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Fault Detection Via Nonlinear Profile Monitoring Using Artificial Neural Networks - Awad - 2018 - QREI PDF
Fault Detection Via Nonlinear Profile Monitoring Using Artificial Neural Networks - Awad - 2018 - QREI PDF
DOI: 10.1002/qre.2318
RESEARCH ARTICLE
1
Industrial Engineering Department,
Abstract
American University of Sharjah, Sharjah,
UAE Fault detection is the characterization of a normal behavior of a system using a
2
Civil Engineering Department, American response function or profile of interest and the identification of any deviation
University of Sharjah, Sharjah, UAE from such normal behavior. As system complexity grows, predicting the under-
3
Industrial Engineering Department,
lying structure or form of response function becomes challenging if not impos-
American University of Sharjah, Sharjah,
UAE sible. This article presents a data‐driven approach for fault detection of
complex systems using multivariate statistical process control based on artifi-
Correspondence
Mahmoud I. Awad, Industrial
cial neural network (ANN) characterization. In this approach, the quality of
Engineering Department, American a system is characterized where one explanatory variable is adequately
University of Sharjah, Sharjah, UAE. explained as a function of the other variables using an ANN model. The vector
Email: miawad@aus.edu
of weights and biases of the ANN model is monitored by using Hotelling T2
through control charts. The proposed method is tested and compared with
existing methods such as polynomial and sum of sine function regression for
3 cases from the literature. Moreover, it is applied to a 4‐story reinforced con-
crete building that uses continuous monitoring to avoid potentially cata-
strophic failures. The proposed ANN approach outperforms the existing
methods for small shifts (deviations) from healthy states. For large and
medium shifts, it provides comparable results that are on the conservative side.
KEYWORDS
fault detection, neural networks, profile monitoring, structural damage
Qual Reliab Engng Int. 2018;1–16. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/qre Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1
2 AWAD ET AL.
model shown in Equation (1), can be adequately repre- monitoring using ANN fault detection. Because of the
sented for each jth profile. multidisciplinary nature of this approach, the review
covers SPC methods used for profile monitoring, ANN,
yj ¼ β0 þ β1 x 1 þ β2 x 2 þ β12 x 1 x 2 þ β11 x 21 þ β22 x 22þ εj ; (1) and structural damage assessment.
where β are the model coefficients and εj is a random 2.1 | Statistical process control
variable representing model error. For the purpose of
The relationships or profiles among explanatory and
fault detection, model coefficients or error terms or both
response variables can be linear7,8 or nonlinear.9-12
are monitored and only small differences between these
Woodall et al13 provides an excellent review of the litera-
indicators are allowed to declare healthy state. A faulty
ture on SPC profile monitoring and discusses some gen-
system is flagged when major differences are detected.
eral issues with using profile SPC. One of the most
Since monitoring several parameters simultaneously is
common statistics used in SPC profile monitoring is the
difficult and more prone to decision errors, the vector
T 2B;p Hotelling‐based charts proposed by Brill14 defined
of profile parameters is usually transferred into statistics
such as T2 Hotelling that can sufficiently describe the in Equation (2):
state of the profile. The T2 Hotelling statistic is then ′
T 2B;p ¼ bp −b S−1
B bp −b ; (2)
monitored by using control chart where faults are
defined as T2 values are outside the calculated upper
control limits (UCLs). where bp is the vector of the model parameters estimates
Because of the complexity of modern systems, the for pth profile and SB is the sample variance‐covariance of
majority of systems/profiles are nonlinear with unknown b estimated by using Equation (3):
or hard to predict structures, ie, polynomial, sum of sines. 2 2 3
S11 S12 S13 S14 S15 S16
As a result, the need for a generic method to model com- 6 S S2 S S S S 7
6 21 22 23 24 25 26 7
plex profiles with unknown system underlying function is 6 7
S2B fbg ¼ 6
6 : 7 :
7 (3)
considerably important and useful. The purpose of this 6 7
article is to present a new data‐driven approach that can 4 : 5
be used to detect faulty complex systems. The proposed S61 S62 S63 S64 S25 S266
approach uses the power of artificial neural networks
(ANNs) to model complex systems, such as structural The components S211 , S222 ; S233 ; S244 ; S255 ; and S266 are the
ones. Structural systems such as buildings, bridges, and estimated variances of estimated parameters
tunnels are load‐resisting systems where loads from users b
β0 ; b
β1 ; b
β2 ; b
β12 ; b
β11 ; and b
β22 , respectively, while Sij is
and surrounding environment (wind, shocks from earth-
the estimated covariance between i and j coefficients. In
quakes, snow, … etc.) are transferred through intercon-
the case of having q profiles and k coefficients, Tracy
nected elements or members. Structural systems are
et al15 proposed an approximation for UCL for T 2B;p chart
prone to damage and catastrophic consequences under
as shown in Equation (4):
serious faults.
