Section 14
BEARINGS
14.1 SCOPE
This section contains requirements for the design and
selection of structural bearings.
The selection and layout of the bearings shall be con-
sistent with the proper functioning of the bridge, and shall
allow for deformations due to temperature and other time
dependent causes.
The loads induced in the bearings and structural mem-
bers depend on the stiffnesses of the individual elements
and the tolerances achieved during fabrication and erec-
tion. These influences shall be taken into account when
calculating design loads for the elements.
Units used in this section shall be taken as KIP, IN,
RAD, °F and Shore Hardness, unless noted.
14.2 DEFINITIONS
Bearing—A structural device that transmits loads while
facilitating translation and/or rotation.
Bronze Bearing—A bearing in which displacements or ro-
tations take place by the slip of a bronze surface against
a mating surface.
Cotton Duck Reinforced Pad (CDP)—A pad made from
closely spaced layers of elastomer and cotton duck,
bonded together during vulcanization.
Disc Bearing—A bearing which accommodates rotation
by deformation of a single elastomeric disc, molded
from a urethane compound. It may contain a device for
partially confining the disc against lateral expansion.
Double Cylindrical Bearing—A bearing made from two
cylindrical bearings placed on top of each other with
their axes at right angles to each other, in order to pro-
vide rotation about any horizontal axis.
Fiberglass Reinforced Pad (FGP)—A pad made from dis-
crete layers of elastomer and woven fiberglass, bonded
together during vulcanization.
Fixed Bearing—A bearing which prevents differential
longitudinal translation of abutting structure elements.
It may or may not provide for differential lateral trans-
lation or rotation.
385
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Knuckle Bearing—A bearing in which a concave metal
surface rocks on a convex metal surface to provide ro-
tation capability about any horizontal axis.
Longitudinal—The direction associated with the axis of
the main structural trusses or girders in the bridge.
Metal Rocker or Roller Bearing—A bearing which carries
vertical load by direct contact between two metal sur-
faces and which accommodates movement by rolling
of one surface with respect to the other.
Movable Bearing—A bearing that facilitates differential
horizontal translation of abutting structural elements in
a longitudinal and/or lateral direction. It may or may
not provide for rotation.
Plain Elastomeric Pad (PEP)—A pad made exclusively of
elastomer.
Pot Bearing—A bearing which carries vertical load by
compression on an elastomeric disc confined in a steel
cylinder and which accommodates rotations by defor-
mations of the disc.
PTFE Sliding Bearing—A bearing which carries vertical
load by contact stresses between a PTFE sheet or woven
fabric and its mating surface, and which permits move-
ments by sliding of the PTFE over the mating surface.
Rotation about the Longitudinal Axis—Rotation about an
axis parallel to the longitudinal axis of the bridge.
Rotation about the Transverse Axis—Rotation about an
axis parallel to the transverse axis of the bridge.
RMS—Root mean square.
Sliding Bearing—A bearing which accommodates move-
ment by slip of one surface over another.
Steel Reinforced Elastomeric Bearing—A bearing made
from alternate laminates of steel and elastomer, bonded
together during vulcanization.
Translation—Horizontal movement of the bridge in the
longitudinal or transverse direction.
Transverse—The horizontal direction normal to the lon-
gitudinal axis of the bridge.
14.3 NOTATIONS
A  Plan area of elastomeric bearing (in2)
B  length of pad if rotation is about its transverse
axis, or width of pad if rotation is about its longi-
tudinal axis (in)
386 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 14.3

c  Design clearance between piston and pot wall LW

  for rectangular bearings without
(in) 2hrmax (L
W)
holes
D  Diameter of the projection of the loaded surface of
D
the bearing in the horizontal plane (in)
Dd  Diameter of disc element (in)
Dp  Internal pot diameter in pot bearing (in)
D1  Diameter of curved surface of rocker or roller unit
(in)
D2  Diameter of curved surface of mating unit
(D2   for a flat plate) (in)
dj  Diameter of the jth hole in an elastomeric bearing
E  Young’s modulus (ksi)
Ec  Effective modulus in compression of elastomeric
bearing (ksi)
Es  Young’s modulus for steel (ksi)
e  Eccentricity of loading on a bearing (in)
Fsr  Allowable fatigue stress range for over 2,000,000
cycles (ksi)
Fy  Yield strength of the least strong steel at the con-
tact surface (ksi)
G  Shear modulus of the elastomer (ksi)
Hm  Maximum horizontal load on the bearing or re-
straint considering all appropriate load combina-
tions (kip)
hri  Thickness of ith elastomeric layer in elastomeric
bearing (in)
hrmax  Thickness of thickest elastomeric layer in elas-
tomeric bearing (in)
hrt  Total elastomer thickness in an elastomeric bear-
ing (in)
hs  Thickness of steel laminate in steel-laminated
elastomeric bearing (in)
I  Moment of inertia (in4)
L  Length of a rectangular elastomeric bearing (par-
allel to longitudinal bridge axis) (in)
Mm  Maximum bending moment (K-in)
n  Number of interior layers of elastomer
 Coefficient of friction
PD  Compressive load due to dead load (kip)
PTL  Compressive load due to live plus dead load (kip)
PL  Compressive load due to live load (kip)
Pm  Maximum compressive load considering all ap-
propriate load combinations (kip)
R  Radius of a curved sliding surface (in)
R0  Radial distance from center of bearing to object,
such as an anchor bolt, for which clearance must
be provided (in)
S  Shape factor of one layer of an elastomeric
bearing
Plan Area
  for circular bearings without holes
4hrmax
tw  Pot wall thickness (in)
W  Width of the bearing in the transverse direction
(in)
w  Height of piston rim in pot bearing (in)
  Effective angle of friction angle in PTFE bear-
ings  tan1 (Hm/PD)
O  Maximum service horizontal displacement of the
bridge deck (in)
s  Maximum shear deformation of the elastomer
(in)
  Instantaneous compressive deflection of bearing
(in)
m  Maximum compressive deflection of bearing (in)
  Instantaneous compressive strain of a plain elas-
tomeric pad
i  Instantaneous compressive strain in ith elastomer
layer of a laminated elastomeric bearing
 Component of maximum service rotation in di-
rection of interest on an elastomeric bearing under
load for Article 14.6.5.3
D  Maximum rotation due to dead load (rad)
L  Maximum rotation due to live load (rad)
m,x  Maximum rotation considering all appropriate
load and deformation combinations about trans-
verse axis (rad)
m,z  Maximum rotation considering all appropriate
load and deformation combinations about longi-
tudinal axis (rad)
m  Maximum design rotation considering all appro-
priate load and deformation combinations includ-
ing live and dead load, bridge movements, and
construction tolerances (rad)
D  Average compressive stress due to dead load
(ksi)
L  Average compressive stress due to live load (ksi)
TL  Average compressive stress due to total dead plus
live load (ksi)
m  Maximum average compressive stress (ksi)
14.4 MOVEMENTS AND LOADS
Bearings shall be designed to resist loads and accom-
modate movements. No damage due to joint or bearing
movement shall be permitted under any appropriate load
 
Area of Perimeter Free to Bulge and movement combination.

