YEAR 11

DEPTH STUDY
TASK

Adnan Shah
11_BIO2
 YEAR 11 DEPTH STUDY TASK

Biology Depth Study Task – Adnan Shah

PART A

Enquiry Question: “How do changing selection pressure and adaptations increase the organisms
ability to survive and allow for speciation to occur”

The aim of this scientific report is to show how changing selection pressures and adaptations
increase the organisms ability to survive and allow for speciation to occur via analysing the change
observed in species that originally inhabited the Galapagos Archipelago.

Abstract: “In this task, students are presented with a scenario in which they travel to the Galapagos
islands. The students will investigate types of adaptations, the process of natural selection and the
evidence for evolution, using Galapagos species as examples.”

HISTORY OF THE GALAPAGOS

The Galapagos Archipelago is a volcanic group of 19 islands, with most of the islands possessing a
very distinct conical shape which is believed to be directly related to the volcanic activity found
within the island cluster. All of the islands house a volcano, except the largest island named Isabella,
meaning the soil composition found in Isabella would differ to that of the other islands.

Figure 1: Volcanic Ash Soil (https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/why-is-volcanic-soil-fertile.html)

The archipelago lies on the Nazca Plate, a perpetually moving plate that formed the chain of islands
as a result of its geological movement. The islands are thought to have originally been formed some
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5-10 million years ago as a result of mantle pluming, where columns of hot rock about 100
kilometres in diameter rise to the top of the ocean due to its low density as a result of its extreme
heat. (www.geo.cornell.edu, Last revision 2 Oct 1997 by W. M. White) The cause of the mantle
pluming was a result of the interactions of plate tectonics.

The islands are perpetually increasing in height due to volcanic activity, and the formation and
layering of volcanic rock is the reason the island displays such high slopes, with heights ranging from
a few meters above sea level to more than 5000 feet above sea level. (www.galapagos.org, date:
unknown).

The Galapagos islands are located near the equator. The islands are distributed on both sides of the
equator, result in differentiating climates and biomes across all islands. Every single island in the
Galapagos differs in environment, thus resulting in different ecosystems resulting in variation of flora
and fauna between the ecosystems. For example, as stated before, Isabella would house a different
soil composition, lacking the nutrients the other 18 islands possess from volcanic formation. This
would therefore mean that flora would differ on Isabella, then, for example, flora on Santa Cruz
demonstrating one of many abiotic factors seen in the islands.

Figure 2: Map of the Galapagos Islands

(http://www.galapagosisland.net/galapagos_islands/map.html)

In the last 200 years, an estimate of 50+ volcanic eruptions have occurred within the island chain,
some of which threatening the local flora and fauna. Due to its volcanic activity and unique climates
and nature across all islands, the island chain provides a dynamic and constantly changing
environment for its inhabitants, creating selection pressures for the original inhabitants of the
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Galapagos, forcing them to either adapt in order to increase the organism’s ability to survive via
speciation, or fall to the selection pressures and ultimately die.

It is therefore hypothesised that due to perpetually differing environments seen in the Galapagos,
the original inhabitants faced selection pressures which have caused them to evolve and speciate,
increasing their ability to survive as they have evolved to adapt to these selection pressures,
satisfying natural selection.

Our first association with the word ‘evolution’ would

be the surname ‘Darwin’. Charles Darwin, in his trip to
the Galapagos Islands noticed that unique creatures
were similar from island to island, but perfectly
adapted to their environments.

(www.galapagosislands.com, date: unknown).

He based the thought that these “specialized” animals

came from the same lineage and possess the same
common ancestors.

Darwin observed the differentiation in species seen across different islands, and collated his data on
the population of species to draw conclusions, eventually leading to the theory of Darwinism; that is
the theory of biological evolution.

The next section of this report will explain Darwinism in essence by comparing species found on the
Galapagos Islands.

SPECIES COMPARISON

This section of the scientific report aims to compare and contrast the distinguishing structural,
physiological and behavioral adaptations of three pairs of closely related species.

Tortoises

As its name boasts, the Galapagos Island Giant Tortoise is the largest living species of tortoise. They
only exist in one of two locations; with one being the entirety of the Galapagos islands. It is one of
the most widespread and longest living species of tortoises on the island. The Galapagos island
tortoises cover the Galápagos giant tortoise complex, with all tortoise species evolving from the
same original ancestor.

This section will discuss two species of the Galapagos Giant Tortoise Complex.