The rest of the article is organized as follows: section 2 ðq−1Þ2
provides a review of the literature related to available UCLB ¼ B1−α;k2 ; ðq−k−1Þ=2; (4)
q
SPC's methods, ANN, and structural damage assessment.
The proposed ANN methodology is presented in section
where α represents the significance level, such as 0.05 or
3 followed by proof of concept in section 4. Analysis and
0.1, and B is the beta distribution with k/2 and
results of a 4‐story reinforced concrete (RC) building data
(q − k − 1)/2 degrees of freedom.
set are discussed in section 5. Finally, conclusions and rec-
Holmes and Mergen16 pointed out that the previous
ommendations for future work are presented in section 6.
method does not take into account the sequential sam-
pling structure of the data and proposed another
2 | L I T E R A T U R E RE V I E W Hotelling‐based control chart shown in Equation (5):
′
Fault detection has been applied successfully in several T 2H;p ¼ bp −b S−1
H bp −b ; (5)
fields, including aerospace,2 electronics,3 medicine,4 auto-
motive,5 and vertical density profiles (VDPs) of wood where the variance‐covariance matrix SH is calculated
boards,6 among others. This section provides a literature based on successive difference of coefficient values from
review on the problem of finding new nonlinear profile one profile to the other. Since T 2H;p relies on the
AWAD ET AL. 3
FIGURE 1 Surface mount technology process reflow profiles32 FIGURE 2 Vertical density profile relationship between the
[Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] density and the depth6
4 AWAD ET AL.
using polynomial function developed by using healthy 2.2 | Artificial neural networks (ANN)
profiles only. The results of the proposed method show
Artificial neural network (ANN) is an oversimplified rep-
an improvement in detecting known faulty profiles over
resentation of the neuron interconnections in the human
the traditional T2–based control charts.
brain. It has been used in many applications due to its
In some cases, relationships are complex with numer-
universal flexibility in modeling highly nonlinear
ous parameters needed to describe the response as a
responses, robustness against noisy data, and ability of
function of input variables. Therefore, under certain con-
learning and working around erroneous data. In the
ditions, a nonparametric method becomes a more rea-
ANN, activation functions read data inputs (xi) from
sonable and effective substitute since it offers flexibility
upstream neurons and produce nonlinear responses (y)
in modeling responses. Examples of nonparametric
based on a combination function such as the sigmoid.
methods are Kernel density, nonparametric regression,
Next, the response is channeled downstream to other
K‐Nearest Neighbors algorithm, wavelet transforma-
neurons. Figure 3 depicts the architecture of ANN and
tion,23 Fourier transformation,24 Kernel smoothing, and
the feed‐forward single direction nature of data propaga-
neural networks. For example, Jeong et al23 used wavelet
tion. In this network, a 2‐stage regression or classification
transformation with adaptive thresholds method to mon-
with 1 hidden layer is used to model 1 response using 3
itor plasma etching in semiconductor manufacturing
input variables. The output response Z is the output layer
process using spectroscopy. The proposed method
coded variable, while the derived features Ak are created
extracts several significant coefficients from original
based on activation function of the linear combinations
functional data in the wavelet domain and monitors
of the input variables Xi, bias term, and weights. The
“in” and “out of control events”. Similarly, Winistorfer
input variable weights are represented by wij and bias
et al6 used cubic spline regression technique to model
term feeds into every unit in the hidden and output layers
the VDP‐oriented strand board panels mentioned earlier.
with weights w0j as shown in Equation (10):
Finally, Walker and Wright25 used new additive models
to fit complex curves to monitor VDP density in a non-
parametric way and assess the differences between Am ¼ f w0m þ wTij X i ; m ¼ 1; …; M: (10)
curves using parametric terms.
