GEOGRAPHY, MARXISM AND UNDERDEVELOPMENT

Milton Santos, University of Dar es Salaam

One kind of materialism comes to a n end, another begins.

( S ~ V S ,L u c i s n , 1960)

M a r x i s t c a t e g o r i e s o f t h o u g h t a r e no i n n o v a t i o n i n geography. The r e a s o n s
t h e y a r e seldom if e v e r d i s c u s s e d a r e o f two k i n d s : (1) t h e e e l a t i v e i s o l a t i o n
o f s o - c a l l e d " n a t i o n a l schools," which l a r g e l y i g n o r e d developments i n o t h e r
languages; and ( 2 ) M a r x i s t i d e a s n e v e r g o t t h e s e a l o f o f f i c i a l a p p r o v a l .
M a r x i s t g e o g r a p h e r s , w h e t h e r p a r t y members o r n o t , were a l s o r a t h e r modest i n
c i t i n g t h e i r major sources -- Marx, E n g e l s , L e n i n o r Rosa Luxembourg --
perhaps
t h i s was an e f f o r t t o a v o i d b e i n g l a b e l l e d " p o l i t i c a l t y p e s " d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d
when such a l a b e l was shunned by s c h o l a r s .
The l a t t e r a t t i t u d e was p r e v a l e n t i n F r a n c e a f t e r t h e Second W o r l d War.
Jean D r e s c h and Jean T r i c a r t , ' b e f o r e becoming g e o m o r p h o l o g i s t s , were i n t e r e s t e d
i n Marxist topics. The f o r m e r s t u d i e d t h e r o l e o f c a p i t a l f l o w s i n t h e A f r i c a n
o r g a n i z a t i o n o f space, t h e l a t t e r s t u d i e d t h e i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e o f c i t i e s
(urban ecology) i n t h e c o n t e x t o f c l a s s c o n f l i c t o v e r l a n d ownership mediated
t h r o u g h t h e s p e c u l a t i v e r e a l e s t a t e m a r k e t . T h i s was t h e r e s u l t o f p r i c e i n f l a -
t i o n w h i c h was e s s e n t i a l t o t h a t phase o f c a p i t a l i s m , and t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f
e x t e r n a l i t i e s ( n o t r e c o g n i z e d e x p l i c i t l y i n t h o s e t e r m s , b u t a l r e a d y f i n a n c e d by
the c o l l e c t i v i t y ) f o r t h e c r e a t i o n o f surplus value.
P i e r r e George, l o y a l t o t h e F r e n c h "gt5ographie humaine" t r a d i t i o n , d i d
succeed i n a s s e m b l i n g a g r o u p o f a c t i v i s t g e o g r a p h e r s . He d e s e r v e s c r e d i t f o r
e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e importance o f socioeconomic s t r u c t u r e s i n geographic explana-
t i o n . H i s f i r s t p u b l i c a t i o n s on p o p u l a t i o n (1951, 1 9 5 9 ) , s o c i a l geography
(1946). and h i s t r e a t i s e o n c i t i e s ( 1 9 5 2 ) , a l l d e m o n s t r a t e h i s e f f o r t s t o l i n k
t h e dynamics o f s o c i o e c o n o m i c systems t o t h e s t r u c t u r e o f p r o d u c t i o n . The C o l d
War, however, and t h e i n v a s i o n o f Hungary, marked an i m p o r t a n t t u r n i n g p o i n t .
Some f o l l o w e d M a r x i s t l i n e s r a t h e r more d i s c r e t e l y , b u t o t h e r s abandoned t h e i r

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former p u r s u i t s . M a r x i s m and Communism were so l i n k e d i n t h e p u b l i c image t h a t
i t was d i f f i c u l t i n t h e McCarthy e r a t o be l a b e l l e d as a p a r t y member w i t h o u t
also being l a b e l l e d doctrinaire.
Nevertheless the d o c t r i n e survived, paradoxically through the mediation o f
s e v e r a l " n o n - i n v o l v e d " geographers. O f f i c i a l geography a t t h a t t i m e l a c k e d a
c o h e r e n t i d e o l o g y ; i t s o u g h t t h e o r e t i c a l f o u n d a t l o n s a t any p r f c e . Thus t h e y
adopted -- u n c o n s c i o u s l y perhpas -- terms borrowed f r o m M a r x i s t vocabulary: 2
t e r m s such as a c c u m u l a t e d u r b a n r e n t , b e t t e r y e t , t h e t h e s i s t h a t c i t i e s a r e
c r e a t e d by r u r a l s u r p l u s . W i t h o u t k n o w i n g i t s o r i g i n , t h e y had no h e s i t a t i o n in
u s i n g a M a r x i s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f urban e v o l u t i o n d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f t r a n s i t i o n
f r o m f e u d a l i s m t o c a p i t a l i s m , and a l s o t o t h e p o s t w a r c o n t e x t . The n o t i o n o f
" u r b a n r u r a l i z a t i o n " w h i c h one f i n d s i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e on " u r b a n v i l l a g e s " i s
a l s o b o r r o w e d f r o m Marx (1964, p. 78): no c o n c e r n i s d e m o n s t r a t e d o v e r t h e
a p p l i c a t i o n o f these notions t o a d i f f e r e n t time period. A similar reflection
c o u l d be made c o n c e r n i n g t h e n o t i o n o f " u r b a n r e g i o n " d e f i n e d as an a r e a i n
w h i c h c i t y and c o u n t r y complement one a n o t h e r t h r o u g h b i - l a t e r a l exchanges. 3
A key p h r a s e i n F r e n c h as w e l l as A m e r i c a n geography: " T h e r e I s no c i t y w i t h o u t
a region, nor i s there a region without a c i t y . " I n e f f e c t , here i s a c l i c h e
d e v o i d o f s u b s t a n t i v e meaning.

