TECHNICAL NOTE
the field or artificiaUy in the laboratory, are carefully aligned in the test
I.'I )I;irma
)rocec ure 'or~: ie
rinc s >ear I:es:
AJ Harris and PDJ Watson, School of Civil Engineering,
Kingston University, Penrhyn Road, Kingston-Upon
Thames, Surrey, KT1 2EE.
The test procedure given in BS 1377 Part 7 to determine the residual
shear strength of a soil using the Bromhead ring shear apparatus
contains a number of procedures that make the test both difficult and
time consuming. A test procedure used at Kingston University since the
development of the Bromhead ring shear apparatus is therefore
proposed. The procedure is in effect a multi-stage test and commonly
results in a value for the drained residual shear strength within three
working days. The residual shear strength values obtained have been
found to be close to those derived from back analyses of slope failures,
especially when there is a strong element of bedding control on the
location of the slip surface and when the back analysis is not unduly
affected by uncertainties in pore pressures and end effects. A review of
alternative uses and test procedures for the Bromhead ring shear
apparatus is also included.
1.0Inbwluc5on
The ring shear test was first proposed by A Casagrande as reported by
Hvorslev (1939).More recent developments include those by Bishop et al.
(1971)and Bromhead (1979), whose simplified apparatus (see Fig. 1) uses
a thin sample of remoulded soil. It is this design concept that forms the
basis for the test recommended by BS 1377 (1990).The apparatus has also
been further developed for particular investigations notably by Steward
& Cripps 1983, Hawkins & Privett 1985, Stark & Eid 1993, and Dewhurst et
al, 1996.
The alteration of a soil fabric caused by the formation of a shear zone
or shear surface, results in changes to the strength properties of the soil.
The strength of the soil with its original fabric is termed the peak
strength, and its strength under large deformation conditions in a shear
zone or on a shear surface is referred to as the residual strength.
Conventional triaxial and direct shear box tests do not allow sufficient
strain for the residual strength to be fully developed. These tests can only
be used if preformed shear surfaces, that have been developed either in
Pillar for settlement
IJ
Counterweight Rest for load arm
Rgnre1: Ring shear ayyarnhia eleeaeon and soneinl taronL
26
apparatus. As this is an extremely time consuming and difficult process,
the ring shear apparatus was developed. In this apparatus an annulus of
soil is sheared by rotation allowing large strains to be readily obtained.
2.0 BS 1377 Rlug shear test
Part 7 of BS 1377 classes the ring shear test as a Total Stress Test, which
the majority of civil engineers assume to be an undrained test. The ring
shear test is however a drained test; and although the total and effective
stresses are the same when the sample is drained, some confusion may
arise regarding the soil properties derived from the test. It would appear
more logical, therefore, for the test tobe included in Part 8 of BS 1377.
The BS test also includes some procedures that make it difficult and
time consuming. These procedures negate the advantages of this
particular apparatus, which are simplicity and speed (Hawkins &
Privett 1981).Part 7, section 6.4.2.states that the sample should be subject
to a consolidation stage. This is in agreement with the authors, however
BS 1377 recommends that the time to 100% primary consolidation (ti~) is
determined. This would be possible if the sample was of sufficient
thickness, however the small thickness of the ring shear sample has
meant that monitoring of the consolidation stage is inaccurate. This
problem can be compounded by the fact that with some soft clays, soil
maybe squeezed out between the confining rings and the upper platen.
Similarly, the use of separate consolidation stages throughout the test
gives little additional benefit to the overall result. From the time to 100%
consolidation, it is possible to determine the rate of strain at which the
sample should be tested. By calculating the correct rate of strain, it can
be ensured that pore pressures dissipate during the test, but this
commonly results in very slow strain rates. These calculated rates of
strain are generally too slow as they are based on a drainage path of half
the sample thickness. However, it is commonly found that the shear
surface forms within 1 mm of the upper platen. Hence, the drainage path
is shorter than assumed and the tendency for excess pore pressures to
develop due to shear is reduced. In any event the influence of strain rate
on the measured properties can be assessed by raising or lowering the
strain rate and observing the effect on the measured torque. Lowering
the strain rate should result in an increase in the measured torque if
excess pore water pressures are being generated due to shear. However,
it should be noted that high rates of shear may result in disturbance of
the residual soil fabric (aligned clay particles) with consequent increase
in inferred strength.
Problems with the BS test can also result from formation of the shear
plane during the initial stage. The test recommends that the shear plane
is formed "by using the motor drive or hand wheel (if fitted) to rotate the