Although a nonparametric approach is useful, the The activation function f is usually chosen to be the
output is usually difficult if not impossible to interpret sigmoid function10,37-39 due to its flexibility in capturing
and typically provides lower “power” (in type II error nearly linear, curvilinear, and constant behavior depend-
sense) than parametric methods. Similar to the paramet- ing on input variables. The sigmoid function takes real‐
ric approach, the nonparametric approach also requires valued input and returns 0 to 1 values as shown in
a prior knowledge of the best fitting technique such as Equation (11):
polynomials, splines, or wavelets. As a result, the need
for a generic approach to model complex profiles without 1
f ðv Þ ¼ : (11)
prior knowledge of system underlying function is consid- ð1 þ e−v Þ
erably useful. In this article, we propose the use of ANN
modeling, which is very flexible in modeling different The number of input nodes depends on the number of
underlying structures and can almost accommodate any predictors. A back‐propagation supervised learning tech-
number of variables. nique is usually used to select the optimal values of the
weights such that the sum of squares of errors is mini- are generated from the W weight matrix and a
mized. Several researchers used ANN in modeling SPCs. Hotelling T 2B statistic is calculated for each profile.
For example, Kim et al26 proposed the use of ANN to 5. Charting: Hotelling statistics calculated earlier are
model structure acceleration signals to detect damage charted after estimating UCL proposed by Tracy
magnitude and location. Similarly, Park et al27 used et al15 as shown in Equation (4) above and flag any
sequential approaches to detect damage in beams using profiles above UCL as “faulty.”
both time‐modal features as well as ANN.
The power of the proposed method will be assessed by
using average run length (ARL) and false positives rate.
3 | PROPOSED METHODOLOGY Average run length reflects the ability of the method to
detect shifts in the profile location and/or shape.
Data‐driven approaches for fault detection are very useful
for complex systems where system physics of failure is
4 | P R O O F O F CO N C E PT
challenging. The proposed ANN fault detection method
consists of the following 5 major steps:
To validate the ability of the proposed method in detect-
ing faults, 2 case studies reported in literature are exam-
1. Data collection: data are collected either remotely in
ined by using proposed method. The 2 cases are VDP
real‐time fashion during operation or off‐line at fixed
presented in previous studies,6,21,25 and SMT process
intervals. Data obtained consist of all potential input
reflow presented in previous works.10-12
variables and output performance data. Verified and
validated simulation models capable of reliably mim-
icking the system can also be used as well as a cheap 4.1 | Vertical density profile (VDP) case
and feasible way to collect data.
Vertical density is recorded for 24 specimens of wood
2. Feature selection: to ease calculations and processing
across depth D of specimens21 as shown in Figure 2. Arti-
time, a subset of collected data might be sufficient
ficial neural network layout used in the proposed method
for fault detection where few vital variables provide
is shown in Figure 4 where W1 and W2 are the input
a good representation to the phenomenon under
weights, b1 and b2 are input biases, and WL1, WL2, and
study. The selection of these vital variables, also
bLare the output layer weights and bias, respectively.
called features, can be done by using statistical tools
For each ith profile, 61 VDP points were recorded at
such as correlation matrix or principal component
different depths D = 0, 0.01, 0.02, …, 0.6. The VDP point
analysis, or a mix of both techniques.
at jth depth for ith profile VDPij is predicted by using
3. Building ANN model: 1 or more of the variables is
the 2 neurons one layer ANN model shown in Figure 4
mathematically described as a function of other vari-
and using Equation (12):
ables. Since the underlying structure of such relation-
ship is unknown, ANN is used due to its flexibility.
Artificial neural network models are developed by 1
VDPij ¼ WL1i (12)
−αðW1i Dij þb1i Þ
using minimum number of parameters (weights/ 1þe
biases) and reasonable accuracy, ie, coefficient of
1
determination R2 ≥ 80%. One important step in þ WL2i þ bLi:
−αðW 2i Dij þb2i Þ
ANN is data normalization and standardization 1þe
where ANN network input and output variables are
scaled between 0 and 1. Normalization and standard- The number of neurons and layers is selected by the
ization usually make training faster and increases user. Several alternatives of ANN layout were investi-
chances of getting optimal values of weights and gated, and a final one is selected such that the resulted
biases instead of near‐optimal ones, ie, getting stuck prediction model has accurate prediction (R2 ≥ 80 % )
in local optimal instead of global one. As a result, and has minimum number of neurons and layers. Usu-
normalization and standardization enhance the pre- ally, the user starts with the simplest network with 1
diction capabilities of the ANN model input layer and 1 hidden layer and adds more layers or
4. Hotelling T2 statistic estimation: the weights and biases neurons if R2 threshold is not achieved. Starting with a
of the ANN models developed for each profile in the complex network may lead to “overfitting,” where model
previous step are used to form a weight matrix W sim- is forced to go through every actual data point, which
ilar to coefficient matrix b discussed earlier. Next, the results into a complicated network with a compromised
mean vector and sample variance‐covariance matrix prediction power. There are some empirically derived