GEOGRAPHY ( S P A C E ) AND M A R X I S T C A T E G O R I E S

The c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n v o l v e d i n t h e e x t r e m e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f power w i t h i n
g i a n t State corporations, y e t t h e progressive subservience o f n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s
t o these corporations, has become t h e f o c u s o f a renewed i n t e r e s t i n Marx and
h i s d i s c i p l e s ( o r t h o d o x o r n o t ) as a s o u r c e o f g e o g r a p h i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n . (On
t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l d i m e n s i o n s o f t h i s problem, see Santos, 1974, 1975.) Economic
and s o c i a l i n e q u a l i t i e s caused by t h i s phenomenon, e.g., p o v e r t y ( r e l a t i v e and
a b s o l u t e ) , t h e d e c l i n i n g p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g by t h e p e o p l e i n -
volved, a l l g e n e r a t e economic and s o c i a l a l i e n a t i o n w h i c h has an e f f e c t on t h e
o r g a n i z a t i o n o f space. This i s a universally-observable r e a l i t y , a t a l l scales
o f geographic observation.
A t l e a s t two m a j o r m e t h o d o l o g i c a l q u e s t i o n s a r e r a i s e d b y t h i s : f i r s t , how
can one g r a s p -- i n t e r m s o f v a r i a b l e s -- t h e t o t a l i t y ; s e c o n d l y , how does one
i n t e r p r e t t h e p r e s e n t meaning o f space i n t e r m s o f a c c u m u l a t e d t i m e . 4 The
n o t i o n o f t o t a l i t y can o n l y be d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e w o r l d as a w h o l e . On t h e
o t h e r hand, n a t i o n a l space i s c o n t i n u o u s , as i s t h e space o f i t s p a r t s ; s o t h e
n o t i o n o f s c a l e i s f u n d a m e n t a l . 5 The s p a c e - d e f i n i n g e l e m e n t s , t h u s , s h o u l d be
c o n s i d e r e d as v a r i a b l e s whose n a t u r e and s i g n i f i c a n c e v a r y a c c o r d i n g t o t h e l e v e l
( o f space) considered. The p r o b l e m o f s p a t i a l d e l i m i t a t i o n t h u s assumes a n o t h e r
d i m e n s i o n : s i n c e each o f t h e p a r t s i s supposed t o be a r e p l i c a o f t h e t o t a l i t y .
T h i s t a s k has become p a r t i c u l a r l y d i f f i c u l t s i n c e gerography, i n i t s e f f o r t s
t o become more s p e c i a l i z e d , has a c t u a l l y become f r a g m e n t e d , and has a l s o f r a g -

