Q.1 Discuss different issues in child development.

It takes time to learn the nuances of raising a child, and there are many things to cover.
Experts have spent years analyzing development patterns and figuring out what’s most
important while looking to raise a child the right way. This is why’ it’s time to look at the
common issues in child development that need to be kept in mind. If you keep these
issues in mind, you’ll end up setting a plan that is worthwhile and is going to lead you
down the right track. Here are the common issues in child development.
1) Receptive Language Disorder
The first type of speech development issue a child may display comes in the form of a
receptive language disorder. In this case, a child is unable to identify colors, shapes, and
other body parts because they don’t understand these concepts. Even when they are
taught these terms and may be able to notice them one by one, they are not going to
pick up the connection over time. This connection takes time to build, and it’s best to
have a thorough plan in place to work with them on this receptive language disorder as
they get older.
2) Expressive Language Disorder
This is the second type of speech development issue that comes up from time to time.
For example, a person may notice their child is unable to come up with larger words
based on their age. They may be able to say a few things such as “Ma!” but that is about
it. Even as they get older, this is where their development will get stuck. This is a
common sign in many children as they grow up. It’s important to work with the child
and a specialist to make sure they can piece together larger words.
3) Speech Production
The final developmental delay when it comes to speech involves speech production.
This entails a child not having the ability to generate the words due to their physiological
structure. For example, the child may have a weak jaw or are unable to move the tongue
as required to make words. This can require appropriate assessment from a professional
to make sure they’re able to speak as needed. In general, this can be easy to point out if
the child can pick out words but isn’t able to say them as they get older.
4) Cognitive Delay
In general, this can manifest in multiple ways. In some children, this is about
understanding learned concepts, while others simply lack the intellectual awareness to
piece information together. Children with these delays are known to find it hard to keep
up in school as their peers learn. There are a few reasons for this delay including shaken
baby syndrome, an early bout of meningitis, and Down syndrome. As always, it’s best to
set up a plan, so the child can develop at his/her own pace without getting bogged down
as they get older. It’s important to do this immediately.
5) Gross Motor Delays
This is one of those common issues in child development that are noted by many
parents around the world. This is when a child is unable to coordinate his/her large
muscles or even their small muscles. This can be something like their arms or their legs.
In general, parents will notice this when their child is unable to hold something or may
not be able to walk as quickly as others. Even picking up a toy becomes a challenge for
these children as their brain doesn’t make the connection. It’s best to work on them so
that they can work on the link.
6) Fine Motor Delays
The other type of motor delay a child may indicate would be a fine motor delay. What is
this? A fine motor delay is when the child can’t do simple tasks such as brushing
his/her teeth. This becomes a real challenge for them, and they refuse to do it over time.
This is why it’s best to work on these motor delays as soon as possible. Many children
are able to work on these delays and make sure they get over them as soon as they can.
7) Emotional or Behavioral Delays
A child with autism may display this behavioral delay. They are unable to pick up on
some of the emotions around them as a child their age would. This means if they are
having a two-way conversation with a child their age, the reaction is not going to be as
expected. In fact, they may respond totally different to what one would assume is going
to happen. This is all about understanding the delay and seeing how they talk to those
around them. In fact, some children will even start to throw tantrums because they don’t
recognize what is happening to them. As they get older, the tantrums will get worse and
worse, which is why it is essential to get a read on their emotional delay as soon as
possible. Getting the hang of the delay now is going to ensure the child develops as
required over time. With these common issues in child development, you are going to get
a tremendous boost as an adult that is raising a child. You will be able to monitor their
growth and get them headed in the right direction. Yes, it takes time to adapt to the
child’s personality and what they require, but the right steps here can be life-changing
for them. You want to take the time to analyze everything and get it to work as you need
it to. Keep these issues in mind, and you’ll end up maximizing their potential.
It’s important to keep in tune with these issues because the child requires adult
attention and if you’re not there for them, it can hinder how they grow as a child. It’s
important to seek out professional assistance and understand what your child needs
right away.
 Q.2 Elaborate different physical characteristics of learners. Also discuss the role of
physical activities in the developing body movement.

