Woman's Art Inc.

Christina of Sweden's Patronage of Bernini: The Mirror of Truth Revealed by Time

Author(s): Lilian H. Zirpolo
Source: Woman's Art Journal, Vol. 26, No. 1 (Spring - Summer, 2005), pp. 38-43
Published by: Woman's Art Inc.
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3566533 .
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 CHRISTINA
OF SWEDEN'S PATRONA
OF BERNINI
The Mirrorof TruthRevealedby Time
By Lilian H. Zirpolo
W ritingson Queen Christinaof Sweden(1626-89)aretaint-
ed with prejudices. She has been criticized for her cynical
indifference to the distresses of the Swedish crown she
renounced in 1654, despite postponing her abdication until a suit-
able successor was found, and she was considered anything but a
model daughter of the Catholic Church, to which she converted the
following year.' Unlike most women of her day, she had no interest
in marriage or motherhood, causing some to suggest she was a her-
maphrodite.2 Scholars have studied her involvement in the arts,
mainly in regard to her collecting rather than patronage, and some
have viewed her impressive collection of 16th-century masters as
nothing more than the product of "a great stroke of luck that befell
her," as its bulk came from the collection of Rudolph II seized when
Prague fell to the Swedes.3
These are the fabrications of modern scholarship, however.
Queen Christina, a woman with an insatiable appetite for knowl-
edge, surrounded herself with objects of aesthetic, historical, and in-
tellectual value. For her fostering of the artistic and intellectual life
in Rome, its citizens hailed her as the "Minervaof the North." Dur-
ing Pope Clement IX's reign (1667-69), Christina was even called
"The Patroness of Rome," as her patronage activities enhanced
Rome's reputation as a center of culture.4 Prince Livio Odescalchi,
who purchased Christina's collection from her heirs, touted its
provenance to claim royal ties and hence enhance his position in so-
ciety. Romans reverently invoked Christina'sname when Odescalchi
lent the tapestries he acquired from her collection for festivities,
and when his heirs sold her antique pieces for the highest prices.5
Besides collecting ancient statuary and works by 16th-century
masters, Christina was patron to several significant contemporary
artists in Rome, among them the painter Pier Francesco Mola, who
championed the neo-Venetian style; Carlo Fontana, who, by the
beginning of the 18th century, was the city's leading architect; and
Gian Lorenzo Bernini, the 17th century's most important sculptor
and a celebrated architect.6Art historians have shown little interest
in Christina's patronage of these masters, perhaps because most of
the works they created for her have not survived.
Christina was born in Stockholm on December 26, 1626. She
was the daughter of King Gustav Adolf, who died in the Battle of
Liitzen when she was six, and Maria Eleonora, Princess of Bran-
denburg. In her autobiography, housed in the Riksarkivet in Stock-
holm, Christina described her birth thusly: "I was born with a caul,
and my face was pallid...my body was entirely covered with hair
and I had a deep, loud voice. This led the midwives attending me
to take me for a boy... for a time the king was deceived."7
Having been made aware of the mistake, King Gustav accepted
the child and ordered a Te Deum to be sung in her honor, customary
on the birth of a male successor to the throne.8And like most of her
peers who were expected to ascend to a European throne, she re-
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ceiveda maleeducation.Her tutorswere the court'shigh chancellor
Axel Oxenstierna,who governedas head of the regentcounciluntil
Christina reached maturity,and Johannes Matthiae, the court
chaplain,laterbishop,and a toleranttheologian.While Oxenstierna
preparedher for her duties as queen, Matthiaeinstructedher in
wide-ranging areas of learning, including philosophy, theology,
mathematics,and astronomy.By 18, Christinawas fluentin French,
German,Italian,Dutch, Latin, and Greek, and had knowledgeof
Hebrew and Arabic. According to the French Duc de Guise,
Christinacould speak"eightlanguagesbut mostlyFrench and that
as if she had been bornin Paris.[She] understandspaintingas well
as anyone.In fact she is an absolutelyextraordinaryperson."9She is
alsosaidto havehad exceptionalpoliticalgeniusat a veryyoungage.
On December 8, 1644, 18-year-oldChristinabecame Queen of
Sweden, and she immediately set out to transformthe court of
Stockholminto a new Athens.To this end she invitedto her court
Rene Descartes,with whom she had been corresponding.He ar-
rivedin October1649 and remaineduntilhis death,possiblydue to
influenza, the followingyear. Reportedlyhe came to Christina's
studyat five in the morning,two or three times a week, to discuss
philosophy.He relatedthat she was passionatelyinterestedin liter-
ature and Greek and owned a number of ancient books, most of
which she had read. Descartes and Christinaplanned to establish
an academy,and he compiled the statutesat her request. Named
the CartesianAcademy,it held its first meeting in February1650,
on the firstSundayafterDescartes'sfuneral."?