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mented t h e r e a l i t y i t has s t u d i e d . I t has t h u s f a i l e d t o b e n e f i t f r o m many o f
t h e developments i n a n c i l l a r y d i s c i p l i n e s . Selecting various ideas from d i f f e r -
e n t sources, b o u r g e o i s g e o g r a p h y found i t s e l f i n c a p a b l e o f i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e
whole. I n many cases, one c o u l d say t h a t t h i s was d e l i b e r a t e i g n o r a n c e .
I n e x p l a i n i n g t h e dynamic a s p e c t s o f geography, on t h e o t h e r hand, the
notion o f "spatio-temporal s y s t e m s " has been used, b u t o f t e n space and t i m e have
been c o n s i d e r e d as i n d e p e n d e n t c a t e g o r i e s . Unfortunately, the significance o f
t i m e has n o t been w e l l g r a s p e d , and t h e t r a n s - t e m p o r a l p e r s p e c t i v e was n o t
d e v e l o p e d , s u c h t h a t even d i f f u s i o n models r e m a i n e d q u i t e m e d i o c r e .
And what c a n one s a y a b o u t t h e p r e s e n t : what i s i n v o l v e d ? This i s p a r t i -
c u l a r l y d i f f i c u l t today, when, a c c o r d i n g t o M. Dobb (1963, p. 1 2 ) , t h e tempo o f
change has been " a b n o r m a l l y a c c e l e r a t e d . " Such r e v o l u t i o n a r y phases r e p r e s e n t
t r a n s i t i o n s between h i s t o r i c a l p e r i o d s . However, i t i s much more c o m f o r t a b l e t o
work w i t h t e m p o r a l r h y t h m s ( s y s t e m s ) w h i c h a r e r e l a t i v e l y d e f i n e a b l e , t h e n w i t h
periods o f rupture. The speed o f change i n c r e a s e s t h e number o f unknowns, and
may i n f a c t mask t h e r e a l h f e r a r c h y o f v a r i a b l e s i n a w o r l d marked b y i n s t a b i l i -
ty
B u t such d i f f i c u l t i e s p r o v i d e a c h a l l e n g e . One c a n n o t a p p l y P a r x i s t a n a l y -
s i s t o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f space u n t i l one c a n o p e r a t i o n a l i z e t h o s e M a r x i s t
c a t e g o r i e s w h i c h have a b e a r i n g t o g e o g r a p h y . What i s i m p l i e d h e r e i s t h a t one
c a n n o t go on u s f n g c o n v e n t t o n a l c a t e g o r i e s ; one w i l l n o t f i n d them w i t h i n t h e
o f f i c i a l texts.
M a r x i s t n o t i o n s , such as " s u r p l u s v a l u e " c a n be t r a n s l a t e d , as H a r v e y has
done ( 1 9 7 3 ) 6 i n r e f e r e n c e t o e m p i r i c a l s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s . I t i s i n t h i s way
t h a t H a r v e y has p o i n t e d t o c e r t a i n f u n d a m e n t a l weaknesses i n c o n v e n t i o n a l u r b a n
r e n t t h e o r y ( A l o n s o , 1 9 6 4 ) . O t h e r i d e a s c o u l d be s i m i l a r l y t r a n s l a t e d : for
example, t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n and c i r c u l a t i o n o f c a p i t a l ; t h e impact o f i n n o v a t i o n
on m o n e y - c a p i t a l , p r o d u c t i v e c a p i t a i and c o m m o d i t y - c a p i t a l ; the notions o f fixed
versus c i r c u l a t i n g c a p i t a l ; u s e - v a l u e versus exchange-value; modes and s t r u c t u r e
o f production, class structure...all these are t r a n s l a t a b l e s p a t i a l categories o r
geographic language.
The s u c c e s s e s a c h i e v e d by w r i t e r s l i k e Harvey, Bunge, Eichenbaum a n d o t h e r s
i n t h e e x p l o r a t i o n o f i n t e r h a l u r b a n s t r u c t u r e , s h o u l d be f o l l o w e d b y s i m i l a r
studies o f externalities, o r t h e i n t e g r a l n a t u r e o f space.
This raises several methodological issues. The f u n d a m e n t a l u n i t f o r geo-
g r a p h i c s t u d y s h o u l d be t h e N a t i o n - S t a t e . One c a n n o t d i s a s s o c i a t e t h e n o t i o n o f
system f r o m t h e n o t i o n o f a system o f s t r u c t u r e s (Santos, 1974). With t h i s per-
s p e c t i v e one c o u l d u t i l i z e a l l t h e e x p l a n a t o r y power of t h e m u l t i p l e d i a l e c t i c a l
f o r c e s i n space. I f one r e g a r d s space as a whole, then the a r t i f i c i a l d i s t i n c -
t i o n s between "economic s p a c e " and " g e o g r a p h i c space" c o u l d be a b o l i s h e d ( S a n t o s ,
1971, 1 9 7 4 a ) . One s h o u l d be c o n c e r n e d w i t h w o r l d space as a whole, and n o t j u s t
a n a r i s t o c r a t i c space, where t h e o n l y f l o w s s t u d i e d are' t h o s e o f g i a n t f i r m s and

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persons o f l e i s u r e . T h i s w o u l d p r o d u c e a t r u e geography o f p o v e r t y , i.e., a
w o r l d geography where w e a l t h and p o v e r t y a r e n o t t r e a t e d as s e p a r a t e e n t i t i e s ,
b u t as complementary p a r t s o f a s i n g l e r e a l i t y . The l i s t c o u l d be expanded i f
t h i s p a p e r d i d n o t have t o be s o s h o r t !

UNDERDEVELOPED SPACE?