Different physical characteristics of learners

Children who are physically active are more focused, better prepared to learn, and more
emotionally and socially resilient. Different physical characteristics of a learner can be like this:

 Learns best when physically engaged in a "hands on" activity

 In the classroom, benefits from a lab setting where he/she can manipulate materials to
learn new information
 Learns best when he/she can be physically active in the learning environment
 Benefits from instructors who encourage in-class demonstrations, "hands on" student
learning experiences, and fieldwork outside the classroom
 Bears down extremely hard with pencil or pen when writing
 Often enjoys working with tools
 Remembers best by writing things down several times
 Often plays with coins or keys in pockets
 May chew gum, smoke, or snack during studies
 Learns spelling by "finger spelling" the words
 Often is good at working and solving jigsaw puzzles and mazes
 Often doesn't like to read directions, would rather just do it
 Learns best when shown how to do something and then have the opportunity to do it
 Often prefers not to study at a desk
 Thinks better when given freedom to move around
 While trying to think of a specific word, uses hands a lot and calls something a "what-tea-
ma-call-it" or a "thing-a-ma-jig"
 Often needs frequent breaks during studying
 Usually not skilled in giving verbal explanations or directions

Role of physical activities in the developing body movement

Exercise usually describes a pre-planned physical activity that involves a series of
repetitive movements that are performed to strengthen or develop a particular part of the
body, including the cardiovascular system. Examples of exercise would be playing
tennis, running, cycling, walking, swimming or rowing.
1) Skin
Moderate exercise stimulates circulation and so brings oxygen and nutrients to
the skin. Sweating, which is increased by exercise, allows the body to excrete
wastes via the surface of the skin.
2) Lungs
 Regular exercise increases lung capacity and strengthens the respiratory muscles.
Exercise also reduces risk of lung cancer.
3) Heart
Regular exercise strengthens and builds the heart muscle so it pumps more
effectively. Regular physical activity or exercise reduces your chance of getting
heart disease.
4) Immune system
Moderate exercise boosts the immune system, but over-exercising and frequent
strenuous exercise dampen down the immune response.
5) Blood pressure
Regular physical activity can significantly reduce the risk of developing high blood
pressure and can help to lower blood pressure in those who already have high
blood pressure.
6) Diabetes
Regular exercise can prevent and help control type 2 diabetes. Exercise helps
insulin to work better and also makes your cells more sensitive to the effects of
insulin two ways to improve how your body deals with sugar.
7) Bones
Weight-bearing exercise (e.g. walking, stair climbing, weightlifting) helps preserve
bone mass and thus protects against osteoporosis.
8) Muscles
Exercise builds and strengthens muscles, which can protect the bones from
injury, and support and protect joints affected by arthritis. Strong muscles also
give stability and improve balance and coordination. Exercise also improves blood
supply to the muscles and increases their capacity to use oxygen. Resistance
training prevents the age-related loss of muscle mass known as sarcopenia.
9) Joints
Exercise lubricates the joints, and reduces joint pain and stiffness. It also helps
people with arthritis by increasing flexibility and muscle strength.
10) Balance
Regular exercise and physical activity strengthen the muscles and improve
balance and coordination, leading to fewer falls in the elderly.
 Q.3 What are limitations of using group intelligence tests? Explain.

IQ (intelligence quotient) tests are a widely used method of gauging people's general
intellectual abilities. Psychologists often use IQ tests to identify gifted students and to
diagnose learning disabilities, under the assumption that IQ test scores accurately
reflect intellectual ability. However, certain limitations of the test mean that you should
interpret IQ test scores with a degree of caution.
1) The scores are dependent on other things:
In the group testing, the scores totally depend on the reading ability of the
individuals. Every individual has to go through the test even if he or she is a
member of a group. So, the scores are highly dependent on the other factors like
the reading ability and so on.
2) The results and the information is less accurate:
The group testing is said to be less accurate as the result that we get is combined.
This is how the examiner fails to know the output at individual level. So, the
individual performance remains unknown when it comes to group testing.
3) Less cooperation is maintained:
As the work is done through the groups, at times it becomes very difficult to bring
in cooperation among the group. If the group fails to cooperate then the results
would get affected at the end. So, this is one of the disadvantage of the group
testing.
4) The results are examined readily:
The results are not examined readily because at times the tired and the anxious
examiner may fail to give proper attention towards the results. So, due to lack of
good and proper attention, the results are highly affected. So, it also forms one of
the disadvantages of the group testing.
5) Difficult to maintain rapport:
It is difficult to maintain a rapport sometimes because it becomes difficult to
control a group especially when the group is large and order-less. So, due to lack
of handling the group, it becomes difficult to maintain a good rapport.
6) The interest is not easily maintained:
It is very difficult to create same level of interest among all the members of the
group. This is because of the heterogeneous nature of the members in the group.
So, due to lack of creation of interest among the group members, it is difficult to
get accurate results at the end of the day.
7) The examinees response in a more strict manner:
 Due to difficulty in handling the group, the examinees usually respond in a strict
manner. So, this also becomes difficult to prepare and take a step for the group
testing.