SPECIES ONE : Chatham Island giant tortoise (San Cristobal) [Chelonoidis chathamensis]
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SPECIES TWO: James Island Giant Tortoise (Santiago Island) [C. darwini]

The James Island Tortoise is a result of a variation of the original Galapagos Island Giant Tortoise; a
species from the same complex. The James Island Tortoise is only found on the island of Santiago
(James Island in English). They are a diurnal terrestrial species which live in deciduous forests,
evergreen montane forests, and humid grasslands (Chelonoidis darwini :Arteaga A, Guayasamin JM
2019) all of which Santiago possesses as part of its unique climate. They are known to feed on Cacti,
Herbs and Grasses. Distinct from other Giant Tortoises, the James Island Tortoise features a
carapace that is shaped intermediate to domed and saddleback shapes. Refer to figure 1,2 & 3
below.
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Figure 1 :

The James Island Tortoise (C. Darwini)

This image shows the unique carapace of the

C. Darwini, neither round nor saddle backed,
but rather a combination between both.

Figure 3: Typical saddleback-shaped

Figure 2:Typical dome-shaped shell shell

Courtesy of https://www.amnh.org Courtesy of https://www.amnh.org

The saddle-back shaped carapace is an apaptove trait of the Galapagos

Giant Tortoise complex. Simply put; the saddleback carapace came after the rounded carapace.

The Carapace of James Island tortoise features this unique shape so as to help the organism reach
food sources. The tortoise requires the slight saddleback to extend their neck in order to reach the
height of the cactuses of which they feed on. The slightly rounded shape is for the tortoise to be
allowed to swivel its head around to feed on herbs and grasses which are located on the ground.
This example of the unique shell, unfound in any other species of tortoises in the Galapagos shows
evolution working in synergy with natural selection. As a result of biotic factors between the James
Island Tortoise and the flora which it feeds on, selection pressures were created where the tortoise
had to change its carapace shell in order to reach the cactuses. This selection pressure led to a
structural adaptation where the shell adopted its unique shape to allow the James Island tortoise to
feed on the cactuses, increasing their ability to survive to the selection pressure.

On the other hand, the Chatham Island Giant Tortoise is also a species from the same complex as the
James Island Tortoise. They are also a diurnal terrestrial species that are only thought to inhabit the
grasslands and dry shrublands of San Cristobal. The Chatham Island Tortoise is only found on the
island of San Cristobal (Chatham Island in English), the fifth largest island in its archipelago. The
Island is comprised of three extinct volcanoes which have contributed to the superior soil fertility
found on the island. San Cristobal is the only island in the chain to have access to a continual
freshwater resupply from the rain. The freshwater together with the islands soil fertility allows the
flora on the island to thrive and cover the whole island. Water-storing plants such as cactuses are
unseen on the island.
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San Cristobal and its lush green lands

(https://www.google.com/url?
sa=i&source=images&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjmg4KwloTjAhVMfX0KHZE
OASgQjhx6BAgBEAM&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tripadvisor.com
%2FLocationPhotoDirectLink-g297530-d10837630-i250974647-
Ecuagringo_Fishing-
San_Cristobal_Galapagos_Islands.html&psig=AOvVaw1ZsTFbKqDm2
DlDjCYi9TeO&ust=1561536346276021)
Unsurprisingly, the Chatham Island
Tortoise feeds only on the shrubs and herbaceous vegetation (Chelonoidis chathamensis: Arteaga A,
Guayasamin JM 2019), unlike the James Island Tortoise who also feeds on the cactuses present.
Unlike the James Island Tortoise, who features an intermediate carapace, the Chatham Island
Tortoise possesses a very rounded carapace. Refer to fig 4 & 5.
Figure 5: The James
Figure 4: The James Island Tortoise in its
Island Tortoise in its Grassland habitat
Grassland habitat
The rounded shell of
The rounded shell of the Tortoise is also
the Tortoise is seen in seen in this figure.
this figure.

This is as
a result of differing climates between Santiago and San Cristobal. Due to the availability of lush
herbaceous and shrub-type vegetation, the Chatham Island tortoise doesn’t need to extend its neck
to reach higher vegetation like cactuses, whereas the James Island Tortoise does. The Chatham
Island tortoise doesn’t need the headspace provided by the saddleback shape, as it can simply swivel
its head around to reach the shrubs it feeds on. Simply put, the Chatham Island tortoise hasn’t faced
the selection pressure that the James Island Tortoise has, therefore it inhibits the initial shell of its
ancestors; the dome-shape.

Distinguishing between the James Island tortoise and the Chatham Island tortoise has allowed the
possibility to see adaptations at work. The clear difference between the structural features of the
two tortoises shows the adaptations the James Island tortoise has undergone to possess a carapace
different to that of the Chatham Island Tortoise.

On the same wavelength, it is important to note that

both species have experienced a huge decline in their
populations.