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14.4 DIVISION I—DESIGN
Translational and rotational movements of the bridge
shall be considered in the design of bearings. The se-
quence of construction shall be considered and all critical
combinations of load and movement shall be considered
in the design. Rotations about two horizontal axes and the
vertical axis shall be considered. The movements shall in-
clude those caused by the loads, deformations and dis-
placements caused by creep, shrinkage and thermal ef-
fects, and inaccuracies in installation. In all cases, both
instantaneous and long-term effects shall be considered,
but the influence of impact need not be included. The most
adverse combination of movements shall be used for de-
sign. All design requirements shall be tabulated in a ratio-
nal form such as shown in Figure 14.4.
14.4.1 Design Requirements
The minimum thermal movements shall be computed
from the extreme temperature defined in Article 3.16 of
Division I and the estimated setting temperature. Design
loads shall be based on the load combinations and load
factors specified in Section 3 of Division I.
The design rotation, m, for bearings such as elasto-
meric pads or steel reinforced elastomeric bearings which
do not achieve hard contact between metal components
shall be taken as the sum of:
—the dead and live load rotations.
—an allowance for uncertainties, which is normally
taken as less than 0.005 rad.
The design rotation, m, for bearings such as pot bearings,
disc bearings and curved sliding surfaces which may de-
velop hard contact between metal components shall be
taken as the sum of:
—the greater of either the rotations due to all applicable
factored loads or the rotation at the service limit state.
—the maximum rotation caused by fabrication and in-
stallation tolerances, which shall be taken as 0.01 rad
unless an approved quality control plan justifies a
smaller value.
—an allowance for uncertainties, which shall be taken
as 0.01 rad unless an approved quality control plan jus-
tifies a smaller value.
14.5 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR
BEARINGS
Bearings may be fixed or movable as required for the
bridge design. Movable bearings may include guides to
control the direction of translation. Fixed and guided bear-
Pm (14.5.3.1-1)
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387
ings shall have lateral strength adequate to resist all ap-
plied loads and restrain unwanted translation.
Combinations of different types of fixed or moveable
bearings should not be used at the same expansion joint,
bent or pier unless the effects of differing deflection and
rotational characteristics on the bearings and structure are
accounted for in the design.
14.5.1 Load and Movement Capabilities
The movements and loads to be used in the design
of the bearing shall be clearly defined on the contract
drawings.
14.5.2 Characteristics
The bearing chosen for a particular application must
have appropriate load and movement capabilities. Those
listed in Table 14.5.2-1 may be used as a guide. Figure
14.5.2-1 may be used as a guide in defining the different
bearing systems.
The following terminology shall apply to Table 14.5.2-1:
S  Suitable
U  Unsuitable
L  Suitable for limited applications
R  May be suitable but requires special considera-
tions or additional elements such as sliders or
guideways.
Long.  Longitudinal axis
Trans.  Transverse axis
Vert.  Vertical axis
14.5.3 Forces in the Structure Caused by Restraint
of Movement at the Bearing
Horizontal forces and moments induced in the bridge
by restraint of movement at the bearing shall be taken
into account in the design of the bridge and the bear-
ings. They shall be determined using the calculated
movements and the bearing characteristics given in
Article 14.6.
14.5.3.1 Horizontal Force
Horizontal forces may be induced by sliding friction,
rolling friction or deformation of a flexible element in the
bearing. The force used for design shall be the largest one
applicable.
Sliding friction force shall be computed as
Hm 
388 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 14.5.3.1

FIGURE 14.4

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14.5.3.1 DIVISION I—DESIGN 389

Table 14.5.2-1 Bearing Suitability

Rotation about bridge

Movement axis indicated Resistance to Loads

Type of Bearing Long Trans Trans Long Vert Vert Long Trans

Plain Elastomeric Pad S S S S L L L L

Fiberglass Reinforced Pad S S S S L L L L
Cotton Duck Reinforced Pad U U U U U S L L
Steel-reinforced Elastomeric Bearing S S S S L S L L
Plane Sliding Bearing S S U U S S R R
Curved Sliding Spherical Bearing R R S S S S R R
Curved Sliding Cylindrical Bearing R R S U U S R R
Disc Bearing R R S S L S S R
Double Cylindrical Bearing R R S S U S R R
Pot Bearing R R S S L S S S
Rocker Bearing S U S U U S R R
Knuckle Bearing U U S U U S S R
Single Roller Bearing S U S U U S U R
Multiple Roller Bearing S U U U U S U U

FIGURE 14.5.2-1 Typical Bearing Components

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390 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 14.5.3.1

where: 14.6 SPECIAL DESIGN PROVISIONS FOR

Hm  maximum horizontal load (kip)
 coefficient of friction
Pm  maximum compressive load (kip)
The force required to deform an elastomeric element shall
be computed as:
Hm  GAs /hrt (14.5.3.1-2)
where:
G  shear modulus of the elastomer (ksi)
A  plan area of elastomeric element or bearing (in2)
s  maximum shear deformation of the elastomer (in)
hrt  total elastomer thickness (in)
Rolling forces shall be determined by test.
14.5.3.2 Bending Moment
The bridge substructure and superstructure shall be de-
signed for the largest moment, Mm, which can be trans-
ferred by the bearing.
For curved sliding bearings without a companion flat
sliding surface, Mm shall be estimated by:
Mm 
PmR (14.5.3.2-1A)
and for curved sliding bearings with a companion flat
sliding surface, Mm shall be estimated by:
Mm  2
PmR (14.5.3.2-1B) are given in Tables 10.2A and 10.2B.
where:
Mm  maximum bending moment (K-in)
R  radius of curved sliding surface (in)
For unconfined elastomeric bearings and pads, Mm
shall be estimated by:
Mm  (0.5 EcI) m/hrt (14.5.3.2-2)
where:
I  moment of inertia of plan shape of bearing (in4)
m  maximum design rotation (rad)
Ec  effective modulus of elastomeric bearing in com-
pression (ksi)
The load deflection curve of an elastomeric bearing is
nonlinear, so Ec is load-dependent. However, an accept-
able constant approximation is:
Ec  6GS2 (14.5.3.2-3)
where:
G  shear modulus of elastomer (ksi)
S  shape factorn
BEARINGS
The stress increases permitted for certain load combi-
nations by Table 3.22.1A of this specification shall not
apply in the design of bearings.
14.6.1 Metal Rocker and Roller Bearings
14.6.1.1 General Design Considerations
The rotation axis of the bearing shall be aligned with
the axis about which the largest rotations of the supported
member occur. Provision shall be made to ensure that the
bearing alignment does not change during the life of the
bridge. Multiple roller bearings shall be connected by
gearing to ensure that individual rollers remain parallel to
each other and at their original spacing.
Metal rocker and roller bearings shall be detailed so
that they can be easily inspected and maintained.
14.6.1.2 Materials
Rocker and roller bearings shall be made of stainless
steel conforming to ASTM A 240, or of structural steel
conforming to AASHTO M 169 (ASTM A 108), M 102
(ASTM A 668), or M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grades 36,
50 or 50W. Material properties of M 169 (ASTM A 108),
M 102 (ASTM A 668), and M 270 (ASTM A 709) steel
14.6.1.3 Geometric Requirements
The dimensions of the bearing shall be chosen taking
into account both the contact stresses and the movement
of the contact point due to rolling.
Each individual curved contact surface shall have a
constant radius. Bearings with more than one curved sur-
face shall be symmetric about a line joining the centers of
their two curved surfaces.
Bearings shall be designed to be stable. If the bearing
has two separate cylindrical faces, each of which rolls on
a flat plate, stability may be achieved by making the dis-
tance between the two contact lines no greater than the
sum of the radii of the two cylindrical surfaces.
14.6.1.4 Contact Stresses
The maximum compressive load, Pm, shall satisfy:
• for cylindrical surfaces:
2
 WD1  Fy
Pm ≤ 8   (14.6.1.4-1)
 1 − D1 D 2  E s