specimen by one to five revolutions within a period of approximately 2
min". This high shear rate can result in substantial extrusion of the
sample, the generation of undrained pore water pressures, which
ultimately dissipate, as well as non-fully aligned clay particles. It is
therefore recommended that a slow shearing rate is used to complete the
formation of this feature correctly (see section 3.2).
To overcome the problems posed by the BS procedure, the following is
recommended for the small ring shear test, particularly for those using
the Bromhead Ring Shear
apparatus.
gauge
3.0Optimal test procedure
3.1 Sample prepartruon
1. The first step is to remould the
soil sample at a moisture content
either at or lower than the plastic
limit. This is because shear
surface formation is a result of
soil brittleness, which is more
unter likely to occur at moisture
ghted contents lower than the plastic
ding
limit.
Note: Remoulded specimens are
quite adequate for residual
strength determination alone.
This is because the development of
a shear surface in a clay soil
completely changes the soils
Zn initial fabric in the vicinity of the
shear surface. There is therefore
Load hanger little or no merit in attempting to
preserve such an initial fabric or
structure in the test specimen,
unless it is specifically desired to
GROUND ENGINEERING JULY 1997
 TECHNICAL NOTE
examine the process of shear surface formation.
2. The remoulded soil is then kneaded into the sample container with
the fingers, or rammed into position with a wooden spatula, and the
surface trimmed flush with the container by using a palette knife.
3. The top loading platen is placed on the sample, and the lever loading
arm placed on this. The bath is then filled with water and the sample
left to saturate fully.
Note: Settlement readings may be taken but squeeze effects tend to
make readings valueless (see earlier comments).
3.2 lnlmal shearing
1. It is necessary to select an appropriate rate of shear, before shearing
can take place. If high rates of shear are used substantial extrusion of
the sample can occur. Although a shear surface of sorts is usually
formed by this rotation, this surface may not have the desired
properties. This can be either as a result of the generation of undrained
pore water pressures, or because viscous inter particle drag forces have
prevented the formation of an ideal, strongly particle oriented, low
strain rate, shear surface. Therefore, a slow shearing rate is
recommended to complete the formation of this feature correctly—
commonly a rate of 0.048 degrees/min is used.
2. The first load —for instance 2kg, equivalent to 52kN/m' is applied.
Then by using the coarse adjustment, the cross arm is brought into
contact with the proving rings, so that both proving rings mutually meet
the cross arm simultaneously.
3. Readings of settlement may be taken at 0, 1, 2, 4, 6, 10, 2030, 45 min and
then at 15 min intervals, to monitor the process of consolidation.
Frequency of readings is variable but should be sufficient to ensure that
consolidation is complete.
4. Once consolidation is complete, usually less than one hour after
applying the load, the machine is switched on and left rotating
overnight. It maybe datalogged, or merely left to run.
Note: Taking up "slack" in the system may take a considerable time,
which can result in a lag between starting the motor and readings being
recorded. Careful setting up reduces this lag significantly.
5. Readings are taken for 30 min on the following day. If constant
readings are obtained, a constant torque has been obtained in the soil.
This indicates that shear-induced pore water pressures, which cause
changes in the shear strength of the soil, have dissipated and that a fully
formed residual shear strength surface has been formed.
6. The motor is then stopped, and the gauges observed for a further 15
min. If the readings are found to drop substantially the shearing rate
was too fast. The soil is therefore still strain rate sensitive, as a result
viscous inter particle drag forces preventing the formation of an ideal
shear surface (Bromhead, 1992). In this case, it would be necessary to
repeat the shearing at a slower rate.
Note: This step may be omitted, with the sensitivity check being
carried out at the highest load stage.
3.3Subsequent load stages
1. The load is increased by a further nominal amount, eg 2 kg, on the
hanger and shearing re-commenced. It is not necessary to allow the
sample to consolidate under the new load as pore pressure dissipation is
rapid and torque readings indicate whether there are excess pore
pressures present or not.
2. Readings are taken at 0, 2, 4, 6, 10, 15, 20 min and at 5 min intervals until
three readings the same are achieved (see typical test results shown in
Fig 2).
3. Optionally, the motor is stopped and readings taken at 1 min intervals
for 5min.
4. Several more load stages are carried out by repeating steps 1 to 3,
finishing with a test on strain rate sensitivity.
5. At the end of the final load stage, the torque is released on the sample,
using the adjusters on the proving rings.
6. The sample is then unloaded to the first load stage and steps 2, 3 and 5
repeated.
7. The sample is unloaded and the apparatus dismantled carefully. The
shear surface formed in the sample can then be examined.
4.00verall teat cummutttu
