns, trends, discrepancies: there are common

features in the bone structure of vertebrate limbs despite varied use.

Natural selection 5.2  Natural selection can only occur if there is variation among members
of the same species.
 Mutation, meiosis and sexual reproduction cause variation between
individuals in a species.
 Adaptations are characteristics that make an individual suited to its
environment and way of life.
 Species tend to produce more offspring than the environment can
support.
 Individuals that are better adapted tend to survive and produce more
offspring while the less well adapted tend to die or produce fewer
offspring.
 Individuals that reproduce pass on characteristics to their offspring.
 Natural selection increases the frequency of characteristics that make
individuals better adapted and decreases the frequency of other
characteristics leading to changes within the species.

Classification of 5.3  The binomial system of names for species is universal among
biodiversity biologists and has been agreed and developed at a series of
congresses.
 When species are discovered they are given scientific names using
the binomial system.
 Taxonomists classify species using a hierarchy of taxa.
 All organisms are classified into three domains.
  The principal taxa for classifying eukaryotes are kingdom, phylum,
class, order, family, genus and species.
 In a natural classification, the genus and accompanying higher taxa
consist of all the species that have evolved from one common
ancestral species.
 Taxonomists sometimes reclassify groups of species when new
evidence shows that a previous taxon contains species that have
evolved from different ancestral species.
 Natural classifications help in identification of species and allow the
prediction of characteristics shared by species within a group.

Cladistics 5.4  A clade is a group of organisms that have evolved from a common
ancestor.
 Evidence for which species are part of a clade can be obtained from
the base sequences of a gene or the corresponding amino acid
sequence of a protein.
 Sequence differences accumulate gradually so there is a positive
correlation between the number of differences between two species
and the time since they diverged from a common ancestor.
 Traits can be analogous or homologous.
 Cladograms are tree diagrams that show the most probable
sequence of divergence in clades.
 Evidence from cladistics has shown that classifications of some
groups based on structure did not correspond with the evolutionary
origins of a group or species.
Topic 6: Human Physiology—20 Hours for Both SL and HL

Subtopic Subtopic IB Points to Understand

Number
Digestion and 6.1  The contraction of circular and longitudinal muscle of the small
absorption intestine mixes the food with enzymes and moves it along the gut.
 The pancreas secretes enzymes into the lumen of the small
intestine.
 Enzymes digest most macromolecules in food into monomers in
the small intestine.
 Villi increase the surface area of epithelium over which absorption
is carried out.
 Villi absorb monomers formed by digestion as well as mineral ions
and vitamins.
 Different methods of membrane transport are required to absorb
different nutrients.

The blood system 6.2  Arteries convey blood at high pressure from the ventricles to the
tissues of the body.
 Arteries have muscle cells and elastic fibres in their walls.
 The muscle and elastic fibres assist in maintaining blood pressure
between pump cycles.
 Blood flows through tissues in capillaries. Capillaries have
permeable walls that allow exchange of materials between cells in
the tissue and the blood in the capillary.
 Veins collect blood at low pressure from the tissues of the body
and return it to the atria of the heart.
 Valves in veins and the heart ensure circulation of blood by
preventing backflow.
 There is a separate circulation for the lungs.
 The heart beat is initiated by a group of specialized muscle cells in
the right atrium called the sinoatrial node.
 The sinoatrial node acts as a pacemaker.
 The sinoatrial node sends out an electrical signal that stimulates
contraction as it is propagated through the walls of the atria and
then the walls of the ventricles.
 The heart rate can be increased or decreased by impulses brought
to the heart through two nerves from the medulla of the brain.
 Epinephrine increases the heart rate to prepare for vigorous
physical activity.

Defense against 6.3  The skin and mucous membranes form a primary defense against
infectious disease pathogens that cause infectious disease.
 Cuts in the skin are sealed by blood clotting.
 Clotting factors are released from platelets.
 The cascade results in the rapid conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin
by thrombin.
 Ingestion of pathogens by phagocytic white blood cells gives non-
specific immunity to diseases.
 Production of antibodies by lymphocytes in response to particular
pathogens gives specific immunity.
 Antibiotics block processes that occur in prokaryotic cells but not in
eukaryotic cells.
 Viruses lack a metabolism and cannot therefore be treated with
antibiotics. Some strains of bacteria have evolved with genes that
confer resistance to antibiotics and some strains of bacteria have
multiple resistance.