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14.6.1.4 DIVISION I—DESIGN
• for spherical surfaces:
2 3
 D1  Fy
Pm ≤ 40  (14.6.1.4-2)
 1 − D1 D 2  E s 2
where:
D1  the diameter of rocker or roller surface (in), and
D2  the diameter of the mating surface (in). D2 shall
be taken as:
• positive if the curvatures have the same sign
• infinite if the mating surface is flat
Fy  specified minimum yield strength of the least
strong steel at the contact surface (ksi)
Es  Young’s modulus for steel (ksi)
W  Width of the bearing (in)
14.6.2 PTFE Sliding Surfaces
PTFE, polytetrafluorethylene, may be used in sliding
surfaces of bridge bearings to accommodate translation or
rotation. All PTFE surfaces other than guides shall satisfy
the requirements of this section. Curved PTFE surfaces
shall also satisfy Article 14.6.3.
14.6.2.1 PTFE Surface
The PTFE surface shall be made from pure virgin
PTFE resin satisfying the requirements of ASTM D 4894
or D 4895. It shall be fabricated as unfilled sheet, filled
sheet or fabric woven from PTFE and other fibers.
Unfilled sheets shall be made from PTFE resin alone.
Filled sheets shall be made from PTFE resin uniformly
blended with glass fibers or other chemically inert filler.
The maximum filler content shall be 15%.
Sheet PTFE may contain dimples to act as reservoirs
for lubricant. Their diameter shall not exceed 0.32-in at
the surface of the PTFE and their depth shall be not less
than .08-inch and not more than half the thickness of the
PTFE. The reservoirs shall be uniformly distributed over
the surface area and shall cover more than 20% but less
than 30% of it. Lubricant shall be silicone grease which
satisfies military specification MIL-S-8660.
Woven fiber PTFE shall be made from pure PTFE
fibers. Reinforced woven fiber PTFE shall be made by
interweaving high strength fibers, such as glass, with the
PTFE in such a way that the reinforcing fibers do not ap-
pear on the sliding face of the finished fabric.
14.6.2.2 Mating Surface
The PTFE shall be used in conjunction with a mating sur-
face. Flat mating surfaces shall be stainless steel and curved
mating surfaces shall be stainless steel or anodized aluminium.
Flat surfaces shall be a minimum #8 mirror finish Type 304
stainless steel and shall conform to ASTM A 167/A 264.
Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
391
Curved metallic surfaces shall not exceed 16 micro in RMS.
Other surface finishes may be employed if the coefficient of
friction is substantiated by test results. The mating surface
shall be large enough to cover the PTFE at all times.
14.6.2.3 Minimum Thickness Requirements
14.6.2.3.1 PTFE
For all applications, the thickness of the PTFE shall be
at least 1 ⁄ 16 inch after compression. Recessed sheet PTFE
shall be at least 3 ⁄ 16 inch thick when the maximum dimen-
sion of the PTFE is less than or equal to 24 inches, and
1 ⁄ 4 inch when the maximum dimension of the PTFE is
greater than 24 inches. Woven fabric PTFE which is me-
chanically interlocked over a metallic substrate shall have
a minimum thickness of 1 ⁄ 16 inch and a maximum thick-
ness of 1 ⁄ 8 inch over the highest point of the substrate.
14.6.2.3.2 Stainless Steel Mating Surfaces
The thickness of the stainless steel mating surface shall
be at least 1 ⁄ 16 inch when the maximum dimension of the
surface is less than or equal to 12 inches and 1 ⁄ 8 inch when
the maximum dimension is larger than 12 inches.
Backing plate requirements are specified in Article
14.6.2.6.2.
14.6.2.4 Contact Pressure
The maximum contact stress, m, between the PTFE
and the mating surface shall be determined with the max-
imum compressive load, Pm, using the nominal area.
The average contact stress shall be computed by divid-
ing the load by the projection of the contact area onto a
plane perpendicular to the direction of the load. The contact
stress at the edge shall be computed by taking into account
the maximum moment, Mm, transferred by the bearing as-
suming a linear distribution of stress across the PTFE.
Stresses shall not exceed those given in Table 14.6.2.4-1.
Permissible stresses for intermediate filler contents
shall be obtained by linear interpolation within Table
14.6.2.4-1.
14.6.2.5 Coefficient of Friction
The design coefficient of friction of the PTFE sliding
surface shall be determined from Table 14.6.2.5-1. Inter-
mediate values may be determined by interpolation. The
coefficient of friction shall be determined by using the
stress level associated with the maximum compressive
load, Pm. Lesser values of the coefficient of friction may
be used if verified by tests.
Where friction is required to resist applied loads, the
design coefficient of friction under dynamic loading may
be taken as not more than 10% of the value listed in Table
14.6.2.5-1 for the bearing stress and PTFE type.
392 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 14.6.2.5

TABLE 14.6.2.4-1 Limits on Contact Stress for PTFE

Ave. Contact Stress (KSI) Edge Contact Stress (KSI)

Material Dead Load All Loads Dead Load All Loads

Unconfined PTFE:
Unfilled sheets 1.5 2.5 2.0 3.0
Filled sheets—These figures 3.0 4.5 3.5 5.5
are for maximum filler content
Confined sheet PTFE 3.0 4.5 3.5 5.5
Woven PTFE over a metallic 3.0 4.5 3.5 5.5
substrate
Reinforced woven PTFE over 4.0 5.5 4.5 7.0
a metallic substrate

TABLE 14.6.2.5-1 Design Coefficients of Friction

Coefficient of Friction

Type of PTFE Pressure (psi) 500 1000 2000 >3000

Temperature (°F)

Dimpled Lubricated 68 0.04 0.03 0.025 0.02

13 0.06 0.045 0.04 0.03
49 0.10 0.075 0.06 0.05
Unfilled or Dimpled 68 0.08 0.07 0.05 0.03
Unlubricated 13 0.20 0.18 0.13 0.10
49 0.20 0.18 0.13 0.10
Filled 68 0.24 0.17 0.09 0.06
13 0.44 0.32 0.25 0.20
49 0.65 0.55 0.45 0.35
Woven 68 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.045
13 0.20 0.18 0.13 0.10
49 0.20 0.18 0.13 0.10

The coefficients of friction in Table 14.6.2.5-1 are
based on a #8 mirror finish mating surface. Coefficients of
friction for rougher surface finishes must be established
by test results in accordance with Division II, Section 18.
14.6.2.6 Attachment
mating surface so that interface corrosion cannot occur.
The attachment shall be capable of resisting the maximum
friction force which can be developed by the bearing
under service loads. The welds used for the attachment
shall be clear of the contact and sliding area of the PTFE
surface.