6 AWAD ET AL.
rules of thumb regarding the optimal number of layers Walker and Wright chart but did not pass the UCL. In
and neurons, which can be used as a starting point.28 general, the overall pattern of the 2 charts were compara-
It is critical to use the same initial solution for each ble; however, the ANN proposed method individual T2
profile so the fitting algorithm converges to similar final were slightly higher.
weights and biases. Weights and biases resulted from
fitting all 24 profiles are summarized in Table 1.
4.2 | SMT reflow process
The Brill Hotelling T2 is estimated by using Equa-
tion (13) shown as follows: Surface mount technology reflow process is a common
step in electronics industry. The input variable in the pro-
′
T 2B;p ¼ W p −W S−1
W W p −W ; (13) cess reflow is time, while the output variable is tempera-
ture. Each profile consists of 48 measurements as shown
where Wp is the weights matrix of all profiles with a size in Figure 1. Several authors used this process to demon-
of 7 rows and 24 columns, W is the weight averages, and strate the effectiveness of their T2‐based proposed
SW is the variance‐covariance matrix of the weights methods using the ARL metric.10-12
matrix. Figure 6 depicts Hotelling chart results for the 16 pro-
Figure 5A shows the Hotelling chart as developed by files fitted by using the sum of 2‐sine functions12 and pro-
Walker and Wright25 using additive model, while posed ANN method. Similar to the VDP example, the
Figure 5B depicts the results of the ANN proposed proposed method used 1 layer and 2 neurons ANN archi-
method. Walker and Wright25 method detected 2 faulty tecture. Both methods flagged the first profile as “faulty.”
profiles out of 24, namely, profiles 15 and 18, while our In addition, the proposed ANN method identified 3 more
proposed ANN method detected 3 faulty ones: profiles faulty profiles, namely, 12, 15, and 16. It is worth
4, 15, and 18. The T2 value of profile 4 was very close in
(A)
(B)
(B)
FIGURE 5 (A) Vertical density profile case developed by Walker FIGURE 6 Surface mount technology process reflow results: (A)
and Wright25 and (B) proposed artificial neural network method sum of sine method12 and (B) artificial neural network method
[Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
8 AWAD ET AL.
mentioning here that the polynomial regression T2 and release it to the customer with high risk of failure
method proposed by Jen and Fan11 shows profiles 12, and potential severe consequences. Alternatively, a false
15, and 16 very close to the UCL. positive decision leads to declaring a healthy system as
faulty and triggering an additional inspection steps.
When compared with traditional methods, the T2
4.3 | Method comparison Hotelling statistic generated by the proposed method is,
Comparing the results for both VDP and SMT cases, it is on average, higher. Figures 7 and 8 plot the traditional
evident that the proposed ANN is more conservative in T2 Hotelling statistic against the ANN one along with
detecting faulty profiles. In the VDP case, traditional the 45° equivalency line for the VDP and SMT,
methods detected 2 faulty profiles out of 24, while the respectively.
proposed ANN method detected 3 faulty ones. Similarly,
in the SMT process reflow case, traditional methods
detected 1 faulty profile out of 16 while proposed ANN
method classified 4 as faulty. Moreover, the automotive
case presented by Amir et al,10 who used a linear mixed
model to investigate the health of 26 engines, was also
investigated by using the ANN proposed method.
Although ANN method T2 is higher than the traditional
linear model one proposed by Amir et al,10 both methods
declared all engines as healthy. Table 2 summarizes the
results of the 3 cases based on the false positive rate of
ANN method assuming that number of faulty profiles
detected by traditional methods is accurate.