8) Boredom over easy items and frustrated over difficult ones:

It is difficult to work in a group at times due to different situations that arrive in a
group. Sometimes the members have to work for easy as well as difficult things.
For example, if the simple things come their way, they may feel boredom and at
the same time, if the difficult things come their way, they may feel irritated. So, by
this manner, it becomes difficult to work in a group. So, above are some of the
disadvantages of having a group testing. Although everything has its own
advantages and disadvantages, still in companies, the group testing is preferred,
especially when it has to be done on a larger scale. The companies have many
employees within and in order to save time, energy and money, the companies
prefer for the group testing process. The individual testing requires double the
time required for the group testing.

Q.4 Discuss intellectual development from infancy to childhood.

The Piaget stages of development are a blueprint that describes the stages of normal
intellectual development, from infancy through adulthood. This includes thought,
judgment, and knowledge. The stages were named after psychologist and developmental
biologist Jean Piaget, who recorded the intellectual development and abilities of infants,
children, and teens. Piaget acknowledged that some children may pass through the
stages at different ages than the averages noted above and that some children may show
characteristics of more than one stage at a given time. But he insisted that cognitive
development always follows this sequence, that stages cannot be skipped, and that each
stage is marked by new intellectual abilities and a more complex understanding of the
world. Piaget's four stages of intellectual (or cognitive) development are:
1) Sensorimotor Stage
During the early stages, infants are only aware of what is immediately in front of
them. They focus on what they see, what they are doing, and physical interactions
with their immediate environment. Because they don't yet know how things react,
they're constantly experimenting with activities such as shaking or throwing
things, putting things in their mouths, and learning about the world through trial
and error. The later stages include goal-oriented behavior which brings about a
 desired result. Between ages 7 and 9 months, infants begin to realize that an
object exists even if it can no longer be seen. This important milestone -- known as
object permanence -- is a sign that memory is developing. After infants start
crawling, standing, and walking, their increased physical mobility leads to
increased cognitive development. Near the end of the sensorimotor stage (18-24
months), infants reach another important milestone -- early language
development, a sign that they are developing some symbolic abilities.
2) Preoperational Stage
During this stage (toddler through age 7), young children are able to think about
things symbolically. Their language use becomes more mature. They also develop
memory and imagination, which allows them to understand the difference between
past and future, and engage in make-believe. But their thinking is based on
intuition and still not completely logical. They cannot yet grasp more complex
concepts such as cause and effect, time, and comparison.
3) Concrete Operational Stage
At this time, elementary-age and preadolescent children -- ages 7 to 11 --
demonstrate logical, concrete reasoning. Children's thinking becomes less
egocentric and they are increasingly aware of external events. They begin to realize
that one's own thoughts and feelings are unique and may not be shared by others
or may not even be part of reality.
4) Formal Operational Stage
Adolescents who reach this fourth stage of intellectual development -- usually at
age 11-plus -- are able to logically use symbols related to abstract concepts, such
as algebra and science. They can think about multiple variables in systematic
ways, formulate hypotheses, and consider possibilities. They also can ponder
abstract relationships and concepts such as justice. Although Piaget believed in
lifelong intellectual development, he insisted that the formal operational stage is
the final stage of cognitive development, and that continued intellectual
development in adults depends on the accumulation of knowledge.

Q.5 What are social skills? Prepare a glossary of terms related to social development.