Christinainvitedother gifted scholarsto her court,amongthem
Johan Freinsheimus,a Germanphilologistwho in 1642 acted as
chair of oratoryand politicalstudies at the Universityof Uppsala;
Nicolaas Heinsius, a well-knownDutch scholarof Latin;Gabriel
Naude, a French physician,free thinker,and librarianto Cardinal
Richelieu of France and then to his successor,CardinalMazarin;
and BlaisePascal,the mathematicianandgeometricianandinventor
of the firstmechanicalcalculator,whichhe presentedto Christinain
1652. Other prominent men at the Swedish court were Raphael
TrichetDu Fresne, who publishedthe first edition of Leonardo's
treatiseon paintingand dedicatedit to the queen;PierreBourdelot,
a physicianlearnedin artwho advisedChristinaon her collections;
and IsaacVossius,a specialistin Arabic,mathematics,and physics
who tutoredher in Greek.l In spite of the stimulatingenvironment
createdby this bandof intellectuals,Christinatook little satisfaction
fromher life as queen. Sweden'sorthodoxProtestantismsmothered
her free thinking,and her dailyobligationsat courtthwartedher in-
tellectualpursuits.For her,CatholicRome,at the time the centerof
learningand culture,would provide a more stimulating,less con-
strictiveenvironment.l2On June 6, 1654, Christinaabdicatedthe
throne,leavingKarlGustav,her cousin,as successor.After a grand
tour of northerncities, includingHamburg,Utrecht,and Brussels,
her public conversionto Catholi-
cism in Hofkircheat Innsbruck,
and staysin Venice,Mantua,Fer-
rara,Bologna,Urbino, and other
Italiancities, Christinaarrivedin
Rome with great pomp in De-
cemberof 1655.13
Italy had long fascinated
Christina.From 1649 on she had
corresponded with Paolo Gior-
dano II Orsini, Duke of Brac-
ciano, from one of Rome's most p
ancient noble families, inquiring tfclirrri:"
^B^^"'-
about recent artisticand cultural
6bove: Fig. 1. Gian Lorenzo Bernini, SalvatorMundi(c. 1680), black
developmentsin that city. Orsini chalk, 6/8" x 9 /". Galleria Nazi ionale delle Stampe, Rome.
replied that Pietro da Cortona
was the most highly regarded
Right:Fig. 2. Gian LorenzoBernini,Design for a Mirror(c. 1670),
painterand Berniniand Alessan- pen-and-washover chalk, 9" x 73/8".WindsorCastle, London.
dro Algardi the most talented
sculptors, and all would be de-
lighted to work for her. Christina,w7howas particularly interested
in Bernini,wanted to know if the art:ist had completed his work at
the Piazza Navona and whether he was planning a new project.
Orsini informed her that Bernini Ilad just finished the Cornaro
Chapel, with the Ecstasyof St. There.
sa as its centerpiece.4
In 1659, Christinaset up permalnent residence at the Palazzo
Riario(now Corsini)on the Via della Lungara. Nicodemus Tessin
the Younger,who visited Rome twicie and enjoyed the queen's pa-
tronage, recorded how she decorateed her home. Her Stanza dei
Quadri,then considered one of the great marvels of Rome, was
hung, from floorto ceiling,with the 16th-century Venetian master-
worksshe had broughtfrom Swedein..5Tessin was also impressed
by the Sala delle Muse, where eighit seated muses unearthed at
Hadrian'svillain Tivoliand restoredfor Christina by Ercole Ferra-
ta were arrangedin a circle (they are now at the Prado). An Apollo
playingthe lyre (c. 1681), commissiolned from the Anconese sculp-
tor FrancescoMariaNoccheri,and vvalllandscapes set between 16
columns of yellow Numidian marble with gilded capitals, complet-
ed the decor. In place of the missing ninth muse, Christina had her
own canopied throne installed oppo site Apollo.16 The illusion she
sought to create was, of course, that of Apollo and the muses (in-
cluding herself) at Parnassus engag;ing in intellectual discourse.
When Livio Odescalchi acquired the queen's collection, he
arranged the statues in a similar manrler in his palace.'7
The decoration of the adjoining ro>om,the Sala di Clytie, was no
less dramatic. Here an ancient torso, restored in c. 1680 by Giulio
Cartari,a pupil of Bernini, to represerit Clytie (now at the Prado and
Ponte Vedra museums), reclined on atpedestal and turned her head
toward the sun (painted on the ceiling). With plant stalks emerging
from her fingers and toes, the mome nt depicted was that of Clytie
being transformed into a sunflower as a result of her infatuation with
the sun god. The Swedish art historia]n Hans Henrik Brummer read
religious and philosophical implicationis into this room's decor, point-
ing out that the sunflower, a heliotrot)e, is a traditional reference to
the human soul, while the sun, according to Marsilio Ficino's Neo-
platonic expositions, is symbolic of Gcd. The fact that the sunflower
constantly seeks the sun thus represents the soul's devotion to God
and its yearning to ascend toward thE e celestial realm. The sun was
part of Christina'srepertory of symbolic attributes and appears often
in her medals and portraits, for exarnple, Cartari's marble bust of
Christina, now in the Patrimonio Naciional, La Granja,but originally
displayed in her palate in a room devoted exclusively to her portrait
busts. Christinain this bust wears a goId laurel wreath, and her drap-
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r: .-V ,,V *,
,
ery is gathered on her left shoulder and held together by an agraffe,
or ornamental clasp, embellished with a representation of the sun.