4.t Modified tost procedures
Steward & Cripps (1983)modified the Bromhead ring shear apparatus so
that the composition of pore solutions could be altered during shearing.
This was to determine if the residual shear strength of the soil was
found to be sensitive to different pore solutions. Brass nipples were
connected to the lower plate drainage channels so as to allow the pore
solution to be introduced into the system. Sealing screws were then
placed in the side exit holes and a rubber gasket placed beneath the
GROUND ENGINEERING JULY 1997
Extended Stop rotation
//resuh
if torque held,
is nol strain rate sensitive
time in
ie fimt siege
i Matches first /
measured resrduat2
torque indicates / 'teady
drainage completed l /
Torque removed before/r lf not, repeat
other load stages
decreasing normal load
Time axis or rotation seats
I stasas pt-oad
Houre 2:t)ttttoal tost resuns, sttotolueoNootortNI-ttuttuo at outlot tost.
sample holder. These measures not only prevented solution leaking into
the water bath, but also forced it to flow through the sample to the upper
porous plate. The solution was then collected for analysis from holes in
the loading platen. This modification of the ring shear apparatus
produced some conclusive results, suggesting that this is an appropriate
method for assessing the sensitivity of the residual shear strength of a
soil to its pore solution composition. However, it should be noted that
testing times were increased by up to two or three days.
The Bromhead ring shear apparatus has also been subject to a review
by Stark & Vettel (1992) and Stark & Eid (1993).Both of these reviews are
critical of the magnitude of wall friction that is developed along the
inner and outer circumferences of the confined specimen, and its
resultant effect on the drained residual strength measured by the
apparatus. The reviews state that the magnitude of wall friction
increases with the depth of the remoulded specimen, and thus the plane
of least wall friction occurs at or near the soil/top porous stone
interface. Therefore, as the top porous stone settles into the specimen
container, the wall friction influencing the shear plane increases, which
causes an increase in the measured residual strength.
Stark & Vettel (1992) proposed limiting the total settlement of the top
porous stone to 0.75mm. This is accomplished by adding soil and then
reconsolidating the specimen such that settlement of the top platen is
less than 0.75mm during consolidation and drained shear. This process
is time consuming and commonly results in 16 to 18 days of testing to
obtain a drained residual failure envelope from four tests on clays of
moderate plasticity.
Stark & Eid (1993) refined the procedure of Stark & Vettel (1992) by
proposing a new specimen container for the Bromhead ring shear
apparatus. This container allows a remoulded specimen to be
overconsolidated and pre-cut prior to shearing, limiting the amount of
settlement to significantly less than 0.75mm. The significant reduction
of settlement allows the performance of multistage tests that reduce the
time required to measure a drained residual failure envelope to five or
six days.
The optimal procedure recommended earlier is also a multi stage test.
This procedure however can not only be carried out within three
working days, but also utilises the original specimen container. Overall,
wall friction has not been found to effect the drained residual shear
strengths (tt'„> greatly. This has been confirmed from back analyses on
slip surfaces, which has resulted in test values of tt', being within '/4 of a
degree of the actual value (Bromhead 1992).
The ring shear apparatus has also been subject to a conversion into a
permeameter (Dewhurst et al, 1996). In this case the sample is sealed at
the top by two pairs of 0 rings, and the apparatus is capable of being
taken incrementally to much higher vertical effective stresses (over 10
MN/m'). However, difficulties have arisen with this apparatus due to
enhanced side friction caused by the 0 rings. This has resulted in a
curved shear surface, which has meant that the effect of the sheared
portion of the sample on the overall permeability cannot be accurately
quantified.
4.2Analysls of the failure envelope
Extensive research into the residual shear strength failure envelope has
been carried out by Hawkins & Privett (1985). They highlighted the
curved nature of the failure envelope, particularly at effective normal
stresses below 200kN/m'nd in soils with a high clay fraction. This
results in higher values of tt', at low normal stresses. It was also found
that as the effective normal stress increases the failure envelope
becomes straighter and the residual friction coefficient approaches a
constant value (see Fig 3).
In Fig 3, the failure envelope has a straight line section which denotes
the lowest residual shear strength. This was redefined by Hawkins &
McDonald (1992) as the ultimate residual shear angle, tt'<~tr They also
suggested that the value of 4', should always be accompanied by the
 particularly when:
Complete failure envelope ') There
i) i a strong element of beddin g cont
re is o ro o locatlonof th I
jvi
$ Lowest residual strength
an ysis is not undul y affected by uncertaint'es in pore
)Ig pressure, end-effect,s,e t c..
er test p roc edures were also examined '