14.6.2.6.1 PTFE 14.6.3 Bearings with Curved Sliding Surfaces

Sheet PTFE confined in a recess in a rigid metal backing
plate for one half its thickness may be bonded or unbonded.
Sheet PTFE which is not confined shall be bonded by
an approved method to a metal surface or an elastomeric
layer with a Shore A durometer hardness of at least 90.
Woven PTFE on a metallic substrate shall be attached to
the metallic substrate by mechanical interlocking which
can resist a shear force no less than 0.10 times the applied
compressive force.
14.6.2.6.2 Mating Surface
The mating surface for flat sliding shall be attached to
a backing plate by welding in such a way that it remains
flat and in full contact with its backing plate throughout
its service life. The weld shall be detailed to form an ef-
fective moisture seal around the entire perimeter of the
Bearings with curved sliding surfaces shall consist of
two metal parts with matching curved surfaces and a low
friction sliding interface. The curved surfaces shall be
either cylindrical or spherical. The material properties,
characteristics, and frictional properties of the sliding
interface shall satisfy the requirements of either Article
14.6.2 or Article 14.6.7.
14.6.3.1 Geometric Requirements
The radius of the curved surface shall be large enough
to assure that the maximum average bearing stress, m, on
the horizontal projected area of the bearing at the maxi-
mum load, Pm, shall satisfy the average stress require-
ments of Article 14.6.2.4 or Article 14.6.7.3. The maxi-
mum average bearing stress shall be taken as

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14.6.3.1 DIVISION I—DESIGN 393

• For cylindrical bearings and

Ψ = sin −1 
L 
Pm (14.6.3.2-4)
σm = (14.6.3.1-1)  2R 
DW
and:
• For spherical bearings
Hm  maximum horizontal load.
4 Pm L  projected length of the sliding surface perpen-
σm = (14.6.3.1-2) dicular to the rotation axis.
πD 2
PD  compressive load due to permanent loads.
where R  radius of the curved sliding surface.
w  length of the cylindrical surface.
D  diameter of the projection of the loaded surface   angle between the vertical and applied loads.
of the bearing in the horizontal plane (in) m  maximum design rotation angle. See Article
W  length of the cylinder (in) 14.4.1.
PTFE  maximum average contact stress permitted on
The two surfaces of a sliding interface shall have equal radii. the PTFE by Table 14.6.2.4-1.
Ψ  subtended semi-angle of the curved surface.
14.6.3.2 Resistance to Lateral Load
14.6.4 Pot Bearings
In bearings which are required to resist horizontal
loads, either an external restraint system shall be pro- 14.6.4.1 General
vided, or for a cylindrical sliding surface the horizontal
load shall be limited to Where pot bearings are provided with a PTFE slider to
provide for both rotation and horizontal movement, such
Hm  2RW PTFE sin(Ψ    m) sin  (14.6.3.2-1) sliding surfaces and any guidance systems shall be designed
in accordance with the appropriate Articles 14.6.2 and 14.6.9.
and for a spherical surface the horizontal load shall satisfy The rotational elements of pot bearing shall satisfy the
requirements of this section. They shall consist of at least
Hm  R2 PTFE sin2(Ψ    m) sin  (14.6.3.2-2) a pot, a piston, an elastomeric disc, and sealing rings.
For the purpose of establishing the forces and defor-
Where
mations imposed on a pot bearing, the axis of rotation
H  shall be taken as lying in the horizontal plane at mid-
β = tan −1  m 
 PD  (14.6.3.2-3) height of the elastomeric disc.

FIGURE 14.6.3.2-1

Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
394 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
The minimum vertical load on a pot bearing should not
be less than 20% of the vertical design load.
14.6.4.2 Materials
The elastomeric disc shall be made from a compound
based on virgin natural rubber or virgin neoprene. Its
nominal hardness shall lie between 50 and 60 on the Shore
‘A’ scale.
The pot and piston shall be made from structural
steel conforming to AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709)
Grades 36, 50 or 50W, or from stainless steel conform-
ing to ASTM A 240. The finish of surfaces in contact
with the elastomeric pad shall be smoother than 63
micro-in rms.
Sealing rings satisfying Articles 14.6.4.5.1 and
14.6.4.5.2 shall be made from brass conforming to ASTM
B 36 (half hard) for rings of rectangular cross-section,
and Federal Specification QQB626, Composition 2, for
rings of circular cross-section.
14.6.4.3 Geometric Requirements
The depth of the elastomeric disc, hr, shall satisfy
hr  3.33Dp m (14.6.4.3-1)
where
Dp  internal diameter of the pot (in)
m  maximum design rotation specified in Article
14.4.1 (rad)
The dimensions of the components shall satisfy the fol-
lowing requirements under the least favorable combina-
tion of maximum displacements and rotations:
• the pot shall be deep enough to permit the seal and
piston rim to remain in full contact with the vertical
face of the pot wall.
• contact or binding between metal components will
not prevent further displacement or rotation.
14.6.4.4 Elastomeric Disc
The maximum average stress on the elastomer shall
not exceed 3.5 ksi. To facilitate rotation, the top and bot-
tom surfaces of the elastomer shall be treated with a lu-
bricant which is not detrimental to the elastomer, or thin
PTFE discs may be used on the top and bottom of the elas-
tomer.
14.6.4.5 Sealing Rings
A seal shall be used between the pot and the piston. The
seals shall be adequate to prevent escape of elastomer
Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
14.6.4.1
under compressive load and simultaneously applied
cyclic rotations. The seals shall also be adequate to pre-
vent escape of elastomer under compressive load and si-
multaneously applied static rotation.
Brass rings satisfying the requirements of either Arti-
cle 14.6.4.5.1 or 14.6.4.5.2 may be used to satisfy the
above requirements. The Engineer may approve other
sealing systems on the basis of experimental evidence.
14.6.4.5.1 Rings with rectangular cross-sections
Three rings shall be used. Each ring shall be circular in
plan, but shall be cut at one point around its circumfer-
ence. The faces of the cut shall be on a plane at 45° to the
vertical and to the tangent of the circumference. The rings
shall be oriented so that the cuts on each of the three rings
are equally spaced around the circumference of the pot.
The width of each ring shall be equal to or greater than
the larger of 0.02 Dp or 1 ⁄ 4 inch, but it shall not exceed 3 ⁄ 4
inch. The depth of each shall be equal to or greater than
0.2 times the width.
14.6.4.5.2 Rings with circular cross-sections
One circular closed ring shall be used with an outside
diameter of Dp. It shall have a cross-sectional diameter not
less than the larger of 0.0175 Dp or 5 ⁄ 16 inch.
14.6.4.6 Pot
The pot shall consist at least of a wall and base. All com-
ponents shall be designed to act as a single structural unit.
The minimum thickness of the base shall exceed 0.06
Dp and 3 ⁄ 4 inch when bearing directly against concrete or
grout, and shall exceed 0.04 Dp and 1 ⁄ 2 inch when bearing
directly on steel girders or load distribution plates.
The pot walls shall be thick enough to resist all the
forces induced in them. In lieu of a more precise analysis,
this requirement may be satisfied for unguided sliding pot
bearings by using a minimum wall thickness such that
Dp
tw ≥ σm (14.6.4.6-1)
1.25Fy
and tw  3 4
where
tw  pot wall thickness (in)
m  maximum average compressive stress (ksi)
Fy  yield strength of the steel (ksi)
14.6.4.7 Piston
The piston shall have the same plan shape as the inside
of the pot. Its thickness shall be adequate to resist the
14.6.4.7 DIVISION I—DESIGN 395