Figure 6. Tortoise Population Decline

As seen in figure 6, the Tortoise population has

decreased significantly. It is believed that the rate of
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decline has direct relations with the extremely slow rate of movement the Tortoises possess, making
them vulnerable to predators. However, the slow pace allowed the turtle to have a slower
metabolism, which is the reason as to why they can live so long. (Why do giant tortoises live so long?
: ANDREW LASANE MAY 17, 2016)

The tortoises slow metabolism can be linked back to their carapace, most notably in the case of the
Chatham Island Tortoise. Dome-shape carapace tortoises usually always inhabit islands with high
peaks, and mountains. Such is the case for the Chatham Island Tortoise who reside in San Cristobal.
In these high peaks, the unstable nature and the fluctuations of the elevation in the ground means
that the tortoises can flip over as a result of carelessness. Refer to Fig 7 & 8.

Figure 7 – Topographic Map of San

Cristobal

The yellow-red area on the right side of the

map shows an unsteady elevation of the
ground.

Figure 8 – Distribution of the Chatham Island Tortoise in San

Cristobal

The tortoises are seen to be living in exactly the “yellow-red

area” discussed in figure 7, showing their unpredictable and
unsteady habitat.

The lungs of the Galapagos tortoise are positioned in such a way

that if the tortoise flips, due to its immense weight, they will
collapse and consequently kill the tortoise. This become an abiotic
pressure for the James Island tortoise, and the species had
responded with by adopting a much flatter circular shaped
carapace. (Seen in Fig 8) This helped the tortoise flip over with the
geometrical properties of the carapace just in time so that their
lungs would not be collapsed.

Figure 8: The circular shaped carapace

of the Chatham Island tortoise
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This factor also poses a threat for the James Island Tortoise, but Santiago possesses flatter
landscapes and less risk of lung-collapse due to flipping-over for the species. Rather, the James
Island Tortoise possesses a behavioural adaptation, where the tortoise chooses to move much
slower than species possessing the dome-shaped carapace. The James Island Tortoise does this so as
to reduce the possibility of becoming inverted, responding to the selection pressure differently to its
Chatham Island counterpart and thus increasing the species chance of surviving the selection
pressure.

Marine & Land Iguanas

The Galapagos Land Iguanas is a land reptile of the family iguanidae. They’re ancestors arrived to the
Galapagos presumably through a vegetation raft. Land iguanas are large – up to 3 feet long and
weighing up to 30 pounds. Their diets consist of shrub and plant vegetation, including fallen fruits
and cactus pads.

The Galapagos Marine Iguana is a special type of iguana from the same family of the land iguana,
igaunidae. The Galápagos marine iguana, or marine iguana, is a species of iguana that is only found
on the Galapagos Islands. Just about every rocky shoreline of the Galapagos is home to these
iguanas. Marine Iguanas are a species of the Land Iguana that have evolved to adapt to feed on
aquatic food sources. They feed almost exclusively on Algae and the large males are known to dive
to attain the algae, making them a marine reptile. They mainly live on the rocky shores of islands but
are also known to be found on marshes, mangrove and beaches.

A recent study that analysed the Mitochondrial DNA and Nuclear DNA of both the Galapagos Land
and Marine Iguanas concluded that the two diverged about 4.5 million years ago; an example of
divergent evolution.

(Study conducted by:

MacLeod, A.; A. Rodríguez; M. Vences; P. Orozco-terWengel; C. García; F. Trillmich; G. Gentile; A.
Caccone; G. Quezada; S. Steinfartz (2015))

The binomial nomenclature of the two species of Iguanas that will be contrasted are listed below:

Species 1 – Galapagos Land Iguana (Conolophus subcristatus)

Species 2 - Galapagos Marine Iguana (Amblyrhynchus cristatus)

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The Galapagos Land Iguana are a species of iguana thought to have evolved from the Ctenosaura, a genus
of lizard native to Central America. It is widely accepted that the original ancestors of the Conolophus
subcristatus arrived to the Galapagos islands via a raft of vegetation. Land iguanas live in the drier areas
of islands, such as deserts and Rocklands. The first and most obvious adaptation the Land Iguanas possess
is their earth-like colour skin; a mixture of red and yellow hues. Charles Darwin described their
morphological qualities as:

“ugly animals, of a yellowish orange beneath, and of a brownish-red colour above: from their low facial
angle they have a singularly stupid appearance."

[Darwin, Charles (1989), The Voyage of the Beagle: Charles Darwin's Journal of Researches, New
York: Penguin Classics, p. 401]

Their unique colour allows them to blend in with the landscape of their habitat to hide themselves from
their predators. The main predators of the Land iguana are thought to be introduced exotic species, such
as feral dogs cats and pigs, as well as birds of prey. The idea that the only predators of the Land Iguana
are introduced species has sparked a debate about its adaptations to skin colour. Most probably, when
the predators of the land iguanas were introduced, the iguanas faced an abiotic selection pressure, being
predators. By chance, Land Iguanas chose to variate from its parent species by adopting a complexion
that matches their habitats, hence why they possess the yellow-red colour they have today; to match
with their habitats and mask them from predators. The most adapted Iguanas passed on their
complexion traits to their offspring, allowing a new species to be born. This example of a theoretical
adaptation of the Land Iguana shows how the species evolved to adapt to selection pressures in nature,
transcending with natural selection.