Gas exchange 6.4  Ventilation maintains concentration gradients of oxygen and

carbon dioxide between air in alveoli and blood flowing in adjacent
 capillaries.
 Type I pneumocytes are extremely thin alveolar cells that are
adapted to carry out gas exchange.
 Type II pneumocytes secrete a solution containing surfactant that
creates a moist surface inside the alveoli to prevent the sides of
the alveolus adhering to each other by reducing surface tension.
 Air is carried to the lungs in the trachea and bronchi and then to
the alveoli in bronchioles.
 Muscle contractions cause the pressure changes inside the thorax
that force air in and out of the lungs to ventilate them.
 Different muscles are required for inspiration and expiration
because muscles only do work when they contract.

Neurons and 6.5  Neurons transmit electrical impulses.

synapses  The myelination of nerve fibres allows for saltatory conduction.
 Neurons pump sodium and potassium ions across their
membranes to generate a resting potential.
 An action potential consists of depolarization and repolarization of
the neuron.
 Nerve impulses are action potentials propagated along the axons
of neurons.
 Propagation of nerve impulses is the result of local currents that
cause each successive part of the axon to reach the threshold
potential.
 Synapses are junctions between neurons and between neurons
and receptor or effector cells.
 When presynaptic neurons are depolarized they release a
neurotransmitter into the synapse.
 A nerve impulse is only initiated if the threshold potential is
reached.

Hormones, 6.6  Insulin and glucagon are secreted by β and α cells of the pancreas
homeostasis and respectively to control blood glucose concentration.
reproduction  Thyroxin is secreted by the thyroid gland to regulate the metabolic
rate and help control body temperature.
 Leptin is secreted by cells in adipose tissue and acts on the
hypothalamus of the brain to inhibit appetite.
 Melatonin is secreted by the pineal gland to control circadian
rhythms.
 A gene on the Y chromosome causes embryonic gonads to
develop as testes and secrete testosterone.
 Testosterone causes pre-natal development of male genitalia and
both sperm production and development of male secondary sexual
characteristics during puberty.
 Estrogen and progesterone cause pre-natal development of
female reproductive organs and female secondary sexual
characteristics during puberty.
 The menstrual cycle is controlled by negative and positive
feedback mechanisms involving ovarian and pituitary hormones.

 
Additional Higher Level Topics

Topic 7: Nucleic Acids—9 Hours for HL Only

Subtopic Subtopic IB Points to Understand

Number
DNA structure and 7.1  Nucleosomes help to supercoil the DNA.
replication  DNA structure suggested a mechanism for DNA replication.
(HL ONLY)  DNA polymerases can only add nucleotides to the 3’ end of a
primer.
 DNA replication is continuous on the leading strand and
discontinuous on the lagging strand.
 DNA replication is carried out by a complex system of
enzymes.
 Some regions of DNA do not code for proteins but have other
important functions.

Transcription and gene 7.2  Transcription occurs in a 5’ to 3’ direction.

expression  Nucleosomes help to regulate transcription in eukaryotes.
(HL ONLY)  Eukaryotic cells modify mRNA after transcription.
 Splicing of mRNA increases the number of different proteins
an organism can produce.
 Gene expression is regulated by proteins that bind to specific
base sequences in DNA.
 The environment of a cell and of an organism has an impact
on gene expression.

Translation 7.3  Initiation of translation involves assembly of the components

(HL ONLY) that carry out the process.
 Synthesis of the polypeptide involves a repeated cycle of
events.
 Disassembly of the components follows termination of
translation.
 Free ribosomes synthesize proteins for use primarily within
the cell.
 Bound ribosomes synthesize proteins primarily for secretion
or for use in lysosomes.
 Translation can occur immediately after transcription in
prokaryotes due to the absence of a nuclear membrane.
 The sequence and number of amino acids in the polypeptide
is the primary structure.
 The secondary structure is the formation of alpha helices and
beta pleated sheets stabilized by hydrogen bonding.
 The tertiary structure is the further folding of the polypeptide
stabilized by interactions between R groups.
 The quaternary structure exists in proteins with more than
one polypeptide chain.
Topic 8: Metabolism, Cell Respiration, and Photosynthesis—14 Hours for HL Only

Subtopic Subtopic IB Points to Understand

Number
Metabolism 8.1  Metabolic pathways consist of chains and cycles of enzyme-catalysed
(HL ONLY) reactions.
 Enzymes lower the activation energy of the chemical reactions that
they catalyse.
 Enzyme inhibitors can be competitive or non-competitive.
 Metabolic pathways can be controlled by end-product inhibition.