loads imposed on it, but shall not be less than 6.0% of the 14.6.5.2 Material Properties
inside diameter of the pot, Dp, except at the rim.
The diameter of the piston rim shall be the inside di- The elastomer shall have a shear modulus between
ameter of the pot less a clearance, c. The clearance, c, shall 0.08 and 0.175 ksi and a nominal hardness between 50
be as small as possible in order to prevent escape of the and 60 on the Shore A scale.
elastomer, but not less than 0.02 inch. If the surface of the The shear modulus of the elastomer at 73°F shall be
piston rim is cylindrical, the clearance shall satisfy used as the basis for design. If the elastomer is specified
explicitly by its shear modulus, then that value shall be
 D pθ m  used in design and the other properties shall be obtained
c ≥ θm  w −  (14.6.4.7-1) from Table 14.6.5.2-1. If the material is specified by its
 2 
hardness, the shear modulus shall be taken as the least
favorable value from the range for that hardness given in
where
Table 14.6.5.2-1. Intermediate values shall in all cases be
Dp  internal diameter of pot (in) obtained by interpolation.
w  height of piston rim (in) For the purposes of bearing design, all bridge sites
m  design rotation specified in Article 14.4.1 (rad) shall be classified as being in temperature Zones A, B, C,
D or E. Characteristics for each zone are given in Table
14.6.5.2-2. In the absence of more precise information,
14.6.4.8 Lateral Loads Figure 14.6.5.2-2 may be used as a guide in selecting the
zone required for a given region.
Pot bearings which are subjected to lateral loads shall Bearings shall be made from AASHTO low tempera-
be proportioned so that the thickness, t, of the pot wall and ture grades of elastomer as defined in Section 18 of Divi-
the pot base shall satisfy sion II. The minimum grade of elastomer required for
each low temperature zone is specified in Table
40 H m θ m 14.6.5.2-2.
t> (14.6.4.8-1) Any of the three design options listed below may be
Fy
used:
For pot bearings which transfer lateral load through the
piston • specify the elastomer with the minimum low tem-
perature grade indicated in Table 14.6.5.2-2 and de-
termine the shear force transmitted by the bearing as
2.5H m
w≥ (14.6.4.8-2) specified in Article 14.5.3.1.
D p Fy • specify the elastomer with the minimum low tem-
perature grade for use when special force provisions
and w  1 8 are incorporated in the design and provide a low fric-
tion sliding surface, in which case the special force
where w is the rim thickness of the piston which is in con- provision is that the bridge components shall be de-
tact with the pot wall. signed to withstand twice the design shear force
specified in Article 14.5.3.1, or
• specify the elastomer with the minimum low tem-
14.6.5 Steel Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings— perature grade for use when special force provisions
Method B are incorporated in the design, but do not provide a
low friction sliding surface, in which case the com-
14.6.5.1 General ponents of the bridge shall be designed to resist four
times the design shear force as specified in Article
Steel reinforced elastomeric bearings shall consist of 14.5.3.1.
alternate layers of steel reinforcement and elastomer,
bonded together. Tapered elastomer layers shall not be Table 14.6.5.2-1 Elastomer Properties At Different
used. All internal layers of elastomer shall be of the same Hardnesses
thickness. The top and bottom cover layers shall be no
Hardness (Shore ‘A’) 50 60 70
thicker than 70% of the internal layers. In addition to any
internal reinforcement, bearings may have external steel Shear modulus at 73°F (psi) 95–130 130–200 200–300
Creep deflection at 25 yrs
load plates bonded to the upper or lower elastomer layers 25% 35% 45%
Instantaneous deflection
or both.

Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
396 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 14.6.5.3

Table 14.6.5.2-2 Low Temperature Zones and Elastomer Grades

Low Temperature Zone A B C D E

50 year low temperature (°F) 0 20 30 45 all others

Max. no. of days below 32°F 3 27 14 N/A N/A
Low temp. elastomer grade 0 22 23 24 5
without special provisions
Low temp. elastomer grade 0 20 22 23 5
with special provisions

FIGURE 14.6.5.2-1 Map of Low Temperature Zones

14.6.5.3 Design Requirements 14.6.5.3.2 Compressive Stress

In any bearing layer, the average compressive stress
14.6.5.3.1 Scope
(ksi) shall satisfy the following:
Bearings designed by the provisions of this section
shall be subsequently tested in accordance with the re- • for bearings subject to shear deformation
quirements for steel reinforced elastomeric bearings of
Article 18.7 of Division II of this Specification. Steel re- TL  1.6 ksi
inforced elastomeric bearings may also be designed under TL  1.66 GS (14.6.5.3.2-1)
the provisions of Article 14.6.6. L  0.66 GS

1600 1600
Shape factor 12 9 Shape factor 12 9
1400 6 1400
6
60 durometer 50 durometer
Compressive stress (psi)

Compressive stress (psi)

1200 5 1200
reinforced reinforced
bearings bearings 5
1000 1000
4
800 800 4

600 3 600
3
400 400

200 200

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Compressive strain (%) Compressive strain (%)

FIGURE 14.6.5.3.3-1 Load Deflection Behavior of Elastomeric Bearings

Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
14.6.5.3.2 DIVISION I—DESIGN 397