The Galapagos Land Iguana in contrast

with its environment.

(GoGalapagos.com : DATE UNKNOWN)

The Land Iguana possesses very interesting behavioural adaptations in contrast to its ancestors.
Conolophus subcristatus possesses a symbiotic relationship with Darwin’s Finches, where they raise
themselves up to the finches to allow them to remove ticks from their bodies, benefitting both animals.
(animalcorner.co.uk) This behaviour of the Land Iguana is a behavioural adaptation where the iguanas
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have learned of the benefits of establishing a symbiotic relationship with the finches, allowing them to
freely feed on ticks on the iguanas body who could otherwise harm the iguana.

On the other side of the spectrum is the relatively new Marine Iguana, Amblyrhynchus cristatus. The
marine iguana is thought to have diverged from the land iguana some 4.5 million years ago. It is
hypothesized that land iguanas came out of events on certain islands where they were forced and
stranded onto marine environments due to trees falling and barricading their exits. Due to these events,
the original land iguana had to adapt to its new environment, ultimately evolving into the Marine Iguana
through millions of years of evolution.

The most obvious contrasting quality of the Marine Igauna to its predecessor is the Marine Igaunas
unique complexion. Due to its new environment, the marine iguanas ancestors develop a new way of
hiding from new predators in the marine environment, manifesting a new biotic selection pressure. By
chance, the marine iguana developed a black-rock type of complexion. This new trait of the Marine
Iguana species allowed them to blend in with their new environment, masking them from predators.

See Figure 9 below.

Figure 9: The Marine Iguana Upon a

rocky shoreline.

The complexion of the Marine

Iguana is very close to that of the
rocks they spend their time on,
masking them form their predators

The difference in complexion between the two species of iguana shows evolution at work. The marine iguana
has diverged from the land iguana and adopted the black-type complexion in order to respond to the selection
pressure of predators; ultimately enabling the marine iguana to hide from its natural predators and increase
the species ability of surviving the selection pressure as a whole.

On the note of structural features, the marine iguana possesses a larger lateral tail than its land iguana
predecessor, which allows it to swim underwater flawlessly, responding to the abiotic factor of adapting to a
new environment: the aquatic environment. They feed almost exclusively on algae and henceforth must swim
and dive to retrieve it. The tail is a evolutionary trait gained as an adaptation as a result of the abiotic selection
pressure of the marine iguanas environment. They also possess a special jaw and tooth structure adapted to
perfectly crop algae off rocks, and sharp claws that allow the marine iguana to climb and grip rocks in wave-
washed tidal areas. (au.expeditions.com, DATE:UNKNOWN) All the marine iguanas structural features differ
heavily from that of the land iguana, showing how fauna respond to different environments on the Galapagos
through adaptations, increasing the organisms ability to survive.

Structural features aside, the Marine iguana possesses a very unique physiological adaptation that differs them
from the land iguana. The marine iguana has a unique desalinisation system unseen in many reptiles. The
marine iguana rids itself of excess salt through special glands in its nostrils, allowing it to stay in homeostasis.
These glands are unseen in its Land Iguana counterpart. The Marine Iguana’s example of its unique
physiological adaptation shows its response to its abiotic environmental selection pressures, the same trend
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seen in its structural features, and henceforth allowing the marine iguana to increase its ability to survive in its
environment.

Cormorants

Cormorants are a family of 40 species of aquatic birds called Phalacrocoracidae. Most species of the family are
flight-capable birds, meaning they have the correct bodyweight to wingspan ratio for flight, however the
endemic Galapagos species is the only species of the family to have lost the ability to fly, hence dubbed the
“Flightless Cormorant”. Like all cormorants, the Flightless Cormorant features webbed feet and sturdy legs that
help propel it through the water to seek prey of fish, and other small marine creatures. However, unlike other
cormorants, the Flightless cormorant feeds deep on the seafloor no more than 200 meters out from shore,
whereas other cormorants feed in deeper waters, but practice shallower diving. (en.wikipedia.org,
DATE:UNKNOWN)

The two species of Cormorants that will be compared are listed below.

Phalacrocorax carbo
Great Cormorant

One of the most wide-spread

species of cormorants; found all
across the northern hemisphere.