The results above indicate a positive false rate range FIGURE 7 Vertical density profile case Hotelling statistic
of 0% to 19% depending on the complexity of the underly- comparison [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.
ing structure of the model between response and input com]
variables. This is evident by comparing the models of
the 3 cases above; the automotive case has a slight non-
linear model with one deflection point, VDP is a pure
parabolic model, and finally, the SMT model is highly
nonlinear profile as shown by Figure 1. Although false
positives are not generally a desirable outcome, the con-
sequences are occasionally not that severe. This is of
course case dependent. For example, in the SMT case, 4
boards would be sent for investigation instead of 1, which
adds a little more inspection time and cost. In other cases,
this could be much more expensive especially when
inspection is destructive or time‐consuming. The bright
side here, the proposed ANN method resulted in zero
false negatives in all 3 cases investigated above, which is FIGURE 8 Surface mount technology case Hotelling statistic
more critical than false positives. A false negative deci- comparison [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.
sion leads to declaring a faulty profile/system as healthy com]
To investigate the sensitivity of the polynomial regres- faster than the other 2 traditional methods especially
sion method in detecting sustained shifts, Jen and Fan11 for small shifts, ie, λ = 0.5 − 1.5 . However, the sum
performed ARL evaluation under diverse shifts in the 5 of sine functions and polynomial regression methods
parameters by using 200 simulation profiles for each detects bigger shifts in a1 faster than the proposed
experiment. The maximum run length is limited to 200 method. For other parameters such as a2, b1, b2,and c2,
as carried out by other researchers.10 The same method ANN results were comparable if not slightly faster than
of ARL calculation was carried out for the proposed the other 2 traditional methods.
ANN method, and results are summarized in Table 3
along with polynomial and sum of sine results.
The ARL analysis started with generating response 5 | S T R UC T UR AL D AM AG E C AS E
data using the sum of sine model shown in Equation (8) STUDY
due to its accuracy in predicting output (the coefficient
of determination R2 ≥ 0.99 for all profiles). The average In this section, the proposed ANN method is applied to
parameter estimates based on the healthy profiles only damage detection in structural systems. Structural sys-
were treated as the true estimates and were used to sim- tems are generally rather complex with several parame-
ulate samples for the simulation study. The shifts are per- ters that influence its response, such as material
formed in a one‐parameter‐at‐a‐time manner and properties, geometry, and applied loads. A common prac-
estimated as a multiple of the parameter's standard devi- tice for structural health monitoring (SHM) is the deploy-
ation. The multiplier λ ranges from 0.5 to 3.0 standard ment of various sensors to detect different indications of
deviations. This type of shift affects the parameter loca- damages such as cracks, excessive deflections, and/or
tion only and causes the response output values and/or accelerations. Such monitoring systems are typically
shape of curve to change. The error term in Equation (8) expensive installations that require continuous operation.
is simulated by using a normally distributed random var- Implementing a robust fault detection method is of a par-
iable with zero mean and constant variance. The constant amount value since it enhances occupants' safety and
variance is assumed to be equivalent to the mean squared maintenance cost reduction. Reliance on cumbersome
error obtained from the fitted results in the model build- and expensive expert inspections can be complemented,
ing stage as reported in Fan et al.12 For example, and in if not significantly reduced. Data‐driven methods provide
the case of shifting a1 parameter, the shifted responses a strong candidate for faster and more cost‐effective alter-
are generated by using Equation (8) as follows: native solutions.
Structural damage may be caused by earthquake
f x ij ; βi ¼ ða1i þ λσ a1 Þ sin b1i x ij þ a2i sin b2i x ij þ c2i þ εij : effects, among many types of loading conditions.
Researchers tried different methods to detect damage.
Assuming λ = 0.5 and using the average and standard These methods can be grouped into 4 major groups:
deviation of a1 and mean squared error of fitted results SHM, crack identification, displacement and deflection
reported by Fan et al,12 which are 221.9940, 2.4593, and identification, and finally acceleration measurement.
14.197, respectively, the response will be In SHM, Kaya and Safak29 proposed monitoring
vibrations and extracting critical features influencing
bf x ij ; β ¼ ð221:9940 þ ð0:5Þð2:4593ÞÞ sin b b1i x ij damage initiation and location. Nazarko and
i
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi Ziemiański30 also discussed SHM and proposed investi-
a2i sin b
þb b2i x ij þ bc2i þ N e 0; 14:197Þ: gating elastic wave propagation in solid phenomena and
describe it quantitatively and qualitatively. Monajemi
The resulted response data are fitted by using the et al31 used the damaging locating vector method where
ANN model, then the Hotelling T2 statistic is estimated flexibility matrix is dynamically measured to identify
by using the weights matrix representing the healthy pro- and localize the damage in a structure.