According to Brummer, the sun and laurel wreath here denote the
queen's apotheosis made possible through virtue. The divine light of
the sun is a manifestation of Sapientia (wisdom), which leads to
virtue and facilitates the apotheosis.'
Christina enjoyed theatrical display and placed the pieces in
her collection in such a way as to invoke references to her interests
and her self. In this theater she created in the Palazzo Riario she
surrounded herself with artists, writers, litterati, and musicians.
She established her own orchestra led by Alessandro Scarlatti, and
patronized the poets Guidi and da Filicaia, among others. Music,
poetry, and art comingled at the Palazzo Riario to stimulate the
senses and provide inspiration. Christina also founded several
academies in Rome. The first held its inaugural meeting on Janu-
ary 24, 1656, at the Palazzo Farnese, where she resided for a brief
period. Its literary figures eulogized the pope and mused about
the most favorable times of the day for poetic inspiration. The sec-
ond, the Accademia Reale, established in 1674 at the Palazzo Ri-
ario, included among its members the naturalist Giovanni Alfonso
Borelli, the author of De motu animalum, one of the earliest texts
on the application of mechanical science to the study of living or-
ganisms; the astrologer Giovanni Domenico Cassini, and the poets
Alessandro Guidi, Vincenzo da Filicaia, and Benedetto Menzini.
Cardinal Giovanni Francesco Albani, later Pope Clement XI, was
also a member. Problems of moral philosophy, theology, astrology,
and natural history were the favored topics. In 1677, under
Christina's patronage, Giovanni Giustino Campini founded the Ac-
cademia dell' Esperienza to address problems of physics and
mathematics. Campini, a professor of astronomy in Bologna in
1650, had made a series of important discoveries on the rotation of
the planets and their satellites. He also had devised a telescope and
in 1663 advised Christina on setting up an observatoryin her home.19
Christina met Bernini on December 23, 1655, the day she offi-
cially entered Rome through the Porta del Popolo. Alexander VII
had commissioned Bernini to design her carriage and to refurbish
the Porta to mark the occasion. The carriage, made of silver with
elaborate detailing that included the Vasa coat-of-arms belonging to
Christina'sfamily as well as other heraldic motifs, was lined with sky-
blue velvet trimmed with silver braiding to match the exterior.20 After
the procession, Count Raimondo Montecuccoli introduced Christina
to the sculptor. Bernini said to her modestly, "If there is anything bad
it is mine," referring to the carriage, to which she responded: "Then
0
there is nothingof yours."21 The two immediat
ly struckup a friendship,lastinguntil Berin
deathin 1680.
Christina made her first visit to Bernin
studio in 1662, while he was working on tl
statue of Constantine the Great, now at ti
foot of the Scala Reggia at the Vatica
Domenico Bernini,the sculptor'sson, inforn
us that on the occasion his father greeted tl
queen in his work clothes, exclaiming that
was the only worthyattire for a virtuosoof 1
stationto wear in the presence of royalty.SI
immediately understood the implication ai
reverentlyfingered his smock to indicate h
appreciationfor his talent.2
From NicodemusTessin'svisit we knowtl
extent of Christina's patronage of Bernir
Among the artist'sworkshe saw in her pala,
were a bust of the queen, two paintings,
sculptedhead of a child crownedwith a laur
wreath,a marblebust of Christ,and an elab
rate mirror depicting "Truth Revealed t
Time."23Unfortunately, none have survive
a few of Christina'sbust ar
only descriptions
the paintings. The sculpted child may haN
represented Lucilla, the daughter of Marci
Aurelius. According to Domenico
Bernini and Filippo Baldinucci, Gian
LorenzoBerini's biographer,the sculp-
tor offered the bust of Christto Christi-
na as a gift, but she refused it because
she considered it of such high artistic
valuethatit wouldhavebeen impossible
for her to find a comparablepresent in i
return.When Berninibequeathed it to
Christinaas a token of gratitudefor her
friendshipand patronage,she placed it
in her bedroomwhere it remaineduntil
her deathin 1689.4
A drawingin the GalleriaNazionale
delle Stampe,Rome (c. 1680;Fig. 1) by
Berniniprovidesan idea of the appear-
ance of the bust, as do descriptionsby
Domenico Bernini, Baldinucci,and, of
course, Tessin. Christ, represented as
SalvatorMundior Saviorof the Worldin
a blessing gesture (approximatelyfour-
and-a-half-feethigh),standson a six-foot
pedestal of gilded wood, an angel at ei-
ther side with hands raised to support
the bust. This work,which Berniniexe-
cuted at the age of 80, is thoughtto have
been his laststatuein marble.25 I never-completedfree-standingsculpture
The most important commission
Berninireceivedfrom Christinawas the
mirror.Althoughneither Baldinuccinor
Domenico Bernini mention it, Tessin
tells us that it was extraordinarilylarge
and consisted of severalpieces of glass,
the joints hidden by sculpted drapery. 26
In a sketchby Berniniat WindsorCastle
(c. 1670; Fig. 2) representing the artist's
for the a h. 104'/4". Galleria Borghese, Rom?e.
originalconcept mirror, winged
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figureof Time leans over the top, exposingthe
mirroras he lifts the drapery.The figure of
Truth would have been represented by the
viewer's(Christina's) reflectionin the mirror.