Phalacrocorax harrisi
Flightless Cormorant

A species of Cormorant endemic to the

Galapagos Islands

The Great Cormorant is a large black bird found widespread across the northern hemisphere,
including the Galapagos. Its bodyweight-wingspan ratio is more than sufficient for flight, allowing for
widespread migration of the species. The Great Cormorant feeds atop the sea, estuaries, freshwater
rivers and lakes; anywhere there is an abundant supply of fish. It is a perfectly adapted bird of prey,
hence why it is so widespread. The great cormorant nests in nests made of sticks near trees, on the
ledges of cliffs, and on the ground on rocky islands that are free of predators. (en.wikepedia.org,
DATE:UNKNOWN)
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On the other end, the Flightless Cormorant is one of the very unusual species of Cormorant birds,
simply because it is the only species that is unable to fly. This is due to the birds short-stubby wings,
which meant that the bodyweight-wingspan ratio would change drastically and un-proportionately,
disallowing the Flightless Cormorant’s flight capabilities.. Refer to figs 11 & 12.

Figure 11 : Great Cormorant

Wingspan

The gigantic wings of the great

cormorant are seen in this image

Figure 12 : Flightless Cormorant Wingspan

A visual difference is seen between the stubby wings

of the flightless cormorant versus the great
cormorant’s large wings.

It is largely accepted and theorized that that because there were no large predators that posed a risk
to the Flightless Cormorants on the islands when they arrived in the Galapagos, the ability to fly
became not just unnecessary, but a disadvantage to the birds. The physiology that makes flying
possible are metabolically expensive to all bird species, therefore Cormorants that were able to feed
without having to fly were more likely to survive and pass on their traits to their offspring, resulting
in a new species of Cormorant; the Flightless Cormorant. The Flightless Cormorants ancestors
response to this selection pressure was to develop smaller wings and acquire traits that allowed it to
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be an effective and specialized deep-sea bird of prey. Losing the ability to fly enabled the Flightless
Cormorants to gain specific traits for swimming.

Examples of acquired traits the Flightless Cormorant features that differs it from the Great
Cormorant are denser bodies with less surface area, stronger and denser bones, high leg muscle
density, and fully webbed feet. All these traits allow the Flightless Cormorant to plunge to the
seafloor to seek its favourite food of eels and fish.

One study found that the number of cilia-related genes, CUX-1 was abnormally high in the flightless
birds in contrast with other Cormorant species. The gene allows for narrower and denser bone
growth. Humans born with this gene have shorter limbs, narrowed chests and stunted rib cages - all
of which is seen in the Galapagos cormorants. (http://newsroom.ucla.edu, DATE:UNKNOWN)

All the traits the Galapagos Flightless Cormorants possesses that differ it from the Great Cormorant
are clearly observed to be for diving and swimming, showing how the Flightless Cormorant has
adapted to its unique environmental abiotic factor physiologically, and structurally, increasing the
organisms ability to survive in its environment, satisfying natural selection.

Sub-Question: Outline how an accumulation of micro evolutionary changes can drive evolutionary
changes and speciation over time, using one Galapagos species as an example.

Microevolution (evolution on a small-scale) refers to the changes in allele frequencies within a single
population. An allele frequency refers relative frequency of an allele appearing in a population,
usually expressed as a percentage. Allele frequencies in a population may change due to four
fundamental forces of evolution: natural selection, genetic drift, mutations and gene flow. Mutations
are the ultimates source of new alleles in a gene pool.
Two of the most relevant mechanisms of evolutionary change are: Natural Selection and Genetic
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Drift. Natural selection usually predominates in large populations whereas genetic drift does so in
small ones.

Natural Selection leads to an evolutionary change when some individuals with certain traits in a
population have a higher survival and reproductive rate than others and pass these features onto to
their offspring. Evolution acts through natural selection where reproductive and genetic qualities
that prove advantageous to survival prevail into future generations. The cumulative effects of
natural selection process have giving rise to populations that have evolved to succeed in specific
environments. Natural selection operates by differential reproductive success (fitness) of individuals.

The Darwin’s Finches adaptive radiation diagram describes the way the finch has adapted to take
advantage of feeding in different ecological niches. Refer to fig 12

Figure 12 : Adaptive Radiation in

Galapagos Finches.

The diagram shows how different

species of finches have adapted to take
advantage
Darwin's finches of ecological niches,
are a classical
example of an henceforth spectating.
adaptive radiation.
Their common ancestor arrived on the
Galapagos about two million years
ago. During the time that has passed
the Darwin's finches have evolved into
15 recognized species differing in body
size, beak shape, song and feeding
behaviour. (Uppsala University. (2015,
February 11)

Changes in the size and form of the beak have enabled different species to utilize different food
resources such as insects, seeds, nectar from cactus flowers as well as blood from iguanas, all driven
by natural selection.