Social skill:
Social skill is any skill facilitating interaction and communication with others. Social
rules and relations are created, communicated, and changed in verbal and nonverbal
ways. The process of learning such skills is called socialization. Interpersonal skills are
sometimes also referred to as people skills or communication skills. Interpersonal skills
are the skills a person uses to communicate and interact with others. They include
persuasion, active listening, delegation, and leadership. The term "interpersonal skills" is
used often in business contexts to refer to the measure of a person's ability to operate
within business organizations through social communication and interactions.
Interpersonal skills are how people relate to one another.
Terms related to social development:
1) Civic activism: refers to the social norms, organizations, and practices which
facilitate greater citizen involvement in public policies and decisions. These
include use of media, access to civic associations, and involvement in activities
such as nonviolent demonstration or petition.
2) Clubs and associations: uses data on levels of engagement in local community
groups, time spent socializing in voluntary associations, and membership of
developmental organizations, to identify the extent to which people are part of
social networks and potentially supported by community ties.
3) Inter-group cohesion: refers to relations of cooperation and respect between
groups in a society; where this cooperation breaks down, there is the potential for
conflict and acts of terror and riots.
4) Interpersonal safety and trust: measures the level of trust and confidence
between individuals that do not know each other personally, specifically with
regard to the likelihood of criminal violence and other forms of trust violation, and
combines this with measures of rates of violence.
5) Gender equality: estimates the extent of discrimination against women, whether
in the labour market, education, healthcare, or in the home.
6) Attachment: An emotional bond between infant and one or more adults. The
infant will approach these individuals in times of distress, particularly during the
phase of infant development when the presence of strangers induces anxiety. In
addition, the infant is distressed if separated from attachment figures.
7) Psychosocial Stimulation: providing a child physical stimulation through
sensory input (e.g. visual, auditory, tactile) as well as emotional stimulation
through an affectionate caregiver-child bond. The formation of this bond at the
beginning of life sets the state for cognitive, emotional, and social development
later in life. Feeding and other care practices provide opportunities for
psychosocial stimulation and help establish a positive attachment between
caregiver and child.
8) Resilience: Capacity (potential or manifested) of a person (or any dynamic system)
to adapt successfully to disturbances (adversities and risks) that threaten the
 function, survival, or development of the individual (or the system); positive
adaptation or development in the context of significant adversity exposure. The
definition of resilience is up for wide interpretation, but most agree it does not
refer to a static personality trait or attribute, but rather a process or construct
that combines exposure to adversity with response and outcome.
9) Executive function & self-regulation skills: the mental processes that enable
people to plan, focus attention, remember instructions, and juggle multiple tasks
successfully. These skills are crucial for learning and development. They also
enable positive behavior and allow us to make healthy choices for ourselves and
our families. Executive function and self-regulation skills depend on three types of
brain function: working memory, mental flexibility, and self-control. 

Q.1 Discuss different dimensions of emotional development. Design two classroom

activities to promote emotional development of children.