files only, ie, all profiles except the 4 faulty ones. Based on Other researchers focused on crack identification and
the T2 value, the simulated model is declared either localization. For example, Toan and Khiem32 proposed a
healthy or faulty. This process is repeated, and the ARL numerically and experimentally validated way to detect
is averaged across 1000 simulation cycles. the number of cracks in a beam using its natural frequen-
A MATLAB28 code is developed to introduce 3 levels cies. They derived a nonlinear expression of the natural
of shifts in the 5 parameters of the sum of sine function frequency and used it along with crack scanning method
using λ = 0.5, 1.5, and 5, respectively. The ARL results to quantify beam cracks. Similarly, Barada et al33 studied
summarized in Table 2 indicate that overall the pro- crack detection by using natural frequencies to detect the
posed ANN method detects out‐of‐control ARL shifts location and size of the crack. Kuang34 used graded‐index
10 AWAD ET AL.
Method λ
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Proposed ANN method 6.4 4.1 4.8 3.7 3.0 3.4
Sum of sine functions 141.39 65.95 11.073 2.59 1.257 1.01
Polynomial regression 96.151 21.963 4.899 1.835 1.191 1.02
ARL values in a2 + λσa2 (maximum in control ARL = 200)
ARL T2 λ
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Proposed ANN method 16 1.2 1 1 1 1
Sum of sine functions 45.898 5.546 1.654 1.072 1.003 1
Polynomial regression 47.558 6.737 2.036 1.161 1.013 1
ARL values in b1 + λσb1 (maximum in control ARL = 200)
ARL T2 λ
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Proposed ANN method 9.10 3 1.40 1.20 1.00 1.00
Sum of sine functions 114.74 30.17 5.90 1.83 1.14 1.01
Polynomial regression 141.34 123.29 88.70 51.74 26.00 12.85
ARL values in b2 + λσb2 (maximum in control ARL = 200)
ARL T2 λ
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Proposed ANN method 5.7 3.2 2.3 1.5 1 1
Sum of sine functions 85.35 15.957 3.47 1.263 1.007 1
Polynomial regression 151.796 137.381 109.027 66.479 37.282 17.84
ARL values in c2 + λσc2 (maximum in control ARL = 200)
ARL T2 λ
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Proposed ANN method 3.2 1.0 1.0 1 1 1
Sum of sine functions 2.524 1.002 1 1 1 1
Polynomial regression 198.784 23.792 1.049 1 1 1
Abbreviations: ANN, artificial neural network; ARL, average run length; SMT, surface mount technology.
per fluorinated plastic optical fiber to detect position and The last group of researchers focused on acceleration
growth of cracks in steel structures. Finally, Asnaashari detection. For example, Liao et al38 used an open source
and Sinha35 used operational deflection shape and resid- wireless infrastructural monitoring system (SnowFort) to
ual operational deflection shape to study the dynamic test the damage detection aimed at defining the nonlinear
behavior of structures; however, it does not identify the behavior of steel frames during several severe earth-
location of the crack. quakes. Similarly, Huh et al39 proposed using vibratory
In displacement and deflection, Sładek et al36 used 2‐ power of the damaged structures by measuring accelera-
point images and homograph mapping to analyze dis- tion to identify damage. More specifically, the historical
placement and calculate structure deflection field. A record of the instant power in the damaged area is traced
more advanced vision–based method discussed by Guo and analyzed by using the spatial distribution and trans-
and Zhu37 involved using a high‐speed camera capable formed it into a damage index. Recently, some unconven-
of capturing hundred frames per second. Then, the tional SHM techniques have been adopted form
frames are processed by using Lucas‐Kanade template mechanical systems into structural systems.40-42 Almost
tracking algorithm to measure accurate displacements of all of the above mentioned methods for structural integrity
structures. monitoring require either cutting‐edge technology for data
AWAD ET AL. 11
Damage (OSD)
tial implementation cost.