Tessin'sdrawing,basedon Bernini'sfinished
design,is in the Nationalmuseum in Stockholm
(c. 1680s;Fig. 3).2 A comparisonof the two re-
vealsthatin the finalpiece the artistrearranged
the draperyto hide the seams of the mirror
and, in so doing, added greatercomplexityto
the composition. In his written description,
Tessinstatesthatthe figureof Timewas carved
almostentirelyin the roundand gilded, giving
the workaddeddrama.ThismeansthatBernini
here appliedhis usualtechniqueof mixingma-
terials of different colors and textures. From
Tessinwe also learn that Christinaplaced the
mirrorin the Sala dei Quadrialong with her
prizedVenetianpaintings.A bronze head of a
Greekathletefrom c. 300 B.C., then believed
to representAlexanderthe Great, stood on a
tablein frontof it. So here again,as in her Sala
Fig. 3. Nicodemus Tessinthe Younger,Copy delle Muse and Sala di Clytie, Christina
AfterBernini'sMirror(1680s),
brought objects together to make a personal
pen-and-wash, 1578 " x 10/8". statementaboutherself.
Nationalmuseum,Stockholm.
Severalscholarshave suggestedthat Berni-
ni'smirrorfor Christinawas a memento
...... mori meant to revealthe gradualdecay
of beauty and youth.2 But this analysis
seems rathersimplistic,if not unflatter-
ing, especially since Christinawas nei-
ther vain nor frivolous.We know from
contemporary accounts that she took
only 15 minutes a day to dress and,
rather than the elaborate coif of most
women in her position, fastened her
hairwith only a comb or ribbon.In fact,
she wrote a maximto expressher views
on excessivegrooming:"Thereare those
who are so foolish as to become slaves
and martyrsto theirclothes and fashion.
One is quite unhappy when spending
every moment of one's life between a
mirrorand a comb."29
Christina'ssense of dramaticdisplay
was directedtowardher art,not her per-
son. Knowingthis, we have to rejectthe
vanitas theme and look for something
else. Traditionally,representations of
'"Truth Revealedby Time"haveservedto
vindicate individuals who have fallen
from grace, as in the case of Bernini's
of this subject(1646-52;Fig. 4).30Berni-
ni's motivationfor renderingthis piece
was the fiascoover the towersof St. Pe-
ter's. Soon after the first tower he de-
signed was erected, an underground
springcausedit to crackand it had to be
demolished.Bernini'spopularityfell, and
he was brutallycriticizedfor his failure.
Fig. 4. Gian Lorenzo Bernini,Truth Revealed by Time He createdTruth tRealed by Timeto in-
dicate that
(1646-52), marble, honestywould eventuallytri-
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 .. .

, "',5::':;.- ~
umph over its enemies, in the end ..,-'i ;.._ , temporaries were convinced that
restoringhis honorandreputation. i r . she had had an affairwith Mon-
Manyartistscreatedworkson ... I i' r?::~'?:
'^%^S:
? ialdesco and had him killed when
this theme, for example Rubens'si| , i
,:.
.
* v"'^i~
> :~ she grew boredwith him. Almost
Triumphof Truth(1622-25; The ^ 4'- :: '^ * ..... , ,a,.. i
immediately, writings depicting
Louvre)commissionedby Marie , the queen as a courtesan and a
:... ! ..