The geography o f u n d e r d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r i e s i m m e d i a t e l y r a i s e s t h e i s s u e o f
how space i s t o be d e f i n e d . C o u l d one a r r i v e a t a d e f i n i t i o n o f space w h i c h
c o u l d be a p p l i e d u n i v e r s a l l y , as a k i n d o f m a s t e r - k e y ? B o u r g e o i s geography
a t t e m p t e d t o do t h i s : u n d e r d e v e l o p m e n t was s i m p l y an a p p e n d i x o r a supplemen-
tary chapter i n so-called "general" textbooks.
U n q u e s t i o n a b l y t h o s e v a r i a b l e s w h i c h f o r m space, t h e c o m b i n a t i o n s o f w h i c h
v a r y , and y i e l d t h e d i f f e r e n c e s between p l a c e s , a r e t h e same u n i v e r s a l l y . The
p r o b l e m i s t o d i s c o v e r w h e t h e r such c o m b i n a t i o n s m a n i f e s t t h e m s e l v e s s p a t i a l l y ,
and w h e t h e r t h e i r m a n i f e s t a t i o n i s t h e same a t t h e c e n t e r as a t t h e p e r i p h e r y
o f t h e w o r l d system.
A t l e a s t t h r e e p o i n t s appear e s s e n t i a l here: ( 1 ) those f o r c e s which pro-
mote m o d e r n i z a t i o n and a r e m a n i f e s t a t t h e c e n t e r s o f t h e system, do n o t r e a c h
t h e p e r i p h e r y a t t h e same t i m e ; t h e r e i s a d e f i n i t e d i s t a n c e decay e f f e c t . This
could e x p l a i n the accumulation o f c a p i t a l h i s t o r i c a l l y w i t h i n capitalfsm, the
v a r i a t i o n s among c o u n t r i e s , as w e l l as t h e i n e q u a l i t i e s w i t h i n t h e s u b - r e g i o n s
o f one c o u n t r y . ( 2 ) C e r t a i n p o i n t s i n space a r e r e a c h e d b y new, o r r e n e w i n g
f o r c e s , w h i l e o t h e r s a r e n o t . T h e i r i m p a c t i s n o t a random one; t h e y a r e
d i c t a t e d b y t h e c o r e o f t h e s y s t e m i n t e r m s o f maximum p r o d u c t i v i t y . The h i s -
t o r y o f space i s t h u s a s e l e c t i v e one. ( 3 ) Forces e m i t t e d from t h e centers
( " p o l e s " ) change t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e as t h e y r e a c h t h e p e r i p h e r y . Even when one
f i n d s i s o m o r p h i s m , t h e v a l u e o f t h e phenomenon has t o be d i f f e r e n t . For
example, t h e n o t i o n o f " p r i m a t e c i t y " i n F r a n c e , o r " i n c o m p l e t e m e t r o p o l i s " as
i n U . S . o r Germany, c a n n o t be i n t e r p r e t e d i n t h e same way i n u n d e r d e v e l o p e d
countries.
" U n d e r d e v e l o p e d space'' has a s p e c i f i c c h a r a c t e r ; t h e p r i o r i t y o f i m p o r t a n c e
v a r i e s , even i f t h e same f o r c e s a r e i n v o l v e d ; because t h e i r c o m b i n a t i o n s and
results are different. T h i s i s s o m e t h i n g w h i c h Western g e o g r a p h e r s have had
g r e a t d i f f i c u l t y i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g . Why s h o u l d we n o t t h e n r a l l y e x p e r t i s e f r o m
t h e underdeveloped c o u n t r i e s themselves: t o d e v e l o p t h e o r i e s w h i c h w o u l d make
sense t o them b o t h as g e o g r a p h e r s and as c i t i z e n s ? A t t h e moment, " o f f i c i a l "
geography o p e r a t e s as t h o u g h t h e West had a monopoly o f i d e a s .
T h e r e a r e , o f c o u r s e , many T h i r d - W o r l d g e o g r a p h e r s who p r e f e r t o r e m a i n
s i l e n t e i t h e r t h r o u g h t i m i d i t y o r c a r e e r i ~ m ; t~h e r e a r e a l s o Western g e o g r a p h e r s
who a r e b e g i n n i n g t o r e t h i n k a b o u t t h e p r o b l e m s o f t h e T h i r d World.* This i s
v e r y i m p o r t a n t , s i n c e we have n o t had an a l l - e m b r a c i n g i d e o l o g y w h i c h c o u l d be
a p p l i e d t o underdeveloped c o u n t r i e s . There i s a r i s k , then, o f superimposing

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Y a r x i s t c a t e g o r i e s on a f l i m s y o r f i c t i o n a l surface. It i s urgent t h a t a theory
be f o r m u l a t e d : a n d t h e d i a l e c t i c a l m e t h o d i s a n a d e q u a t e one f o r a c o n t e x t
where a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f f o r c e s -- e x t e r n a l and i n t e r n a l , p a s t and p r e s e n t , p o l i -
tical, economic, and s o c i a l -- c o n f r o n t one a n o t h e r i n everyday l i f e .