All species of Darwin's finches are closely related, having derived from a common ancestor. They live
in the largely undisturbed environment in which they evolved, and none have become extinct as a
result of human activity. Populations of the same species occur on different islands, and in some
cases, they have different ecologies. Closely related species occur together on the same island and
differ. Thus, considering populations across the entire archipelago, we can see all stages of the
speciation process, from start to finish, at the same time.
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The finches represent a model of adaptive radiation (production in a short period of time of many
species from one species occupying different ecological niches).

The association between beak size and diet is obvious when comparing the species that have
contrasting structures. It is less obvious when comparing populations of the same species on
different islands. Different populations of the sharp-beaked ground finch feed in different ways on
different foods with beaks of differing size and shape. On the high islands of Santiago, Fernandina,
and Pinta they have relatively blunt beaks and feed on arthropods and molluscs, as well as fruits and
seeds in the dry season. On the low island of Genovesa, where their beaks are much smaller, they
are more dependent on small seeds, as well as on nectar and pollen from plants. On the low island
of Wolf, they exploit seabirds. First, they kick the eggs until the eggs fall and crack, enabling the
finches to open them and consume the contents. They also inflict wounds at the base of the sitting
boobies' wing feathers and consume the blood. On this island the finches' beaks are long.

Birds with large robust beaks do not probe Opuntia flowers or poke at eggs. Instead, the beak of this
finch is a tool for tearing bark and crushing twigs and small branches. These examples illustrate some
of the ways that Darwin's finches vary in beak morphology and are versatile in their feeding habits.
This versatility is brought on by ecological opportunity and driven by food scarcity in the dry season
and in dry years.

When the environment changes, some of the variants in each population survive while others die.
This is known as adaptation. Birds with small beaks and small body size suffered selective mortality
during a severe drought.

Concluding, micro-evolutionary changes between a species can result in evolutionary changes via
repeated breading of two partners with the favoured allele. This is seen in the Galapagos Finch
population where an accumulation of offspring with the favoured allele has resulted in a whole new
species of bird, showing how microevolution airy changes can drive evolutionary changes ad allow
for speciation to occur.

Sub-Question: Analyse an example of divergent evolution and convergent evolution in the

Galapagos and draw a flow chart to illustrate the process by which it occurred.

Evolution can have several different patterns. The two of which will be discussed in this report are
divergent evolution and convergent evolution.

Divergent Evolution

Divergent evolution is the archetype of evolution. It is the most commonly known form of evolution
and occurs when closely related species diversify to new environments, or habitats. It involves one
species splitting into two, diverging away from one another. Diagram A represents this trend.

A well-known example of divergent evolution has been discussed earlier in this

report: the divergence of the Marine Iguana from the Land Iguana.

From the Conolophus subcristatus (Land Iguana) diverged the Amblyrhynchus

cristatus (Marine Iguana) approximately 4.5 years ago, a recent study concluded.
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The Amblyrhynchus cristatus is a fairly new and unevolved species as it is a monotypic genus; having
only one species in its genus.

The flow chart below shows the divergence of the land iguana into the marine iguana.

Convergent Evolution

The second and lesser-known pattern of evolution is convergent evolution. Convergent evolution
begins to occur as two species of different ancestry (non-monophyletic) begin to evolve and share
analogous traits as a result of both species facing the same selection pressure. Diagram B shows
convergent evolution.

An example of convergent evolution is seen in the Darwin’s Finches

population of the Galapagos islands due to introgressive hybridization and
selection. A study found conducted and summarised in abstract by Grant
PR1, Grant BR, Markert JA, Keller LF, Petren K concluded that the mean
morphological features of the cactus finch (Geospiza scandens) and the
medium ground finch (Geospiza fortis) had begun to converge due to both
birds facing the same selection pressures and due to birds between the two
species mating – resulting in genes flowing predominantly from Medium
Ground Finch to the Cactus finch.

The morphological study concluded quantitatively that the two species

converged in beak shape by 22.2% and in body size by 45.5%.

The ecological selection pressures can only be explained by both birds suffering consequences due
to El Niño events, causing them both to acquire the same morphological properties.
 YEAR 11 DEPTH STUDY TASK

The flow chart below shows a hypothetical series of events that have/could happen in future,
showing the convergence of both Geospiza scandens and Geospiza fortis species.