Constant valve
id 1993 dSt
3 hh
d&C 1983), but for ro
proce ure is recommended.
K'ipps, 'esidual

References
Kf
I- Bishop, AW, G,,
Green, GE, arga, VK,, Andersen,
An A and Brown, JD I
app ication io the measurem en I of residual strength," Geotechnique, n,"
ensign I sation
o.
uer
Bromhead, EN,(1979) "ASim s," Grou
impleI Ring Shear Apparatus," round Engineering, Vol.12, No.5,
lo>
\
e d se"
Bromhead, EN, (1992) "The Stabili o % ie ca emic & Professional, 2nd
dr Gl
GuN'O

o'e appropriate for e'„appropriate for ve normal

Effective no I '
BS 1377, (1990) "Soils foor Civil Engineering rength Tests (Total
shallower slide d caper slide t'iu '
ss)," British Standards In stiiution, Part 7, pp16-19.

R8we 3:Cawpfefe reshlual shearr

'f888).
shen8lh fallwe nnagfepe(affw Handdnsaprfvelt Dewhursi, DN, Clenn ll,
co ductivityof sh ared I
MB,, ', .,
KM
o
) "Fabric and
No. 4, pp 761-768.
hydraul'ia,"
lc

McDonald, C, (1992 "

'

associatedvalu ue of effective normal stress a'„.

Hawkins,
d tlo
AB &
'ull
residual
'arihCIClay,"Geot hni u,Vob42,N o. 3, pp 453-464. .,
"
KD,,(1985)"

'I
Hawkins, AB & Priveti, ent and s ren of
5.0 Conduslon "GroundEngine id Vo.
I I8,No.s,pp22-29.
The BS 1377 ring shear test roc
es procedur s been sh
g. o the Hvorslev, MJ, (1939) "Torsion shear les
h f il" M Vol

hni dfo th fo Eid, HT (1993) "Modified B pparaius," Geotechnical

'stage Anewprocedureisthere ear T
'
al Vol Noo.l, March 1993, pp 100-107.

drain
ocd
de Io
'd
h b
m i-stage test and r
residual shear str engt h within th
m operation'
at Km s
tofth Bomb d g ear apparatus. It has been found to
Stark, TD & Veitel, JJ (1992)"
"BromheadRingShe
el VI N M h 992 pp 24-32.

Steward, HE & Cripps, JC (1983) "Some en in

c, otechnical

'c is c ose to that obtained from b ack analyses, of iti hal " Q J Geol Lo do Vol 16

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28 E Reader Enquiry No. 14 GROUND ENGINEERING JULY 1997

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