STEPPING STONES
To p a r t i c i p a t e i n s u c h a r a d i c a l r e n e w a l o f g e o g r a p h y i s a t e m p t i n g c h a l -
lenge. T h i s p r o b a b l y e x p l a i n s t h e enthusiasm w i t h which t h i s t o p i c i s pursued
i n the United States, B r i t a i n , a n d France.' Some, however, have n o t a p p r e c i a t e d
the seriousness o f t h i s task. A few o b s e r v a t i o n s on t h i s s u b j e c t a r e suggested
h e r e , b y way o f c o n c l u s i o n .
The p r e s e n t movement i s welcome f o r many r e a s o n s . I t e n a b l e s us t o r e c o g -
n i z e t h e hegemony w h i c h t h e s o - c a l l e d " q u a n t i t a t i v e r e v o l u t i o n " has h e l d i n
r e c e n t developments. One c a n t h u s denounce t h a t k i n d o f s c i e n t i f i c dogmatism
w h i c h i s more c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e v e r i f i c a t i o n o f h y p o t h e s e s t h a n w i t h t h e s o u r c e
a n d n a t u r e o f t h e s e h y p o t h e s e s (J. D o h e r t y , 1974, p. l a ) .
T h i s k i n d o f a r r o g a n c e ( " t h e most d e s t r u c t i v e o f a l l academic v i c e s " --
Freeman, 1961, p. 3 8 ) d o e s n o t l e a d t o a n y k i n d o f p r o g r e s s . One c a n a l s o de-
nounce t h e use o f o b s c u r e language ( g i v i n g t h e r e a d e r t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t i t i s
addressed o n l y t o r e a l s c i e n t i s t s , a domination o f fear). L i b e r a t e d f r o m such
vices, i t may b e e a s i e r t o a r r e s t t h e f o r m a t i o n o f c l i q u e s w h i c h m u t u a l l y s u s -
t a i n t h e m s e l v e s t h r o u g h r e c i p r o c a l c i t a t i o n r i t u a l s , a n d t o p r o c e e d b y way o f
open d i s c u s s i o n . M a r x i s m t o d a y , i . e . , v a r i o u s t y p e s o f neo-Marxism, w i l l remain
i m p o v e r s i h e d u n t i l s u c h a s i t u a t i o n has been r e a c h e d .
One has t o a v o i d , o f c o u r s e , p u r e l y academic e x e r c i s e s . Footnotes are
a l w a y s welcome i n o r d e r t o g r o u n d a n i d e a , o r e x p l a i n i t b e t t e r t o t h e u n i n -
formed, b u t t h e y h a v e n o i n t r i n s i c v a l u e i n t h e m s e l v e s . To r e s o r t t o t h e u s e o f
e a s i l y - a c c e s s i b l e r e f e r e n c e s may, o f c o u r s e , be a r e t r e a t from t h e challenge of
new p r o b l e m s . I t i s q u i t e r i d i c u l o u s t o s e e how e a g e r l y , b l i t h e l y , a few
w r i t e r s c i t e Marx, E n g e l s , L e n i n a n d Rosa Luxembourg, o f t e n o u t o f c o n t e x t . One
c o u l d u n d e r s t a n d t h e i m p a t i e n c e o f t h o s e who h a v e jumped o n t h e bandwagon, b u t
one i s s o r e l y t e m p t e d t o p u l l t h e i r e a r s i f t h e y h a v e n o t s e r i o u s l y r e f l e c t e d o n
the matter!
One c o u l d a s s e m b l e a good c o l l e c t i o n o f a f f i r m a t i v e s t a t e m e n t s , b u t t h e y do
n o t n e c e s s a r i l y have m a j o r s i g n i f i c a n c e : " e l e g a n c e does n o t mean r e l e v a n c e : "
a sophisticated demonstration o f expertise i s n o t necessarily b e t t e r than a
simple explanation. L a t i n - A m e r i c a n s o c i o l o g y has been t h e v i c t i m o f " r h e t o r i c a l
diarrhea" --
a s A n i b a l Q u i j a n o (1973, p. 4 6 ) has so j u s t l y c r i t i c i z e d : "AS long
as we a r e i n c a p a b l e o f a b a n d o n i n g t h i s p e r s i s t a n t a t t i t u d e o f d i s c u s s i n g o u r
problems i n i d e o l o g i c a l terms. . . I b e l i e v e , y o u b e l i e v e , we b e l i e v e , L e n i n
thought, Trotsky believed, S t a l i n affirmed, Mao s a i d ...i t w i l l be i m p o s s i b l e f o r
us t o make a n y p r o g r e s s . "