de' Medici as part of the Medici ..] . hermaphrodite, arrogant and
Cycle in the LuxembourgPalace, pathological, began to surface,
Nicolas Poussin's 1641 ceiling continuingto this day.34
fresco of the same title in the J Qe' Chrt
n Christinafirstsent her account
Grand Cabinet of Cardinal i 49 of the events to Captain Santi-
*s
Richelieu'spalace,and JacobJor- nelli, accompanied by a letter
daens's Time Mowing Down s, b
ft?= :. sk -s .. stating in part,
Slanderand Vice (1652) painted
for the Orange Hall at Huis ten pray to God that he does not take
Bosch, The Hague, and commis- my mind nor my honor, always
sioned by Amalia van Solms to behave like gentlemen.... Do not
honor the memory of her hus- labortojustify my actionto any-
band Prince FrederickHenry of one. I do not pretendto give ac-
Orange. All three commissions countto any othersbut only God,
were conceived as vindication whowouldhavepunishedme had
pieces. Marie's shows her son, IIpardonedthe traitorandhis
LouisXIII,handingher a flaming immensecrime....I knowin my
heart and a wreath enclosing consciencethatI operatedwithin
clasped hands, symbols of Love my Divineandhumanjustice.3
and Concord.Truth,being pulled
upward by Time, has been re- Clearly Christina was deeply
vealed, allowing for Marie's rec- Fig. 5. bastien Bourdon,Portrait o ofSweden
QueenChristina on concerned about the uproar the
onciliationwith her son, the king, Horeback (1653),oilonccinva.s, 149" x 1 13". The Prado. event caused, and her feelings
and her vindication. Poussin's were in all likelihoodthe impetus
Truth sits on Time's lap above the clouds and spreads her arms for the mirrorof "TruthRevealedby Time."Basedon stylisticanaly-
while facingthe sun to denote that she has been broughtto light. sis, the sketchby Berniniis usuallydated after 1670,i whichwould
Below,the defeated Envy and Discord sit on a parapetto empha- mean that the mirrorwas executedat least thirteenyearsafterthe
size the vindicationof CardinalRichelieu,who had become the ob- Monaldescoaffairand seven years after the publicationof Christi-
of
ject hostility from his enemies at the French court. In Jordaens's na's narrative.However,satiricalwritingson Christinaseem to have
work,Time destroysSlander,Deceit, and other vices that threaten increasedin the 1670s,whichwould makevalidthe connectionbe-
the reputationof PrinceFrederick.31 tween the mirror'stheme and Monaldesco'sexecution.In 1677, for
The scandalthat Christinawas involvedin may have provided example,a lampoonentitledHistoirede la vie de la ReyneChristine
the impetus for Bernini's mirror. In 1656 and again in 1657, de Suddewas publishedin Stockholm,and another,II Concubinato
Christinawas in France negotiatingwith CardinalMazarinfor her scandalosoe publicoin Romadell'Cardinale Azzolini,con la Regina
installationas Queen of Naples, once the French capturedthe re- di Suetia,in 1679 in Italy,which allegedthat she was havingan af-
gion from Spain.Christinawould take the throne and then, upon fairwith her friendandconfidant,CardinalDecio Azzolino.37
her death, it would pass on to Philipd'Anjou,Louis XIVs brother. Since Bernini's mirror was displayed in Christina'sSala dei
MarquisGian Rinaldo Monaldesco,Christina'sequerry,betrayed Quadri,it was availablefor viewing.Not onlywere the nobility,sci-
her by leakinginformationabout her intentions.On November6, entists, poets, and other individualsfrom Romansociety who fre-
1657, the papal nuncio in Naples informed the Vaticanthat the quented Christina'sacademiesgiven access to this room, but for-
Spanishviceroywas awareof the impendingattackby the French eignersalso visited,amongthem the EnglishmanFrancisMaximil-
and was preparingfor it, which swiftly put an end to Christina's ian Misson, who recorded his impressions of a 1688 visit in his
plans.The queen was able to confirmMonaldesco'sbetrayalby in- Nouveau Voyaged'Italie,publishedin The Hague in 1717. Tessin
his
tercepting correspondence.32 visited the Sala in 1688, and MartenTomheilm during 1687 and
Four dayslater,on November10, while a guest at the Chateau 1688.37The subject of the vindicationof the queen's reputation
de Fontainebleau,Christinasubmitted Monaldescoto interroga- would not have escapedher contemporaries.When gazinginto the
tion in the presence of Pater Le Bel, the prior of the nearby mirror,Christinatook on the role of Truth, bringing this point
Monastery of the her
Holy Trinity, captain of the guard Marquis acrossquite poignantly.