Structural
Overall Structural damage results from nonlinear and inelas-
tic structural response. Capturing these effects (inelastic
0.9
0.0
0.7
0.4
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.7
1.0
deformation demands) during seismic events is a routine
exercise. It has been the focus of a great number of inves-
Velocity
Drift
1 4.430 Healthy
Ratio, %
2 2.300 Faulty
Drift
0.6
−0.4
0.8
0.6
1.0
3 5.014 Healthy
4 4.329 Healthy
5 4.462 Healthy
Col‐Wall
6 4.485 Healthy
0.3
−0.3
0.2
1.0
7 5.065 Healthy
8 4.292 Healthy
Beam‐Slab
9 7.130 Faulty
Four‐story building variable correlation matrix
0.6
−0.4
1.0
10 4.853 Healthy
11 2.500 Faulty
Story
12 4.742 Healthy
0.1
1.0
13 5.106 Healthy
14 4.255 Healthy
Peak Ground
15 3.910 Faulty
16 4.825 Healthy
Acc., g
17 5.170 Healthy
1.0
18 7.958 Faulty
Peak ground Acc., g
19 4.492 Healthy
Story velocity drift
20 4.180 Healthy
Displacement
Drift ratio, %
Acceleration
21 4.973 Healthy
Beam‐slab
Story drift
TABLE 4
Col‐wall
Velocity
22 3.956 Faulty
Story
OSD
23 4.637 Healthy
12 AWAD ET AL.
responses of interest are overall structural damage (OSD), cumbersome, and model inputs should be independent,
beam slab damage, and col‐wall damage. Since dealing a correlation study between input variables is carried
with too many variables will make the model handling out first to reduce the size of input matrix. Table 4 below
shows part of the correlation matrix where cell entries compression strength value very close to the lower speci-
represent Pearson correlation coefficient ρ between col- fication limit of 4.037 ksi. Examining the relationship
umn and raw variables. Some of these inputs are horizon- between T2 value and compressive concrete strength indi-
tal g acceleration, beam‐slab, col‐wall, drift ratio, story cates a strong correlation between the 2 variables. The
drift, displacement, velocity, acceleration, story velocity further the compressive strength from the nominal value,
drift, and OSD. The majority of input variables were the higher the T2 value.
highly correlated (ρ > 0.75). As a result, only 3 factors In summary, the results suggest that the proposed
are selected: peak ground acceleration, story level, and method is capable of accurately detecting faulty profiles
story acceleration. except for the marginal 3.956 one. The main advantage
To generate known healthy and known faulty profiles, of the proposed method is that it does not need a previous
simulation with dynamic waves is applied on the 4‐story knowledge about the response curve's shape or the behav-
structure with diverse concrete properties. From physics ior of physical properties in the system, which other non-
of failure, it is well known that concrete compression linear‐based methods require. Other traditional methods
strength (Fc) is a critical factor affecting structural integrity assume that the system behavior can be described by
significantly. The normal range of concrete strength using a polynomial or sum of sine function before using
(4.6412 ± 13%) is used to generate 17 healthy profiles, ie, Hotelling method. Such assumption might not be valid
within Fc normal range, in addition to 6 faulty ones beyond in many applications.
Fc limits. The faulty profiles consist of 4 profiles with low
concrete strengths, (2.3, 2.5, 3.91, and 3.956 ksi) and
another 2 with high concrete strength values (7.13 and 6 | C ON C L U S I ON S
7.958 ksi). The known 6 faulty profiles were used to vali-
date the proposed ANN method ability of faulty profile The current research presents a data‐driven methodology
detection. Table 5 shows all structure profile classification. for fault detection of complex arrays such as structural
Next, OSD was modeled by using ANN as a function systems via multivariate SPC and use of ANNs. The pro-
of earthquake peak ground acceleration, story level, and posed method is based on modeling the system outputs
story acceleration. The ANN layout used is shown in using ANN as a function of input variables such as the
Figure 9 below where Wij are the inputs weights, i repre- earthquake signal in the structural system case. The
sents input neuron, j represents output neuron, b1 and b2 Hotelling T2 technique is then used to identify any shifts
are the input biases, and WL1, WL2, and bL are the layer's of ANN weights and biases from the healthy state. The
weights and bias, respectively. validity of the proposed method was verified by using 3
Table 6 below shows the weights and biases along cases found in the literature and showed comparable if
with the T2 of the 4‐story building OSD resulted from not better results than traditional methods. The proposed
ANN model fitting, while Figure 10 shows the Hotelling method detected small‐to‐medium shifts in profile
chart accordingly. The chart flagged 5 of the 6 known parameters faster than traditional ones, ie, lower ARL.
faulty profiles (Fc = 2.3, 7.13, 2.5, 3.91, and 7.958 ksi). Lastly, the proposed method is used to monitor
The sixth known faulty profile (Fc = 3.956 ksi) had T2 faults in a structural system (4‐story RC building). The
value slightly below UCL but beyond the median. Keep proposed method was successful in detecting 5 out of
in mind that the sixth profile of Fc = 3.956 has a concrete 6 known faulty profiles and missed a marginal one.