5
 F i n a l l y , i t i s n o t enough t o f o l l o w s o m e t h i n g w h i c h may t u r n o u t t o be
simply another passing fashion. One has t o s e l e c t t h o s e a s p e c t s w h i c h a r e
a p p r o p r i a t e , and u s a b l e , f o r g e o g r a p h i c s t u d y : t h o s e w h i c h seem a p p r o p r i a t e f o r
t h e l i v i n g r e a l i t y o f t h e p r e s e n t , and t h e s p e c i a l c h a r a c t e r o f p l a c e s . One
must, on t h e o t h e r hand, n o t h e s i t a t e t o use a l l t h e evidence -- historical,
philosophical, or empirical -- f o r t h e d a n g e r o f becoming d o g m a t i c i s f o r e v e r
present. The v a l u e o f such i n s t r u m e n t s o f a n a l y s i s w i l l be j u d g e d i n s o c i a l
a c t i o n i t s e l f , viewed from t h e d i a l e c t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e . The r i s k o f becoming
u s e l e s s i s a n o t h e r k i n d o f b l i n d n e s s w h i c h we i n h e r i t f r o m c l a s s i c a l Marxism.
E n g e l s ' c r i t i q u e o f Buchner, V o g t and ! l o l e s c h o t t was n o t based ( a c c o r d i n g t o
L e n i n , 1967, p . 2 2 7 ) on t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y d l s a g r e e d w i t h Marx, b u t on t h e f a c t
t h a t t h e y were ' ' p o p u l a r m a t e r i a l i s t s : " t h e y had n o t d e v e l o p e d t h e o r y any f u r t h e r
than t h e i r teachers.
T r a n s l a t e d f r o m F r e n c h o r i g i n a l b y Ann B u t t i m e r

FOOTNOTES

'Jean Tricart, in two articles published in La Penshe (1953, 19561, made a dis-
tinction between a "Marxist geomorphology" and a "Bourqeois geomorphology."
This idea came when, during his "heroic" period, he was reacting against the
tradition set by W. M.-Davis, and attempting to replace it with his own dynamic
perspective on geomorphology. It was not simply by chance that Tricart later
became the founder of applied geography. Other works on Marxist themes include
Jean Suret-Canale (1948, 1949, 1967), Jean Dresch (1948) and Bernard Kayser
(1951).
*These geographers, in fact, took a perspective quite opposite that of Vidal

---+
dela Blache and his first disciples. The latter were quite aware of the
Marxist notion of totalit when they spoke of "terrestrial unity," but they
did not pursue this idea urther, just as they never really pursued the notion
of possibilism.
3"The city with its attached territory formed the economic whole." Marx, 1964,
p. 79. (The MSS. is dated 1857-1858).
40n this subject, see "Yodernisations et Espaces d&iv6s, " Revue Tiers Mondc?,
No. 5 0 by Milton Santos, ed., (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1972).
'This idea has been developed by others, e.g., by David Harvey (1969) and Yves
Locoste (1966, 1973).
%avid Harvey, in a recent publication (19731, sheds a new light on the study of
urban problems. The whole ensemble of ideas which he developed concerning the
relationships between "social justice" and "spatial systems" enables him to
articulate both a vigorous critique of the Alonso rent theory (19641, and an
alternative approach to the problem, as illustrated in his study of "Real
Income Redistribution in an Urban System" (pp. 50-59).
'One cannot overlook the fact that the university system in many underdeveloped
countries (especially in Africa) is still a relic of colonialism: it is still
organized in such a fashion that decisions concerning the future prospects of
young professors rest in the hands of Western, or Westernized "patrons."

6
'Among the studies knwon to us, we can cite those of T. G. McGee (1970a, 1970b,
1971, 1973); he has pioneered a whole series of studies on urbanization and
has developed a positive set of directions whereby Marxist categories, e.g.,
"industrial reserve army" could be articulated. To Harold Brookfield (19731,
we owe the spatial transposition of the notions of domination and dependence.
B. Kayser (1972, 1973) has dealt with the problem of "regional alienation" in
Europe and Latin America. CENDES (Centro de Estudios del Desarrollo) at the
Central University of Venezuela has developed a team approach to an interdis-
ciplinary analysis of social processes. Others (we cannot cite them all) have
outlined stages of spatial organization in Latin America which are associated
with the types of production characteristic of specific periods (M. Acosta,
I. Segnini, G. Yanes, 1973). Catherine Paix (1972) has explored the relation-
ships between modes of production, demographic evolution, employment trends
and urbanization.
'In the United States and Britain, the journal AntSpode is the main exponent of
this view. In France, Hgrodote, under the direction of Yves Lacoste, is about
to appear. The title "Hdrodote" is designed to recall the political role of
geography in Greece: the Greek geographer was a primary source of information.

REFERENCES

Acosta, Majura, Isabelia Segnini, German Yanes. Problematica del Subdesarrollo:

Modalidades de Ocupacion del Espacio en Latiqo-America, Universidad Central
de Venezuela, Faculdad de Ciencias Economicas y Sociales, 1973, Caracas,
Universidad Central.
Alonso, W. Location and Land Use (Cambridge, Mass., 1964).
Brookfield, H. C. Colonialism, Development and Independence: the case of the
Xelanesian Islands in the South Pacific (London, 1972).
. "On One Geography and a Third World," Institute of British Geographers
Transactions, 58, ?larch 1973.
Dobb, Yaurice. Studies in the Development of Capitalism, Routledge and Kegan
Paul, London, 1963 (First published: 1946).
Doherty, J. The Role of Urban Places in Socialist Transformation (Some Tenta-
tive and Introductory Notes), Working paper mimeo, lopp., University of Dar
es Salaam, Department of Geography, 1974.
. "Introduction: Geographic Tiesearch and Methodology," Journal of the
Geographical Association of Tanzania, 10, April 1974, pp. 1-3a.
Dresch, Jean. "R6flexions sur la Ggographie," La Pens6e, 18, 1948, p. 87 ff.
Freeman, T. W. A EIundred Years of Geographx (London, 1961).
George, Pierre. Gdographie Sociale du Monde (Paris, 1946).
. Introduction 6 l'Etude G6ographique de la Population du Monde,
Institut National d'Etudes Dbmographiques, Travaux et Documents No. 14,
(Paris, 1951).
. La T'ille, Le Fait Urbain d travers le Monde, Presses Universitaires
de France, 1952.
Harvey, David. Explanation in Geography (London, 1969).

7
 . Social Justice and the City (Baltimore, 1973).
Kayser, Bernard. V e l'objectivisme au confusionisme dans l'enseignement de la
GQographie," La PensQe, 35, 1951, pp. 10 ff.
. Le Nouveau Systgme de Relations Ville-Campagne en Amerique Latine,
Centre Interdisciplinaire d'Etudes Urbaines, Universitg de Toulouse, 1972
(mimeo, 12pp. ) .
. "Le nouveau systhme de rapports ville-campagne," Espaces et Soci6tgs,
No. 8, 1973, ed. Anthropos, Paris.
Lacoste, Yves. "Le concept de sous-dgveloppement et la ggographie," Annales de
GgoaraDhie, 1966, pp. 644-670.
. "La GQographie," in F. Chatelet, Philosophie des Sciences Sociales
(Paris, 1973).
Lenin, V. I. ihterialism and Empiro-criticism, Critical Commen,tson a Reaction-
ary Philosophy, nloscoe 1967, (First edition: 1947).
"larx, Karl. Pre-Capitalist Economic Formations, London, 1964 (manuscript:
1857-1858).

. Hawkers in Selected Asian Cities, R Preliminary Investigation, Centre

of Asian Studies, University of Hong Kong, 1970b.
. The Urbanization Process in the Third World (London, 1971).
. "Peasants in the cities: a paradox, a paradox, a most ingenious
paradox," Human Organization, 32, 2, 1973, pp. 135-142.
. The Persistence of the Proto-Proletariat: Occupational Structures
and Planning of the Future World Cities, Australian National University,
Research School of Pacific Studies, Department of Human Geography, April
1974 (mimeo, 60pp. and bibliography).
Paix, Catherine. "Approche thgorique des problgmes de l'urbanisation," Revue
Tiers Monde, 50, 1972.
Quijano, Anibal. "Alternativas de las Ciencias Sociales en America Latina,"
Desarrollo Indoamericano, Ano 6 , No. 21, October 1973, pp. 45-47.
Santos, Milton. Le MQtier de GQographe (Paris, 1971).
. "Sous-dgveloppement et p6les de croissance Qconomique et sociale,"
Tiers Monde, 58, 1974a, pp. 271-286.
. L'Espace Partagg: les deux circuits de l'gconomie urbaine des pays
sous-developpgs et leurs rgpercussions spatiales (Paris, 197433).
. The Shared Space: the two circuits of urban economy in underdeveloped
countries and their spatial implications, Methuen, forthcoming, 1975.
S h e , Lucien."Panorama de la philosophie francaise contemporaine (111, le
materialisme depuis 1920," La Pensee, 90, mars-avril 1960, pp. 56-76.
Slater, David. Underdevelopment and Spatial Inequalitx, Pergamon Press
(London, forthcoming).
8
Suret-Canale, Jean. llL'exploitation coloniale est-elle une rgalit6 scientifi-
que?" La Pensee, 16, 1948, pp. 13 ff.
. "Encores quelques reflexions sur la ggographie," La Pensee, 26, 1949,
pp. 26 ff.
. "Sur la geographie du sous-dgveloppement," La Pensee, 131, fev. 1967,
pp. 14-21.
Tricart, Jean. "Premier essai sur la ggomorphologie et la pensee marxiste," -
La
Pensee, 47, 1953, p. 62 ff.
. "La g6omorphologie et la pens6e marxiste," La Pensee, 69, spt. oct.
1956, pp. 55-76.
. L'Habitat Urbain, CDU-SEDES, Paris, sans date.
Vidal de La Blache. Principes de GBographie Humaine (gait6 par De Martonne),