Sub Question: Analyse secondary data on modern selection pressures in the Galapagos Islands,
including biotic and abiotic factors and those caused by humans to make predictions about the
future pathway of evolution

Today, species on the Galapagos suffer different selection pressures than they have in historical
times. The bulk of these selection pressures are now abiotic, caused chiefly by human processes
which change the biophysical environments, ecosystems, and biodiversity, caused directly or
indirectly by humans. These pressures also include global warming and environmental degradation.
(en.wikipedia.com)

An indirect biotic factor caused by humans are the introduction of exotic species of prey. Never
before seen to the existing Galapagos species, these new species became experts at killing the
unwary Galapagos species. Introduced dogs, cats, pigs and birds of prey are now the main predators
of many Galapagos Species. As galapagosconservation.org.uk puts it –

“Invasive species are animals, plants, pathogens or fungi that thrive outside of their native range,
subsequently interrupting and damaging the balance of flora and fauna within the local ecosystem.
They usually have the ability to grow quickly, causing harm to the original environment in many
different ways.”

The fact that they can feed and grow populations so quickly has created a disruption in the balance
of natural flora and fauna in the Galapagos Environment. Statistically speaking, there are now
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greater than 1500 introduced species in the Galapagos. Biosecurity is now a big focus in the
Galapagos.

However, these statistical measures may be exaggerated as the website is from a pro-change
organisation. Realistically speaking, many of the >1500 are harmless, however some have been
posed as a dire threat to the Galapagos species due to their ability to ruin whole populations of
species.

Of the 13 introduced mammal species the problematic ones are cats, dogs, and goats.
aboutgalapagos.nathab.com says that the introduced goat species, first brought in by sailors for
food, have destroyed massive swaths of habitat over time, turning them into desert lands. This
inversely creates selection pressures for the native Galapagos species who inherited the now
destroyed lands, showing an example of a modern selection pressure in the Galapagos.

aboutgalapagos.nathab.com also mentions an integral example of a

Galapagos species unable to cope to rapidly changing and increasing
selection pressures. The population of the Galapagos Mangrove Finch has
decreased from the thousands into the hundreds over time, with the
critically endangered species estimated to have only 100 finches in the
wild. The main cause of their ever-decreasing population is an introduced
ectoparasitic fly named Philornis downsi. These flies lay their eggs in the
defenceless Mangrove Finches nests so that once hatched, the Philornis downsi larvae may feed on
the hatchlings of the Mangrove Finch eggs, severing the ability for the population to increase. It has
become virtually impossible for most populations of Mangrove Finch to reproduce with healthy
offspring that will continue to give birth to other hatchlings, which in theory could re-lift the
population.

Graph One shows the probability of three Mangrove Finch populations persisting.

(Graph courtesy of Jorge Rodríguez-Matamoros)

As seen in the trends of the graph, two mangrove finch populations have shown in a decline in probability
of persistence, which is very strongly linked to the selection pressure of battling the exotic fly species in a
way that their hatchlings become invincible to the larvae.
 YEAR 11 DEPTH STUDY TASK

This example of the decline of the Mangrove Finch population is a strong example of the modern abiotic
and biotic selection pressures affecting the Galapagos Species today.

The 30,000 human inhabitants of the Galapagos receive upwards of 200,000 visitors every year. This
creates a huge demand and pressure on resources which is increasing environmental threats. Humid
zones, which are areas of high plant biodiversity, have been teared down and reduced to monocultures
regions for agriculture, severely affection plant biodiversity and habitats, as well as food sources for
Galapagos Species. Adversely, the ability of an ecosystem to respond to environmental changes without
suffering damage decreases, ultimately meaning that Galapagos Organisms will find it harder to cope
with and adapt to selection pressures as a result of anthropogenic activity.

The future of the pathway of evolutions will be largely determined by humans. Invasive species
extermination efforts are underway and working miraculously, helping bring back the balance of flora and
fauna originally found in the Galapagos. Evolution of Galapagos species in future will, with certainty, be in
response to invasive fauna affecting endemic species.

Concluding, in future, species will evolve to adapt to the selection pressures put onto them by the
introduction of these exotic species, increasing the resilience of the biological culture.

PART B

EXTENDED RESPONSE

QUESTION : How did the environmental conditions in 1997 impact on finches resources and hence their
population?

The Grants study of the evolution of Darwin's finches on the Galapagos Islands took place on the
island of Daphne Major. The pair chose this island as the finches had little to no natural predators or
competitors. Rather, the pressures they were subject to was the erratic weather of Daphne Major,
and hence, the availability of food. Their research was conducted on the medium ground finch,
who’s diet was comprised of mostly seeds. The first major event that affected the Finches food was
the 1977 drought, where the island didn’t receive rain for 551 days. This is shown in figure 1.
Figure 1 : Seasonal Rainfall in the
Galapagos

Northwestern University (2009)

The wet season of 1977 experienced only

25 cm of rainfall, in contrast to other wet
seasons which received upwards of
200cm. This was followed by a complete
drought during the dry season
 YEAR 11 DEPTH STUDY TASK

Temperatures during the drought stayed relatively constant, meaning temperature was not a
contributing factor towards the availability of foods This is illustrated in figure 2. However it was the
lack of water that affected the availability of foods for the finches.