The following four dsimensions of emotional intelligence can help teachers and
administrators to better understand and support student learning.
1) Understanding
This is the foundation of emotional intelligence, understanding one’s own
emotions. Understanding is the beginning point of any emotional process and in
fact of any endeavor at all. In order for students to be able to focus on their
academic work, they have to be able to see where their emotions even are. Often
children don’t have the self awareness to know what they’re feeling, and don’t see
the drivers of their actions. It takes time and practice to take apart the emotions
and to learn to make sense of what one is feeling, particularly during adolescence
when emotional lives are especially complex. This first step of understanding their
own emotions is what allows all of the other dimensions to be built upon.
Discerning what they’re feeling steps them onto the right path for emotional
growth and development, which will lead to better behavior, more focus, and better
academic outcomes. Kids have to learn that emotions come and go like the waves
of the ocean, and that they can observe this ebb and flow just by stepping back
from it.
2) Management
The next dimension is a much more difficult one to come to terms with,
particularly for students who have never had the skill of emotional management
fostered. It’s this learning how to manage one’s own emotions will allow students
 to not only see the ebb and flow of their emotions, but to alter their reactions to it.
Management of emotions is tied closely to self control, in which a child learns to
delay their own gratification in support of their future success. Emotional
management is challenging for all of us, not just for children. But the waves of
emotion can be, if not controlled completely, then at least tamed. The ability to
manage emotions is essential for classroom success, where students must learn
how to interact reasonably within the academic environment while focusing on
learning. Students with low emotional control react in a negative toward proposed
changes, as they are not equipped to deal effectively with emotionally stressful
events, like testing or projects. On the other hand, students who are able to
effectively manage their emotions tend to be optimistic and to take the initiative,
reframing their understanding of stressful events as exciting.
3) Empathy
Perhaps the key to happiness and to lifelong success understands others’
emotions, or empathy. The application of empathy in the educational environment
is tremendous. Empathy extends to an understanding of history and literature,
music and art, and even science and math. That ability to put oneself into the
emotional body of another person is how children can become excited about the
possibility of making a new discovery in science, or why a historical figure did the
things that they did. This is particularly applicable for children who come from a
disadvantaged background, and need to learn the skill of empathy in order to
become emotionally driven toward success. Empathy can be built through the
observation of others, then thinking deeply about why people behave and react in
the ways that they do, and finally identifying the behaviors that are either helpful
or detrimental in challenging situations. The ability to understand other people’s
emotions, persuasions, motivation, conflict resolution mechanisms, and reasons
for cooperation are probably the skills most essential for success in education and
in the life that will come beyond the classroom.
4) Relationships
There are so many dimensions to relationships in the school environment. Once a
child develops the skill of empathy, they then need to channel that into positive
relationships with other students, with teachers, with administrators, with parents
and finally with themselves. Trust is an essential component of healthy
relationships, as it allows students to see where they can improve without
becoming self-critical or defensive. Trust fosters smooth and productive
relationships with teachers and with peers. Emotional elements are the driving
 forces behind so much of the modern educational environment, and the role of
relationships should be considered when creating policies, process and procedures
within the school environment. Relationship building enables schools to boost
their performance and is essential to making schools work. The positive
reinforcement of an emotionally intelligent environment enhances the school
environment, helping students to find not only academic success, but also life
success outside of the classroom.
Classroom activities to promote emotional development of children:
There are some social-emotional learning activities that can help your child manage
emotions and work on social skills and have some fun with you along the way.
1) Turtle Time
The goal: To help kids practice observing what’s going on around them. Picking
up on social cues helps kids get their needs met and understand the perspective of
others.
How to play: When you and your child get to the playground and other places,
look around like a turtle in a slow, exaggerated fashion. Take turns sharing details
about what you see: “All the swings are taken!” “There’s a short line for the slide!”
Help your child connect these observations with choosing how to behave. For
example, when the swings are crowded, your child may decide to go on the slide
first.
Keep in mind: You don’t have to pretend to be turtles. You could pull out your
pretend binoculars or a special pair of glasses to help you see well. You could also
play “I spy with my little eye.” In this game you and your child can take turns
spotting a social interaction and describing it until the other player finds what
you’re looking at.
2) Let’s Make a Deal
The goal: To help kids learn to compromise. Practicing how to see things from
another person’s perspective can help your child find a solution that meets
everyone’s needs.
How to play: When you and your child can’t agree, use the tune of “This Old Man”
to sing these lines: “You want this. I want that. How can we both get what we
want?” Then brainstorm as many solutions as you can think of and choose the
best idea for right now. For example, if your child is demanding to bake cookies at
eight in the morning, the best solution may be to wait two hours so you can bake
when the baby is napping.
 Keep in mind: Your child may have trouble letting go of a particular idea.
Together you can pick the best of the runner-up ideas and put them in a special
container. The next time you have a conflict; suggest reading through all of these
ideas to help find the best solution for right now.

Q.2 Summarize the main ideas presented in theories of moral development. Why this
knowledge is important for an ECE teacher?