ANTIPODE ISSUE O N U R B A N POLITICAL ECONOMY

I am c o l l e c t i n g p a p e r s f o r an i s s u e o f A N T I P O D E on t h e s u b j e c t o f Urban
P o l i t i c a l Economy. I t w i l l be composed o f r a d i c a l a p p r o a c h e s t o a s p e c t s o f t h e
c i t y i n Advanced C a p i t a l i s t o r S t a t e Monopoly C a p i t a l i s t s o c i a l f o r m a t i o n s . I
s h o u l d b e v e r y g r a t e f u l t o r e c e i v e o f f e r s , a b s t r a c t s o r p a p e r s on t h e s e l i n e s ,
t o be c o n s i d e r e d f o r i n c l u s i o n . As a r o u g h g u i d e t o t h e l i n e s on w h i c h I am
t h i n k i n g I ' v e l i s t e d a number o f t o p i c : w h i c h s p r i n g t o m i n d , t h o u g h t h i s l i s t
by no means e x h a u s t s t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s .
( 1 ) The n a t u r e o f u r b a n f o r m and f u n c t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e s t r u c t u r e o f
t h e s o c i a l f o r m a t i o n i n which t h e c i t y i s s i t e d --
h i s t o r i c a l o r contemporary
aspects.
( 2 ) The r o l e o f t h e S t a t e i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f c i t y f u n c t i o n and f o r m .
C e n t r a l and l o c a l l e v e l s and t h e c o n f l i c t between t h e s e i n t e r m s o f f i n a n c e and
p o l i t i c a l power. L o c a l p r e s s u r e g r o u p s i n t h e p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e . Influence
o f t h e S t a t e on h o u s i n g , employment, d i s t r i b u t i o n o r u r b a n r e n t e t c . t h r o u g h
p l a n n i n g and i n d i r e c t a c t i o n .
( 3 ) The n a t u r e o f t h e p r o p e r t y m a r k e t , i t s i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h o t h e r s e c t o r s
o f t h e economy and o t h e r e l e m e n t s o f c i t y s t r u c t u r e .
( 4 ) The f u n c t i o n and s t r u c t u r e o f t h e m a r k e t f o r h o u s i n g . E f f e c t s o f
f i n a n c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s on p r o v i s i o n o f h o u s i n g u n i t s . A l t e r n a t i v e m a r k e t and
a l l o c a t i o n systems, t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e .
( 5 ) The i m p a c t o f t h e i n v e s t m e n t d e c i s i o n s o f ' f r e e e n t e r p r i s e ' economic
u n i t s on u r b a n employment and h o u s i n g m a r k e t s and on t h e a b i l i t y o f u r b a n s e r -
v i c e s t o meet ' n e e d ' . The r e l a t i o n s between f i r m s and t h e S t a t e i n p r o v i d i n g
f o r t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n o f l a b o r power.
( 6 ) The p o l i t i c s o f u r b a n t r a n s p o r t a t i o n . Alternative cost benefit
approaches t o t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f a l t e r n a t i v e s .
( 7 ) A c r i t i q u e of area-based approaches t o urban problems, t r e a t m e n t o f
t h e symptoms o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e s o c i a l f o r m a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n t h e s t r u c t u r e
itself.
( 8 ) A c r i t i q u e o f n e o - c l a s s i c a l t h e o r i e s o f u r b a n r e n t and l a n d v a l u e s
from a neo-Keynesian o r Marxian s t a n d p o i n t .
( 9 ) The r o l e o f s u b u r b a n i z a t i o n and u r b a n r e c o n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e m a i n t e n a n c e
o f e f f e c t i v e demand and as a c o u n t e r measure t o t h e t e n d e n c y o f t h e r a t e o f p r o -
f i t t o f a l l i n l a t e c a p i t a l i s t modes o f p r o d u c t i o n .
( 1 0 ) The r e l a t i o n s between t h e c o u n t r y and t h e c i t y a t r e g i o n a l , n a t i o n a l
and i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e v e l s i n t e r m s o f c a p i t a l and commodity c i r c u l a t i o n . The
c i t y as a p r o d u c t o f t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n a n d , c e n t r a l i z a t i o n o f c a p i t a l .

I t i s hoped t h a t t h i s i s s u e w i l l a v o i d two e x t r e m e s ; f i r s t l y t h a t o f
' l i b e r a l f o r m u l a t i o n s ' w h i c h m e r e l y examine t h e o u t p u t o f a s o c i a l f o r m a t i o n as
m a n i f e s t e d i n c i t y f o r m and f u n c t i o n r a t h e r t h a n c r i t i c i z i n g b o t h . u r b a n t h e o r y
and u r b a n p r a c t i c e as a s p e c t s o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l f o r m a t i o n i n w h i c h t h e y
have t h e i r r o o t s ; s e c o n d l y , t h o u g h t h i s i m p l i e s a r a d i c a l o r M a r x i s t a p p r o a c h i t
i s v i t a l t o a v o i d t h e dogmatic t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f urbanism i n t o m a r x i s t t e r m i -
n o l o g y , w h i c h does more harm t o o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f u r b a n s t r u c t u r e and f o r m
t h a n good.
Mart i n Boddy
Department of Geography
Downing P l a c e
Cambridge CB23EN
England
9