Data for the structural case were collected by using sim-
ulations of the structural damage caused by an increas-
ing‐intensity earthquake. A successful real‐time SHM
implementation of the proposed method will increase
safety and reduce potential maintenance and opera-
tional costs. It will also provide significant financial
and customer competitive edge since it gives decision‐
makers lead‐time and flexibility to manage structural
systems' conditions. The methodology presented in this
research is scalable and can be applied to a wide range
of systems to assess their health from an inspection
check to anticipate and avoid failures. The optimal
number of neurons, hidden layers, and the impact on
FIGURE 10 4‐story building Hotelling chart [Colour figure can accuracy of the proposed method is an area that is
be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] worth studying in the future.
14 AWAD ET AL.
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Networking. 2012;20(4):1203‐1216. Mahmoud Awad is an assistant professor in the
43. Reinhorn AM, Roh H, Sivaselvan M, Kunnath SK, Valles RE, Department of Industrial Engineering at the Ameri-
Madan A, Li C, Lobo R, Park YJ. IDARC2D Version 7.0: a pro- can University of Sharjah. He holds a PhD in Indus-
gram for the inelastic damage analysis of structures, user's trial Engineering from Wayne State University, USA.
guide. Multidisciplinary Center for Earthquake Engineering
He is a certified Six Sigma Black Belt from American
Research (MCEER), http://civil.eng.buffalo.edu/idarc2d50/,
Society of Quality (ASQ) and Ford Motor Company
Buffalo, New York, 2010.
since 2002. Prior to his academic career, he worked
44. AlHamaydeh M, Najib M, Alawnah S. INSPECT: a graphical
in the industry for several companies like
user Interface software package for IDARC‐2D. SoftwareX.
2016;5:243‐251. Schlumberger Technology Incorporation (Houston,
USA), Case New Holland (Chicago, USA), and Ford
45. AlHamaydeh M, Najib M, Elayyan L. INSPECT‐Lite: a GUI pre‐
processor package for IDARC‐2D Ver 7.0. In: The 2015 World
Motor Company (Dearborn, USA). His areas of
Congress on Advances in Structural Engineering and Mechanics research and teaching interest are Six Sigma, Quality
(ASEM15), August 25–29, 2015. and Reliability Engineering, and Reliability Centered
46. Awad M, AlHamaydeh M, Mohamed A. Structural damage Maintenance.
fault detection using artificial neural networks profile monitor-
ing. In: 7th International Conference on Modeling, Simulation Dr Mohammad AlHamaydeh is an associate profes-
and Applied Optimization (ICMSAO'17), Sharjah, UAE, April sor in the Department of Civil Engineering at the
4–6, 2017. American University of Sharjah. He holds a PhD in
47. AlHamaydeh M, Aly N, Galal K. Impact of seismicity on perfor- Structural/Earthquake Engineering from University
mance and cost of RC shear wall buildings in Dubai, UAE. of Southern California, USA. Mohammad
ASCE J Perform Constr Facil. 2017. https://doi.org/10.1061/ AlHamaydeh teaches several structural engineering
(ASCE)CF.1943‐5509.0001079 courses, such as Statics, Structural Steel Design, Fun-
48. AlHamaydeh M, Aly N, Galal K. Effect of diverse seismic hazard damentals of Structural Dynamics, Computer
estimates on design and performance of RC shear wall buildings Methods in Structural Analysis and Design, at the
in Dubai, UAE. In: The 2015 World Congress on Advances in
undergraduate level. At the graduate level, Dr
Structural Engineering and Mechanics (ASEM15), August 25–
29, 2015.
AlHamaydeh teaches Analysis and Design of Tall
Buildings, as well as Structural Earthquake Engineer-
49. AlHamaydeh M, Galal K, Yehia S. Impact of lateral force‐
ing. His area of research and expertise includes non-
resisting system and design/construction practices on seismic
performance and cost of tall buildings in Dubai, UAE. Earthq linear structural dynamic response analysis and
Eng Eng Vib. 2013;12(3):385‐397. modeling, passive control and supplemental damping
50. AlHamaydeh M, Al‐Shamsi G. Development of analytical fragil- devices, computer‐aided design and simulation, non-
ity curves for representative buildings in Dubai, United Arab linear finite element methods, and soil‐structure
16 AWAD ET AL.
interaction. Prior to his academic career, he was an at AUS before moving to Dubai Road and Transport
active member of the SEAOC as a consultant engineer Agency where he is working as a senior controller in
in Los Angeles, California. the Planning and Development Department.