Cell respiration 8.2  Cell respiration involves the oxidation and reduction of electron
(HL ONLY) carriers.
 Phosphorylation of molecules makes them less stable.
 In glycolysis, glucose is converted to pyruvate in the cytoplasm.
 Glycolysis gives a small net gain of ATP without the use of oxygen.
 In aerobic cell respiration pyruvate is decarboxylated and oxidized, and
converted into acetyl compound and attached to coenzyme A to form
acetyl coenzyme A in the link reaction.
 In the Krebs cycle, the oxidation of acetyl groups is coupled to the
reduction of hydrogen carriers, liberating carbon dioxide.
 Energy released by oxidation reactions is carried to the cristae of the
mitochondria by reduced NAD and FAD.
 Transfer of electrons between carriers in the electron transport chain in
the membrane of the cristae is coupled to proton pumping.
 In chemiosmosis protons diffuse through ATP synthase to generate
ATP.
 Oxygen is needed to bind with the free protons to maintain the
hydrogen gradient, resulting in the formation of water.
 The structure of the mitochondrion is adapted to the function it
performs.

Photosynthesi 8.3  Light-dependent reactions take place in the intermembrane space of

s the thylakoids.
(HL ONLY)  Light-independent reactions take place in the stroma.
 Reduced NADP and ATP are produced in the light-dependent
reactions.
 Absorption of light by photosystems generates excited electrons.
 Photolysis of water generates electrons for use in the light-dependent
reactions.
 Transfer of excited electrons occurs between carriers in thylakoid
membranes.
 Excited electrons from Photosystem II are used to contribute to
generate a proton gradient.
 ATP synthase in thylakoids generates ATP using the proton gradient.
 Excited electrons from Photosystem I are used to reduce NADP.
 In the light-independent reactions a carboxylase catalyses the
carboxylation of ribulose bisphosphate.
 Glycerate 3-phosphate is reduced to triose phosphate using reduced
NADP and ATP.
 Triose phosphate is used to regenerate RuBP and produce
carbohydrates.
 Ribulose bisphosphate is reformed using ATP.
 The structure of the chloroplast is adapted to its function in
photosynthesis.

 
Topic 9: Plant Biology—13 Hours for HL Only

Subtopic Subtopic IB Points to Understand

Number
Transport in the 9.1  Transpiration is the inevitable consequence of gas exchange in
xylem of plants the leaf.
(HL ONLY)  Plants transport water from the roots to the leaves to replace
losses from transpiration.
 The cohesive property of water and the structure of the xylem
vessels allow transport under tension.
 The adhesive property of water and evaporation generate
tension forces in leaf cell walls.
 Active uptake of mineral ions in the roots causes absorption of
water by osmosis.

Transport in the 9.2  Plants transport organic compounds from sources to sinks.
phloem of plants o Incompressibility of water allows transport along
(HL ONLY) hydrostatic pressure gradients.
 Active transport is used to load organic compounds into phloem
sieve tubes at the source.
 High concentrations of solutes in the phloem at the source lead
to water uptake by osmosis.
 Raised hydrostatic pressure causes the contents of the phloem
to flow towards sinks.

Growth in plants 9.3  Undifferentiated cells in the meristems of plants allow

(HL ONLY) indeterminate growth.
 Mitosis and cell division in the shoot apex provide cells needed
for extension of the stem and development of leaves.
 Plant hormones control growth in the shoot apex.
 Plant shoots respond to the environment by tropisms.
 Auxin efflux pumps can set up concentration gradients of auxin
in plant tissue.
 Auxin influences cell growth rates by changing the pattern of
gene expression.

Reproduction in 9.4  Flowering involves a change in gene expression in the shoot

plants apex.
(HL ONLY)  The switch to flowering is a response to the length of light and
dark periods in many plants.
 Success in plant reproduction depends on pollination,
fertilization and seed dispersal.
 Most flowering plants use mutualistic relationships with
pollinators in sexual reproduction.