• for bearings fixed against shear deformation hrt  total elastomeric thickness (in)
s  maximum service shear deformation of the
TL  1.75 ksi elastomer (in)
TL  2.00 GS (14.6.5.3.2-2)
L  1.00 GS
14.6.5.3.5 Combined Compression and Rotation
where
Rotations shall be taken as the maximum possible dif-
L  average compressive stress due to the live load ference in slope between the top and bottom surfaces of
(ksi) the bearing. They shall include the effects of initial lack-
TL  Average compressive stress due to total dead of-parallelism and subsequent girder end rotation due to
plus live load (ksi) imposed loads and movements. Bearings shall be de-
G  shear modulus of elastomer (ksi) signed so that uplift does not occur under any combina-
S  shape factor of the thickest layer of the bearing tion of loads and corresponding rotation.
All rectangular bearings shall satisfy
14.6.5.3.3 Compressive Deflection
2
θ  B
≥ 1.0GS m   
Deflections due to total load and to live load alone shall
σ TL (14.6.5.3.5-1)
be considered separately. A maximum relative deflection  n  h 
ri
of 1⁄8 inch across a joint is preferred.
Instantaneous deflection shall be calculated as follows: A rectangular bearing subject to shear deformation shall
also satisfy Equation (14.6.5.3.5-2); those fixed against
  ihri (14.6.5.3.3-1)
shear deformation shall also satisfy Equation (14.6.5.3.5-3).
where:  θ  B 
2
σ TL ≤ 1.875GS1 − 0.200 m     (14.6.5.3.5-2)
i  instantaneous compressive strain in the i elas-
th
  n  h  
ri
tomer layer of a laminated elastomeric bearing
hri  thickness of ith elastomeric layer in elastomeric  θm   B  
2
σ TL ≤ 2.250GS1 − 0.167
bearing (in)
  n   h   (14.6.5.3.5-3)
ri

Values for i shall be determined from test results or by

where
rational analysis. The effects of creep of the elastomer
shall be added to the instantaneous deflection when con-
sidering long-term deflections. They should be computed
from information relevant to the elastomeric compound
used. In the absence of material-specific data, the values
given in Article 14.6.5.2 shall be used. In the absence of
information specific to the particular bearing to be used,
Figure 14.6.5.3.3-1 may be used.
14.6.5.3.4 Shear
The horizontal movement of the bridge superstructure,
0, shall be taken as the maximum possible displacement
caused by creep, shrinkage, post-tensioning, combined
with thermal effects computed in accordance with this
Specification. The maximum shear deformation of the
bearing, s, shall be taken as 0, modified to account for
the pier flexibility and construction procedures. If a low
friction sliding surface is installed, s need not be taken
larger than the deformation corresponding to first slip.
The bearing shall be designed so that
hrt  2s (14.6.5.3.4-1)
where
B  length of pad if rotation is about its transverse
axis, or width of pad if rotation is about its lon-
gitudinal axis (in)
G  shear modulus of elastomer (ksi)
hri  thickness of the ith layer of elastomer (in)
n  number of interior layers of elastomer, where in-
terior layers are defined as those layers which
are bonded on each face. Exterior layers are de-
fined as those layers which are bonded only on
one face. When the thickness of an exterior layer
of elastomer is more than one-half the thickness
of an interior layer, the parameter, n, may be in-
creased by one-half for each such exterior layer.
S  shape factor of the thickest layer of the bearing
m  component of maximum service rotation in di-
rection of interest (rad)
TL  average compressive stress due to the total
dead plus live load (ksi)
All circular bearings shall satisfy
2
θ  D
σ TL > 0.75GS m    (14.6.5.3.5-4)
 n  h 
ri

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398 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 14.6.5.3.5

A circular bearing subject to shear deformation shall also and

satisfy Equation (14.6.5.3.5-5); those fixed against shear
deformation shall also satisfy Equation (14.6.5.3.5-6). 2.0 h r max σ L
hs > (14.6.5.3.7-2)
Fsr
 θ  D 
2
σ TL < 2.5GS1 − 0.15 m     (14.6.5.3.5-5)
  n  h   where
ri
hs  thickness of steel laminate (in)
 θ  D 
2
σ TL < 3.0GS1 − 0.125 m     (14.6.5.3.5-6) Fsr  allowable fatigue stress range for over 2,000,000
  n  h   cycles (ksi)
ri

where If holes exist in the reinforcement, the minimum thick-

ness shall be increased by a factor of 2(gross width)/(net
D  diameter of pad (in) width).
14.6.5.3.6 Stability 14.6.6 Elastomeric Pads and Steel Reinforced
Bearings shall be proportioned to avoid instability. If Elastomeric Bearings—Method A

14.6.6.1 General
3.84 ( h rt /L ) 2.67
≤ (14.6.5.3.6-1)
S 1 + 2 L/w S(S + 2)(1 + L 4 w) This section of the specification covers the design of
plain elastomeric pads, PEP, pads reinforced with discrete
the bearing is stable for all allowable loads in this speci-
layers of fiberglass, FGP, and pads reinforced with closely
fication and no further consideration of stability is required.
spaced layers of cotton duck, CDP and steel reinforced
For rectangular bearings not satisfying Equation
elastomeric bearings. Layer thicknesses in FGP may be
(14.6.5.3.6-1), an additional check involving σTL shall be
different from one another. For steel reinforced elas-
made in accordance with Equation (14.6.5.3.6-2) or 3. A
tomeric bearings designed in accordance with the provi-
negative or infinite limit from Equation (14.6.5.3.6-3) indi-
sions of this section, internal layers shall be of the same
cates that the bearing is stable and is not dependent on σTL.
thickness and cover layers shall be no more than 70% of
the thickness of internal layers.
• if the bridge deck is free to translate horizontally
G 14.6.6.2 Material Properties
σ TL ≤
 3.84( h rt L ) 2.67 
 − 
 S 1 + 2 L W S(S + 2)(1 + L 4 W )  The materials shall satisfy the requirements of Article
14.6.5.2, except that the shear modulus shall lie between
(14.6.5.3.6-2) 0.080 and 0.250 ksi and the nominal hardness shall lie be-
• if the bridge deck is not free to translate horizontally tween 50 and 70 on the Shore ‘A’ scale. This excep-
tion shall not apply to steel reinforced elastomeric bear-
G ings designed in accordance with the provisions of this
σ TL ≤
 1.92( h rt L ) 2.67  article.
 − 
 S 1 + 2 L W S(S + 2)(1 + L 4 W ) 
14.6.6.3 Design Requirements
(14.6.5.3.6-3)
If L is greater than W for a rectangular bearing, stabil- 14.6.6.3.1 Scope
ity shall be checked by the above formulas with L and W Plain elastomeric pads, fiberglass reinforced pads and
interchanged. cotton duck reinforced pads shall be designed in accor-
For circular bearings, stability may be evaluated by using dance with the provisions of this article. Steel reinforced
the equations for a square bearing with W  L  0.8 D. elastomeric bearings designed in accordance with the
provisions of this article shall qualify for the test require-
14.6.5.3.7 Reinforcement
ments appropriate for elastomeric pads.
The thickness of the reinforcement, hs, shall satisfy the The provisions for FGP apply only to pads where the
requirements fiberglass is placed in double layers 1 ⁄ 8 inch apart.
The physical properties of neoprene and natural rubber
3.0 h r max σ TL used in these bearings shall conform to the following
hs > (14.6.5.3.7-1)
Fy ASTM requirements, with modifications as noted:

Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
14.6.6.3.1 DIVISION I—DESIGN 399

Neoprene: D4014 hrt  10s for CDP (14.6.6.3.4-1)

Natural Rubber: D4014
14.6.6.3.5 Rotation
Modifications:
The rotation about each axis shall be taken as the max-
(1) The Shore A Durometer hardness shall lie within imum possible rotation between the top and bottom of the
the limits specified in Article 14.6.6.2. pad caused by initial lack of parallelism and girder end ro-
(2) Samples for compression set tests shall be pre- tation.
pared using a Type 2 die.
14.6.6.3.5a PEP and CDP
14.6.6.3.2 Compressive Stress The shape factor of CDP shall be defined as 100 for use
The average compressive stress, TL, in any layer shall in Equations (14.6.6.3.5a-1) and (14.6.6.3.5a-2). They
satisfy shall satisfy:

• for PEP, TL  0.80 ksi, and TL  0.55GS • for rectangular pads

• for FGP, TL  0.80 ksi, and TL  1.00GS
2
• for CDP, TL  1.50 ksi  L
σ TL ≥ 0.5GS  θ m , x or
 h rt 
In FGP, the value of S used shall be that for the great-
2
est distance between the mid-point of double reinforce-  W
ment layers at the top and bottom of the elastomer layer. σ TL ≥ 0.5GS  θ m , z (14.6.6.3.5a-1)
 h rt 
For steel reinforced elastomeric bearings designed in
accordance with the provisions of this article TL  1.00
• for circular pads
ksi, and TL  1.0 GS where the value of S used shall be
that for the thickest layer of the bearing. These stress lim- 2
 D
its may be increased by 10% where shear deformation is σ TL ≥ 0.375GS  θ m
 h rt  (14.6.6.3.5a-2)
prevented.

14.6.6.3.3 Compressive Deflection 14.6.6.3.5b FGP and Steel Reinforced Elastomeric

Bearings
The provisions of Article 14.6.5.3.3 shall apply. Ap-
propriate data for PEP, FGP and CDP may be used to es- They shall satisfy:
timate their deflections. In the absence of such data, the
compressive deflection of PEP and FGP may be estimated • for rectangular pads or bearings
at 3 and 1.5 times the deflection estimated for steel rein-
 L  θ ,x
2
forced bearings of the same shape factor in Article
14.6.5.3.3, respectively. σ TL ≥ 0.5GS  m or
 h ri  n
CDP are typically very stiff in compression and the
provisions of this article may be considered as satisfied on  W  θ ,z
2
the basis of past experience, and no calculations need be σ TL ≥ 0.5GS  m (14.6.6.3.5b-1)
done, provided the provisions of Article 14.6.6.3.2 are met.  h ri  n

14.6.6.3.4 Shear • for circular pads or bearings

 D θ
2
The horizontal bridge movement shall be computed in
σ TL ≥ 0.375GS  m
accordance with Article 14.4. The maximum shear defor-  h ri  n (14.6.6.3.5b-2)
mation of the pad, s, shall be taken as the horizontal
bridge movement, reduced to account for the pier flexi- where
bility and modified for construction procedures. If a low
friction sliding surface is used, s need not be taken larger n  number of interior layers of elastomer, where in-
than the deformation corresponding to first slip. terior layers are defined as those layers which
The pad shall be designed as follows: are bonded on each face. Exterior layers are de-
fined as those layers which are bonded only on
hrt  2s for PEP, FGP and steel reinforced elastomeric one face. When the thickness of an exterior layer
bearings of elastomer is more than one-half the thickness

Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
400 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
of an interior layer, the parameter, n, may be in-
creased by one-half for each such exterior layer.
hri  thickness of the ith layer of elastomer (in)
14.6.6.3.6 Stability
To ensure stability, the total thickness of pad shall not
exceed the least of L/3, W/3, or D/4.
14.6.6.3.7 Reinforcement
The reinforcement in FGP shall be fiberglass with a
failure strength in each direction of at least 2.2 hri K/in of
width. For the purpose of this article, if the layers of elas-
tomer are of different thickness, hri shall be taken as the
mean thickness of the two layers of the elastomer bonded
to the reinforcement. If the fiberglass reinforcement con-
tains holes, its strength shall be increased over the mini-
mum value specified above by two times the gross width
divided by net width.
Reinforcement for steel reinforced elastomeric bear-
ings designed in accordance with the provisions of
this article shall conform to the requirements of Article
14.6.5.3.7.
14.6.6.4 Resistance to Deformation
The shear force on the structure induced by deforma-
tion of the elastomer shall be based on a G value not less
than that of the elastomer at 73°F. Effects of relaxation
shall be ignored.
If the design shear force, Hm, due to pad deformation
exceeds one-fifth of the minimum vertical force, the pad
shall be secured against horizontal movement.
The pad shall not be permitted to sustain uplift forces.
14.6.7 Bronze or Copper Alloy Sliding Surfaces
Bronze or Copper Alloy may be used in
• flat sliding surfaces to accommodate translational
movements,
• curved sliding surfaces to accommodate translation
and limited rotation,
• pins or cylinders for shaft bushings of rocker bear-
ings or other bearings with large rotations.
14.6.7.1 Materials
Bronze sliding surfaces or castings shall conform to
AASHTO M 107 (ASTM B 22) and shall be made of Alloy
C90500, C91100 or C86300 unless otherwise specified.
The mating surface shall be structural steel which has a
Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
14.6.6.3.5b
Rockwell hardness value at least 100 points greater than
that of the bronze.
Copper alloy 913 or 911 or copper alloy plates,
AASHTO M 108 (ASTM B100), shall be used unless oth-
erwise specified.
14.6.7.2 Coefficient of Friction
The design coefficient of friction shall be determined
by applying an appropriate safety factor to the measured
coefficient of friction obtained using a rational test proce-
dure. In lieu of such test data, the design coefficient of
friction may be taken as 0.1 for self-lubricating bronze
components and 0.4 for other types.
14.6.7.3 Limits on Load and Geometry
The nominal bearing stress due to combined dead and
live load shall be no greater than 2.0 ksi.
14.6.7.4 Clearances and Mating Surface
The mating surface shall be steel which is accurately
machined to match the geometry of the bronze surface and
provide uniform bearing and contact.
14.6.8 Disc Bearings
14.6.8.1 General
For the purposes of establishing the forces and defor-
mations imposed on a disc bearing, the axis of rotation
may be taken as lying in the horizontal plane at mid-
height of the disc. The urethane disc shall be held in place
by a positive location device.
The disc bearing shall be designed for the design rota-
tion, m, defined in Article 14.4.1.
14.6.8.2 Materials
The elastomeric disc shall be made from a compound
based on polyether urethane, using only virgin materials.
The hardness shall lie between 45 and 65 on the Shore D
scale.
The metal components of the bearing shall be made
from structural steel conforming to AASHTO M 270
(ASTM A 709) Grades 36, 50, or 50W, or from stainless
steel conforming to ASTM A 240.
14.6.8.3 Overall Geometric Requirements
The dimensions of the components shall be such that
hard contact between metal components which prevents
14.6.8.3 DIVISION I—DESIGN
further displacement or rotation will not occur under the
least favorable combination of design displacements and
rotations.
14.6.8.4 Elastomeric Disc
The elastomeric disc shall be held in location by a pos-
itive locator device. The disc shall be designed so that
• its instantaneous deflection under total load does not
exceed 10% of the thickness of the unstressed disc,
and the additional deflection due to creep does not
exceed 8% of the thickness of the unstressed disc;
• the average compressive stress due to the maximum
load, Pm, on the disc does not exceed 5.0 ksi. If the
outer surface of the disc is not vertical, the stress shall
be computed using the smallest plan area of the disc.
If a PTFE slider is used
• the stresses on the PTFE slider do not exceed 75%
of the allowable values for average and edge stresses
given in Article 14.6.2. The effect of moments in-
duced by the urethane disc shall be included in the
stress analysis.
14.6.8.5 Shear Resisting Mechanism
In fixed and guided bearings, a shear-resisting mecha-
nism shall be provided to transmit horizontal forces between
the upper and lower steel plates. It shall be capable of re-
sisting a horizontal force in any direction equal to the larger
of the design shear force and 10% of the design vertical load.
The horizontal design clearance between the upper and
lower components of the shear-restricting mechanism shall
not exceed the value for guide bars given in Article 14.6.9.
14.6.8.6 Steel Plates
The thickness of the upper and lower steel plates shall
not be less than 0.045 Dd if the plate is in direct contact
with a steel girder or distribution plate, or 0.06 Dd if it
bears directly on grout or concrete.
14.6.9 Guides and Restraints
14.6.9.1 General
Guides may be used to prevent movement in one di-
rection. Restraints may be used to permit only limited
movement in one or more directions. Guides and restraints
shall have a low-friction material at their sliding contact
surfaces.
Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
401
14.6.9.2 Design Loads
The guide or restraint shall be designed using the max-
imum load combinations for the larger of
• the horizontal design load, or
• 10% of the maximum vertical load acting on all the
bearings at the bent divided by the number of guided
bearings at the bent.
14.6.9.3 Materials
For steel bearings, the guide or restraint shall be made
from steel conforming to AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709)
Grades 36, 50 or 50W, or stainless steel conforming to
ASTM A 240. The guide for aluminum bearings may also
be aluminum.
The low-friction interface material shall be approved
by the Engineer.
14.6.9.4 Geometric Requirements
Guides shall be parallel, long enough to accommodate
the full design displacement of the bearing in the sliding
direction, and shall permit a minimum of 1 ⁄ 32-inch and a
maximum of 1 ⁄ 16-inch free slip in the restrained direction.
Guides shall be designed to avoid binding under all design
loads and displacements, including rotations.
14.6.9.5 Design Basis
14.6.9.5.1 Load Location
The horizontal load acting on the guide or restraint
shall be assumed to act at the centroid of the low-friction
interface material. Design of the connection between the
guide or restraint and the body of the bearing system shall
take into account both shear and overturning moment.
14.6.9.5.2 Contact Stress
The contact stress on the low-friction material shall not
exceed that recommended by the manufacturer. For PTFE,
the stresses due to the maximum loads, Pm and Hm, shall
not exceed those given in Table 14.6.2.4.1 under sustained
loading or 1.25 times those stresses for short-term loading.
14.6.9.6 Attachment of Low-Friction Material
The low-friction material shall be attached by at least
two of the following three methods:
• mechanical fastening
• bonding
• mechanical interlocking with a metal substrate.
402 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
14.6.10 Other Bearing Systems
Bearing systems made from components not described
in Articles 14.6.1 through 14.6.8 may also be used, subject
to the approval of the Engineer. Such bearings shall be ad-
equate to resist the forces and deformations imposed on
them without material distress and without inducing defor-
mations large enough to threaten their proper functioning.
The dimensions of the bearing shall be chosen to pro-
vide for adequate movements at all times. The materials
used shall have sufficient strength, stiffness, and resis-
tance to creep and decay to ensure the proper functioning
of the bearing throughout the design life of the bridge.
The Engineer shall determine the tests which the bearing
must satisfy. The tests shall be designed to demonstrate any
potential weakness in the system under individual compres-
sion, shear or rotational loading or combinations thereof.
Testing under sustained or cyclic loading shall be required.
14.7 LOAD PLATES AND ANCHORAGE FOR
BEARINGS
14.7.1 Plates for Load Distribution
The bearing, together with any additional plates, shall
be designed so that
• the combined system is stiff enough to prevent dis-
tortions of the bearing which would impair its proper
functioning;
• the stresses imposed on the supporting structure sat-
isfy the limits specified by the Engineer. Allowable
stresses on concrete and grout beds shall be assumed
to be based on the maximum compressive load, Pm,
on the bearing;
• the bearing can be replaced within the jacking height
limits specified by the Engineer without damage to the
bearing, distribution plates or supporting structure. If
no limit is given, a height of 3 ⁄ 8 inch shall be used.
Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
14.6.9.10
Computations of the strength of steel components and
beam stiffener requirements of steel girders shall be made
in conformance with Section 10 of Division I of these
specifications.
In lieu of a more precise analysis, the load from a bear-
ing fully supported by a grout bed may be assumed to
spread out at a slope of 1.5:1, horizontal to vertical, from
the edge of the smallest element of the bearing which car-
ries the compressive load.
14.7.2 Tapered Plates
If, under full dead load at the mean annual temperature
for the bridge site, the inclination of the underside of the
girder to the horizontal exceeds 0.01 rad, a tapered plate
shall be used in order to provide a level load surface to be
placed on the bearing.
14.7.3 Anchorage
All load distribution plates and all bearings with exter-
nal steel plates shall be positively secured to their supports
by bolting or welding.
All girders shall be positively located on their support-
ing bearings by a connection which can resist the horizon-
tal forces which may be imposed on it. Separation of bear-
ing components shall not be permitted. A connection,
adequate to resist the least favorable combination of loads,
shall be installed wherever necessary to prevent separation.
14.8 CORROSION PROTECTION
All exposed steel parts of bearings not made from stain-
less steel shall be protected against corrosion by zinc me-
tallization, hot-dip galvanizing or a paint system approved
by the Engineer. A combination of zinc metallization or
hot-dip galvanizing and a paint system may be used.