Figure 2 : Seasonal Temperature of the

Galapagos

Northwestern University (2009)

As illustrated in the graph, temperature

stayed relatively constant in 1977
compared to previous/continuing years.

As the drought continued, plants begun to wither and the natural source of foods
for the Finches perished with them. Plants including Spurges, whose seeds were an
ideal food source for the finches had dried out and died. The lack of small seeds for
the Finches to feed on grew scarce, and finches with smaller beaks who were
accustomed to this diet fell to starvation, whilst large beaked finches took
advantage of their beak depth and began to crack open larger seeds as a source of
nutrition.

Figure 3. Finches on Daphne Major from 1973-

1976

Northwestern University (2009)

The Grants studies of the 1977 finch population

found that due to the drought, the finch population had been severely impacted, with 50 finches
perishing from the wet season 1976 to the dry season 1977. This is illustrated in Figure 3. Through
comparatively studying characteristics of the finches such as beak size, tarsus length, wing length
and body weight. However, the Grants concluded that out of the four, the beak depth and size of the
finches was the factor that most impacted the population during the drought.

As discussed above, the medium finches with a lower

beak depth could not eat the seeds from the plants
they relied on previously because they had dried out
and no longer produced seeds due to a lack of water
during the 1977 drought. However, there were
 YEAR 11 DEPTH STUDY TASK

alternate foods that the medium finches with larger beaks could capitalise on. Some plants
continued to grow in the drought and produce seed bearing fruits for the for the Finches to feed on.
There was only one problem: these seeds were larger in size than the Finches usual diets, meaning
that only finches with larger beaks could take advantage of using their beak depth to eat alternate
foods because they could crack them open.

The Grants begun to take measurements of the four factors mentioned above. As previously stated,
the first and most integral factor to the survival of the birds was beak depth. They found that the
average size of a finches’ beak was bigger in 1978 than in 1977, essentially showing that the
surviving finches had bigger beaks then the dead finches. Non surviving finches had a beak depth
ranging from 7.5mm to 11.25mm, with a range of 3.75, whereas surviving finches had a beak depth
ranging from 8mm to 11.25mm, with a range of 3.25. This is illustrated in the graphs below.

This meant higher range meant that the dead

finches possessed greater variation of beak
depths within their species, whereas the living
finches possessed less variation; suggesting
that they were specialized as a species to
resist the lack of resources. This is also
supported by the standard deviations (SD) of
both data sets, with the non survivors
possessing a greater SD (0.88) than the
surviving finch population (0.84).

The standard error (SE) of both sets of data

suggests the information is relatively accurate
with the SE of the non-surviving finches data
set being approx. 0.125 and the surviving
finches data set being approx. 0.119.

When the data sets for

both populations are
averaged, the outcome
is clear. Surviving
finches clearly had a
greater beak depth
than non-surviving
finches purely due to
the fact that only
finches with larger
beaks were able to
withstand the selection
pressures created by
 YEAR 11 DEPTH STUDY TASK

the drought. The fittest of the finches made in through – and in the case of the 1977 drought, being
fit meant having a larger beak size. The death of the finches with smaller beaks allowed natural
selection to reduce the frequency of the small beak alleles from the gene pool of the medium
ground finches, hence ensuring all offspring will be fit to survive the selection pressures. The case of
the beak sizes meant that the population of medium ground finches after 1977 would have a lower
chance of giving offspring with small beaks opposed to giving birth to offspring with larger beaks.

An adverse effect of beak size of the

Average body mass of surviving Finches vs non medium ground finches was
surviving Finches.
bodyweight. The Grants found that
Survivors Finches who survived the drought
possessed on average, a higher body
Non Survivors mass than the finches who perished.
15 15.5 16 16.5 17 17.5 This is most likely because of the lack
Body mass (g) of resources for the Finches with
small beaks to feed on. The lack of
available foods that the small beaked
finches could capitalise on caused them to starve and lose body mass due to processes of
metabolism, while the large beaked finches who were fit persisted through the drought and were
able to retain their weight by feeding on larger seeds, allowing their population to survive and retain
a healthy body mass.

Concluding, through the analysis of secondary data from the Grant’s study and Northwestern
Universities 2009 studies, it is clearly seen that due to the drought on Daphne Major in 1977 the
population of the Medium Ground finch was affected. The fittest Finches whom possessed larger
beaks were able to feed on larger seeds, leaving the smaller beaked finches who couldn’t feed on
larger seeds to perish, eliminating small beak alleles from the gene pool of the Medium Ground
Finch and hence allowing future populations of the species to possess larger beak sizes to ensure
survival if another drought is to come.
 YEAR 11 DEPTH STUDY TASK

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