Francesco Maria Santinelli, and two soldiers. Monaldesco con- Yet,even withouther mirrorreflection,Christina's presencewas
fessed to treasonand was brutallyexecuted. He was struckin the felt. A bust she thoughtto be of Alexanderthe Great,her idol, was
abdomenand throatand left gaspingfor air for about 15 minutes, displayedin frontof the mirror.(The bust has since been identified
beforehe finallydied. PaterLe Bel, who had pleadedfor Monalde- as thatof an anonymousathlete.)As a youngprincess,Christinahad
sco'slife, was horrifiedby the event and publishedan accountin readan accountof the conqueror's life and thereafteridentifiedwith
1660 describingevery detail of the interrogationand execution. him, even modeling her life after his. When she converted to
Christina's ownversionwas firstpublishedin 1663 in Dutch.3 Catholicismat Innsbruck,she tookAlexandraas her middlenameon
Monaldesco'sbrutalexecution was viewed as a base act of re- the pretextthatit honoredPope AlexanderVII, who had welcomed
venge and created a scandalthroughoutEurope. Christina'scon- her moveto Rome.In reality,however,the namereferredto the ear-
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lier Alexander.39Christina had written essays on her hero. One, Les
Vertuset les defauts d'Alexandrele Grand, assesses Alexander's
strengths and shortcomings, comparing his destiny to hers.40In the
equestrian portrait by the French artist Sebastien Bourdon (Fig. 5),
painted shortly before her 1654 abdication and sent to Philip IV as a
gift, Christina's horse was purposely rendered to resemble Bu-
cephalus, Alexander's horse. In classical sources Bucephalus is de-
picted with a broad white star on his forehead, and his wild nature is
emphasized. Christina's horse in Bourdon's portrait displays the
white star. Further, the curvetting motion denoting a wild disposition
comes from the classical sculpture group of Monte Cavallo in Rome,
now identified as a representation of the Dioscuri, patrons of ath-
letes, but then thought to depict Alexander bridling Bucephalus.41In
c. 1665 medals minted by G. F. Travanifor the queen, she is shown
as Minerva, the goddess of wisdom, with peplos and aegis decorated
with the head of Medusa. Christina'sfacial features and the visor of
her helmet, which is shaped like a ram'shead with twisted horn, are
those of Alexander the Great when depicted as the son of the god
Amon in ancient coinage.42Finally, in a 1687 portrait by the Swedish
artist Michael Dahl (Lincolnshire; Private Collection), Christina
wears a brooch with a cameo featuring her hero's image.43
Obviously,Alexander the Great was part of Christina'semblematic
repertoire, and the bust displayed in front of Berini's mirror would
have been recognized by visitors as an allusion to the queen and,
hence, his virtues as hers. Christina's identification with Alexander
was long known-for the Carnivalof 1656 in Rome her viewing box
was decorated with ceiling paintings illustratingscenes from his life.44
Those who frequented her palace would have immediately grasped
the significance of the bust in front of the mirror.Time lifts the veil to
reveal Truth,here represented by the virtuous Alexander/Christina,to
exonerate the queen of the accusations made againsther.
Christina wrote to Angelo Morosino in 1675: "I have such a high
opinion of the said Bernini that I gladly take every opportunity to do
him a good turn, for he has proved himself the greatest and most
outstanding man in his craft who ever lived."45Indeed, in the early
1660s she recommended Bernini to Louis XIV for the design of the
east facade of the Louvre, and in 1670, when Luigi Bernini, the
sculptor's brother, was accused of sodomizing a young boy behind
the statue of Constantine the Great, Christina intervened in his be-
half.46When Bernini died, Christina commissioned Baldinucci to
write a biography of the artist. Baldinucci, who relied heavily on
Domenico Bernini's account, dedicated the biography to his mentor,
Christina, when he published it in 1682. The admiration Christina
felt for the sculptor was reciprocated. While in Paris, Bernini told
Paul Freart de Chantelou, his escort, that he only knew two women
who possessed great understanding of art: the salon host Madame
de Lionne and the Queen of Sweden. He added that Christina had
as much knowledge of the mysteries of art as those who create it.47
When Christina died in 1689, she bequeathed her entire collec-
tion to Cardinal Azzolino. Azzolino survived her by only two
months, and the collection went to his nephew Pompeo, who sold
it in 1692 to Prince Livio Odescalchi. This sale included Christina's
extensive collection of paintings, statues, drawings, tapestries, fur-
nishings, medals, and other items. Odescalchi's heirs sold the paint-
ings to Duke Philip of Orleans, regent of France in 1721, and the
sculptures to Philip V of Spain in 1724. The paintings were later
dispersed, and although the majority of the sculptures are now in
the Prado,48some of the pieces, including those by Bernini, are lost.
Nevertheless, it can now be established that Queen Christina's col-
lecting and patronage activities were impressive by any standard.
She was a remarkablewomanwho not only possesseddeep appre-
ciationfor and greatunderstandingof art but also its use in effec-
tive displayandvalueas a tool for self-fashioning.
? 1687-88), see J. H. Schr6der,"OmdrottningChristinaoch henneskonst-
0 WOMAN'S ARTJOURNAL
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NOTES
1. MichaelRoberts,Essaysin SwedishHistory(Minneapolis: University
of Minnesota,1967), 115; CarlNordenfalk,ed., ChristinaQueen of
Sweden:A Personality of EuropeanCivilisation(Stockholm: National
Museum,1966), 20.
2. SvenStolpe,Christinaof Sweden,Alec Randalland RughMary
Bethel,trans.(New York:MacMillan,1966), 101.
3. Rudolph's collection,in turn,had been recentlyenrichedwithworks
lootedfromthe Gonzaga Palacein Mantua.See HughHonour,"Queen
Christinaof Swedenas ArtCollector,"Connoisseur(1966), 9.
4. AlfredNeumann,TheLifeof Christinaof Sweden (London:
Hutchinson,1935), 259.
5. Odeschalchiso admiredChristinathathe emulatedmanyof her
activities,includingcopyingherSala della Musein the PalazzoRiario.See
StefanieWalker,"TheSculptureGalleryof PrinceLivioOdelscalchi,"
Journalof the Historyof Collections(1994), 189, 198-99.