Main ideas presented in theories of moral development:

Importance of moral development for an ECE teacher:
Following are four guidelines and suggestions on how to promote moral functioning with
young children, especially in relation to caring for others.
1) Attend to the victim first when one child hurts another. It’s always important to
focus on the feelings of others when dealing with hurtful interpersonal conflicts or
transgressions of established classroom rules. Instead of focusing on the concern
 that “the rules have been broken,” we should focus on the outcome of how
“someone has been hurt’’. This response not only attends to the victim’s needs but
also helps the offending child develop a sense of morality, as caring about the
welfare of others is critical to moral functioning.
2) Use children’s literature to share examples of caring. Early childhood educators
should be aware that using children’s literature to foster caring in children is both
supported and criticized in the professional literature. The well-established
practice of bibliotherapy where carefully chosen literature is used to help people
solve problems –certainly supports the idea. Yet, there are others who criticize the
practice of using “moral stories” to build character. They suggest that labeling a
complex set of behaviors with one word like “respect” or “loyalty” does not help
children understand its meaning. They also suggest that the use of children’s
literature in this way is not consistent with constructivist theory – in that it
represents an effort to give children a sense of morality rather than providing them
with experiences to develop their own understandings about what it means to do
the right thing. While it’s important to keep these criticisms in mind, it’s also wise
to refer back to the idea of interactive discussion as an effective strategy in helping
children construct their views of morality. Children’s literature often serves as an
excellent stimulus for such discussion. Rather than just reading a book from cover
to cover with children, teachers should help children “uncover” the meaning and
personal implications of the story through thoughtful discussion. Such discussion
should be based on the understanding that books can’t give children morality but
that they can serve as stimuli for meaningful social interaction. Readers should be
reminded that morality arises out of social interactions and social relationships.
3) Include animals in the classroom and involve children in the care of the animals.
Tending to the needs of animals requires children to give thought and attention to
something outside of themselves and supports the practice of caring. The
professional literature suggests that as children care for animals, they become
more caring towards people as well. Related research also indicates that as
children learn to treat animals with care and respect, they become less likely to
treat humans in a violent, disrespectful way. Thus, while bringing animals into the
classroom requires careful thought, planning and commitment, the benefits to
children suggest that the effort is indeed worthwhile.
4) Model, encourage, and reward acts of caring. Children need to see others engaged
in acts of kindness and expressions of caring. There are many opportunities for
teachers to put this in practice throughout the day. For example, if one child has
 been absent for several days because of illness, you might suggest making a get-
well card for her. It’s also important to observe children’s behavior closely and note
any acts of kindness and caring. Children should then be praised when they show
empathy for others. Teachers should also suggest ways in which children can
practice acts of kindness in their daily routines – for example, holding the door for
each other, sharing desired materials, helping when someone has a “mess” to
clean up, etc.

Q.3 Elaborate the development of language in elementary school years.

Most children have established a foundation of communication by the time they enter
kindergarten, and the early elementary years are spent building on those, especially in
areas such as reading and writing, as well as more complicated conversations. The older
elementary years are no less important than these early years, but their progress might
not seem as noticeable. It is during this time when the skills continue to increase at a
steady pace, often all the way through high school. When it comes to communication
milestones for older elementary students, look to see that your child is developing in
these various areas, both in and out of school. Middle School comprises students from
approximately Years 3 to 6. In middle school, though, language skills typically develop
quickly. You might notice that your child is better able to understand what people
communicate with or without words. In middle school, children often:

 Listens with intent and purpose

 Forms opinions based on what is heard
 Responds thoughtfully to what is heard in conversations
 Comprehends multi-step oral directions
 Summarizes information accurately
 Asks questions out of curiosity, the need to know more information, and as a social gesture
 Can plan and organize thoughts to speak in front of a class
 Uses voice inflection to add meaning
 Is able to use social etiquette of language and contributes meaningfully to conversations

 Becomes more adept at shifting conversations based on increased awareness of the listener’s needs

 Uses increasingly complex grammar skills (syntax)

 Use humor and even sarcasm in conversations
 Can fluently read grade-level books
 Can follow written directions and write effective directions
 Uses reference materials, takes notes, and prepares written reports
  Can effectively compare and contrast ideas, such as with a Venn diagram
 Has expanded understanding of literature (poetry, fiction, nonfiction, media, etc.)
 Demonstrates clarity in writing with beginning, middle, and end of stories
 Uses grammar and punctuation correctly and effectively in writing
 Can self and peer edit written works
 Is able to write based on the needs of the audience or assignment by changing
sentence structure, vocabulary, and voice

Once attending elementary school, the child continues to expand their use of spoken
language. As they progress through middle school, children continue improving their
vocabulary and grammar, their writing becomes more complex and their reading and
comprehension skills continue to develop.