 
Topic 10: Genetics and Evolution—8 Hours for HL Only

Subtopic Subtopic IB Points to Understand

Number
Meiosis 10.1  Chromosomes replicate in interphase before meiosis.
(HL ONLY)  Crossing over is the exchange of DNA material between non-sister
homologous chromatids.
 Crossing over produces new combinations of alleles on the
chromosomes of the haploid cells.
 Chiasmata formation between non-sister chromatids can result in an
exchange of alleles.
 Homologous chromosomes separate in meiosis I.
 Sister chromatids separate in meiosis II.
 Independent assortment of genes is due to the random orientation
of pairs of homologous chromosomes in meiosis I.

Inheritance 10.2  Gene loci are said to be linked if on the same chromosome.
(HL ONLY)  Unlinked genes segregate independently as a result of meiosis.
 Variation can be discrete or continuous.
 The phenotypes of polygenic characteristics tend to show
continuous variation.
 Chi-squared tests are used to determine whether the difference
between an observed and expected frequency distribution is
statistically significant.

Gene pools and 10.3  A gene pool consists of all the genes and their different alleles,
speciation present in an interbreeding population.
(HL ONLY)  Evolution requires that allele frequencies change with time in
populations.
 Reproductive isolation of populations can be temporal, behavioural
or geographic.
 Speciation due to divergence of isolated populations can be
gradual.
 Speciation can occur abruptly.
Topic 11: Animal Physiology—16 Hours for HL Only

Subtopic Subtopic IB Points to Understand

Number
Antibody production 11.1  Every organism has unique molecules on the surface of its
and vaccination cells.
(HL ONLY)  Pathogens can be species-specific although others can cross
species barriers.
 B lymphocytes are activated by T lymphocytes in mammals.
 Activated B cells multiply to form clones of plasma cells and
memory cells.
 Plasma cells secrete antibodies.
 Antibodies aid the destruction of pathogens.
 White cells release histamine in response to allergens.
 Histamines cause allergic symptoms.
 Immunity depends upon the persistence of memory cells.
 Vaccines contain antigens that trigger immunity but do not
cause the disease.
 Fusion of a tumour cell with an antibody-producing plasma
cell creates a hybridoma cell.
 Monoclonal antibodies are produced by hybridoma cells.

Movement 11.2  Bones and exoskeletons provide anchorage for muscles and
(HL ONLY) act as levers.
 Synovial joints allow certain movements but not others.
 Movement of the body requires muscles to work in
antagonistic pairs.
 Skeletal muscle fibres are multinucleate and contain
specialized endoplasmic reticulum.
 Muscle fibres contain many myofibrils.
 Each myofibril is made up of contractile sarcomeres.
 The contraction of the skeletal muscle is achieved by the
sliding of actin and myosin filaments.
 ATP hydrolysis and cross bridge formation are necessary for
the filaments to slide.
 Calcium ions and the proteins tropomyosin and troponin
control muscle contractions.

The kidney and 11.3  Animals are either osmoregulators or osmoconformers.

osmoregulation  The Malpighian tubule system in insects and the kidney carry
(HL ONLY) out osmoregulation and removal of nitrogenous wastes.
 The composition of blood in the renal artery is different from
that in the renal vein.
 The ultrastructure of the glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule
facilitate ultrafiltration.
 The proximal convoluted tubule selectively reabsorbs useful
substances by active transport.
 The loop of Henle maintains hypertonic conditions in the
medulla.
 ADH controls reabsorption of water in the collecting duct.
 The length of the loop of Henle is positively correlated with the
need for water conservation in animals.
 The type of nitrogenous waste in animals is correlated with
evolutionary history and habitat.

Sexual reproduction 11.4  Spermatogenesis and oogenesis both involve mitosis, cell
(HL ONLY) growth, two divisions of meiosis and differentiation.
 Processes in spermatogenesis and oogenesis result in
different numbers of gametes with different amounts of
cytoplasm.
  Fertilization in animals can be internal or external.
 Fertilization involves mechanisms that prevent polyspermy.
 Implantation of the blastocyst in the endometrium is essential
for the continuation of pregnancy.
 HCG stimulates the ovary to secrete progesterone during
early pregnancy.
 The placenta facilitates the exchange of materials between
the mother and fetus.
 Estrogen and progesterone are secreted by the placenta once
it has formed.
 Birth is mediated by positive feedback involving estrogen and
oxytocin.