6. Christinaalso patronizedErcoleFerrata,DomenicoGuidi,Francesco
MariaNocchieri,CarloCesi, GiuseppeGhezzi, GiulioCartari,Jean
Th6odon,PierreMonnot,JacobJordaens,DavidBeck,and Sebastien
Bourdon,amongothers.See FrancisHaskell,Patronsand Painters:Artin
Societyin BaroqueItaly(New Haven:YaleUniversity,1980), 161; Honour,
"QueenChristina,"13; Nordenfalk,ChristinaQueen of Sweden, 301,
316, 487; HansHenrikBrummer, "Twoworksby GiulioCartari,"
Konsthistorisk Tidskrift(1967), 106; CarlNorenfalk,"Realismand Idealism
in the RomanPortraits of Queen Christinaof Sweden,"in Studiesin
Renaissanceand BaroqueArtPresentedto AnthonyBlunton HisSixtieth
Birthday(London:Phaidon,1968), 128-29; RogerA. Hulst,Jacob
Jordaens,S. Falla,trans.(Ithaca:CornellUniversity,1982), 29-30; Arne
Danielsson,"SebastienBourdon's EquestrianPortraitof Queen Christinaof
Sweden-Addressed to 'HisCatholicMajesty'PhilipIV,"Konsthistorisk
Tidskrift(1989), 97.
7. QuotedfromStolpe,Christinaof Sweden,37.
8. Christinawas the king'sfirstsurvivingchild.MariaEleonoramiscar-
riedduringherfirstpregnancyin 1621, gave birthin 1623 to a girl,
ChristinaAugusta,who died beforeherfirstbirthday,and had a stillborn
birthin 1625; ibid., 32, 37-38.
9. InChristopher Hibbert,Rome:TheBiographyof a City(New York:
W. W. Norton,1985), 191-93.
10. Stolpe,Christinaof Sweden, 120-21; Nordenfalk,ChristinaQueen
of Sweden,47-48, 205; Honour,"QueenChristina," 9.
11. Nordenfalk,ChristinaQueen of Sweden,204-10; Stolpe,Christina
of Sweden, 128-29.
12. Christina'sreasonsforabdicationhave been a matterof muchde-
bate. However,since thisis notthe focusof thisessay, I have only made
scantreferencesto the subject.
13. AlexanderVIIsentLucasHolste,his internuncio, Vaticanlibrarian, and
conversionceremony,whichtook
himselfa convert,to officiateat Christina's
placeon November21, 1655. On Christina's journeyto Romeand ensuing
celebrations, see GaleazzoGualdoPriorato, HistoriadellaSacraRealMaest6
di CristinaAlessandrareginade Svetia(Modana:B. Soliani,1656); S. Paravi-
cino, Descrizionedel primoviaggiofattoa RomadallaReginadi Svezia
Christina (Rome:Bulzoni,1838), andTorgilMagnuson,Romein theAge of
Bernini,II(Stockholm: Almqvist &WiksellInternational,1986), 147-51.
14. ForhercorrespondencewithOrsini,see Carldi Bildt,"Christina di
Svezia e PaoloGiordanoII,Archiviodi Societ6Romanadi StoriaPatria
(1906), 5-32. See also Magnuson,Romein theAge of Bernini,22; Stolpe,
Christinaof Sweden, 148; and Haskell,Patronsand Painters,97-98.
15. TheoriginalNotebookfroma Journeyin Italy1687-1688 by Tessin
is in a privatecollectionin Stockholm.Itscontentshave been publishedby
O. Siren,NicodemusTessind.y:s studieresorI Danmark,Tyskland, Holland,
Frankrike, och Italien(Stockholm: P.A. Norstedt,1914). Fora less detailed
descriptionof Christina's palace by MartenT6rnhielm (also in Romeduring
samlingari Rom,"Svea (1831), 414.
16. Nordenfalk,ChristinaQueen of Sweden, 321, 416, 576; Carlo
Pietrangeli,LeCollezioniPrivateRomaneAttraversoi Tempi(Rome:Fratelli
Palombi,1985), 13; FerdinandBoyer,"LesAntiquesde Christinede Suede
a Rome,"RevueArch6ologique(1932), 256, 261-62. TheApollonow
formspartof a fountainin the gardensof the Palaceof Aranjuez,Spain.
A terracottamodelof the seated Apollois in the AshmoleanMuseum.See
NicholasPenny,Catalogueof EuropeanSculpturein theAshmolean
Museum,I:Italian(Oxford:OxfordUniversity,1992), 88-89.
17. Walker,"TheSculptureGallery,"189, 198-99. On the unearthing
of the muses,see G. Hibner,"Legroupede Musesde la Villad'Hadrien,"
RevueArcheologique(1908), 358-63, and G. Hibner,"Detailstudien
zur Geschichteder AntikenRomsin der Renaissance,"R6mische
Mitteilungen (1911), 288-301. See also E.Tormo,"Encomiode las Musas
de la ReinaCristinade Suecia en el Museodel Prado,"Boletinde la
Sociedad Espanolade Excursiones, XLIV (1936), 80. Tessin'sdescription
of the roomis in Siren,NicodemusTessin,182.