Q.4 What is cognition? Explain different theories of cognition.

Cognition: is a term referring to the mental processes involved in gaining knowledge and
comprehension. These processes include thinking, knowing, remembering, judging and
problem-solving. These are higher-level functions of the brain and encompass language,
imagination, perception, and planning.
Cognition theories
Today, researchers are concentrating on topics like cognitive load and information
processing theory. These theories of learning play a role in influencing instructional
design. Cognitive theory is used to explain such topics as social role acquisition,
intelligence and memory as related to age.
In the late twentieth century, situated cognition emerged as a theory that recognized
current learning as primarily the transfer of de contextualized and formal knowledge.
Bredo (1994) depicts situated cognition as "shifting the focus from individual in
environment to individual and environment". In other words, individual cognition should
be considered as intimately related with the context of social interactions and culturally
constructed meaning. Learning through this perspective, in which known and doing
become inseparable, becomes both applicable and whole.
Much of the education students receive is limited to the culture of schools, without
consideration for authentic cultures outside of education. Curricula framed by situated
cognition can bring knowledge to life by embedding the learned material within the
culture students are familiar with. For example, formal and abstract syntax of math
problems can be transformed by placing a traditional math problem within a practical
story problem. This presents an opportunity to meet that appropriate balance between
situated and transferable knowledge. Lampert (1987) successfully did this by having
students explore mathematical concepts that are continuous with their background
knowledge. She does so by using money, which all students are familiar with, and then
develops the lesson to include more complex stories that allow for students to see
various solutions as well as create their own. In this way, knowledge becomes active,
evolving as students participate and negotiate their way through new situations.

Q.5 Explain with examples what is meant by readiness for learning?

Learning readiness refers to how likely a person is to seek out knowledge and participate
in behavior change. Individuals go through various stages in order to adopt or maintain
a new health behavior. In the pre-contemplative stage, the person is generally not aware
of a problem or not ready to act. In the contemplative stage, the person is thinking about
a change, but is not yet taking action. In the action stage, the person adopts a behavior
change and is practicing it. In the maintenance stage, the person retains the new
behavior as a result of reinforcement. In the last stage, the behavior is part of the
individual’s lifestyle and is no longer seen as a change that needs attention or
reinforcement. Education interventions work best if they match a person’s state of
readiness. For example, if a patient is not even aware of a health problem or its
consequences, health teaching should be directed toward raising awareness of the need
for behavior change before any other learning takes place. Many factors influence a
patient’s readiness to learn. Anything that affects physical or psychological comfort such
as pain, fatigue, anxiety, or fear can affect a person’s ability and motivation to learn. Try
to match teaching content to the patient’s current stage of readiness with the objective of
moving the patient along to the next stage. A practical way of assessing a patient’s stage
of learning readiness is to ask how he or she views the health care problem and what he
or she see are actions that could be taken. By understanding more about what motivates
people to change behavior and how to apply theories to patient teaching situations, you
can be more successful as a patient teacher.

In order to create a successful experience for children it is important that they possess
the necessary components of readiness as discussed below prior to being given a
challenge.  No matter how many times the child attempts a skill, no matter how many
times it is explained or spotted, challenging a child with skills he/she is not yet ready to
perform correctly is setting the child up to fail.

 Learning readiness, or aptitude, can be determined in four parts; physical, mental,

emotional and social.
  Physical Readiness – possessing the strength, flexibility, balance, coordination,
agility, and cardio-respiratory development necessary. 
 Mental Readiness - the ability to understand the skill, focus the mind and
concentrate adequately to perform.
 Emotional Readiness - the ability to manage the level of arousal, excitement,
stress or fear associated with the performance of a skill.
 Social Readiness – taking turns, cooperating with others, understanding fair play
and appropriate behaviors.

An effective and experienced teacher will quickly become aware of the learning readiness
of each individual child and adjust the challenges in the lesson to be within the child's
ability to successfully achieve comfortably and confidently.  In doing so, the teacher
would be setting the child up for successful experiences, building the child's self-
confidence, self-esteem and making the lesson more positive, fun and enjoyable.