18. Brummer, "TwoWorksby GiulioCartari,"106-27. Thestoryof Clytie
is fromOvid'sMetamorphoses,IV.
19. Theproceedingsof theAccademiaRealeand a registerwithsigna-
turesof its27 membersare housedin theVaticanLibrary, and can be read
in theirentiretyin MicheleMaylender,StoriadelleAccademied'ltaliaIV
(Bologna:L.Cappelli,1929), 394-417. LatertheAccademiadegli Arcadi,it
held itsfirstmeetingsat the PalazzoRiarioin Christina'shonorand stillexists.
See Nordenfalk,ChristinaQueenof Sweden,52-53, 373, 376-78, 380-82;
GirolamoGraziani,Historiadella Reginadi Svetia(Modana:B. Soliani,
1656); Neumann,TheLifeof Christina, 263.
20. GeorginaMasson,QueenChristina (New York:Farrar,Straus&
Giroux,1969), 250, also "PapalGiftsand RomanEntertainment in Honourof
QueenChristina's in AnalectaReginensia,I (Stockholm:
Arrival," Nationalmu-
sei, 1966), 245; RudolfWittkower, Bernini:TheSculptorof the Roman
Baroque(London: Phaidon,1997), 269; DomenicoBernini,VitaDel Cavalier
Gio. LorenzoBernino(Rome:RoccoBernab6,1713), 103. See also M. Fagi-
olo dell'Arco,L'Effimero Barocco(Rome:Bulzoni,1977), 164-68.
21. Forsourceson Christina's entrythroughthe Portadel Popoloand her
firstmeetingwithBernini,see GualdoPriorato,Historiadella Sacra Real
Maest6;Paravicino,Descrizionedel primoviaggio, and Magnuson,Rome
in theAge of Bernini,II,147-51.
22. Bernini,Vitadel Cavalier,104. See also TodMarder,Bernini's Scala
Regia at the VaticanPalace (New York: Cambridge University,1997), 202.
23. Siren,NicodemusTessin,182; Brummer, "TwoWorksby Giulio
Cartari,"125.
24. Christinabequeathedthe workto InnocentXI.See Bernini,Vitadel
Cavalier,167; FilippoBaldinucci,TheLifeof Bernini,CatherineEnggass,
trans.(University Park:PennsylvaniaStateUniversity,1966), 66.
25. Thereare two similarextantbustsof the SalvatorMundiattributedto
Bernini,at the ChryslerMuseumin Norfolk,Virginia,and at S6es Cathedral
in Normandy;see Wittkower,Bernini,Cat. No. 79.
26. Siren,NicodemusTessin,184. See also Wittkower, Berini, Cat.43.
27. Thispen-and-washdrawingincludesan inscription: "Specchionella
Cameradella ReginaChristinainuenzionedel Bernini."(Mirrorin Queen
Christina's room,Bernini'sinvention).
28. Wittkower,Bernini,211; JohnRupertMartin,Baroque(New York:
Harper& Row, 1977), 206; Nordenfalk,"Realismand Idealism,"127; and
JenniferMontagu,RomanBaroqueSculpture:TheNew Industry of Art(New
Haven:YaleUniversity,1989), 119.
29. Author'stranslation.Sven Stolpe, ed., DrottningKristina,Maximer:
LesSentimentsH6roiques(Stockholm: Almqvist,1959), n. 320.
30. Bernini's sculptureshows only the figureof Truth,based on Ripa's
Iconologia.Originally,as he himselfexplainedto PaulFr6artde Chantelou,
who escortedhimduringhisvisitto Parisin 1665, Timewas to have been
supportedby columns,obelisks,and mausolea,whichhe overturnedand
destroyed.See PaulFr6artde Chantelou,in L.Lalanne,ed., Journaldu voy-
SPRING / SUMMER 2005
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
age du Cav. Berninien France(Paris:Gazette des Beaux-Arts, 1885), 116.
31. FritzSaxl, "VeritasFiliaTemporis," in RaymondKlibansky and H.J.
Paton,eds., EssaysPresentedto Erst Cassirer(Oxford:OxfordUniversity,
1936), 198-215.
32. Christinasigned the formalagreementwithMazarinin whichhe
promisedherthe crownof Naples on September22, 1656, at Compiegne.
See Nordenfalk,ChristinaQueen of Sweden, 37, 294-95; Stolpe,Christina
of Sweden,232.
33. LeBel'saccountis in the BritishMuseum(Inv.No. HarleianMs.
3493, fol. 8-110) and Christina'sin the VaticanLibrary(Vat.Lat.8193 [2]
fol. 512-17. While the accountsagree, Christina's tone is objectivewhile Le
Bel'sreflectshis anxiety.
34. Forexample,see Histoirede la vie de la ReyneChristinede Suede
(Stockholm,1677) and IIConcubinatoscandalosoe publicoin Romadell'
CardinaleAzzolini,con la Reginadi Suetia(Italy,1679). Thepope was
stunnedby the news of Monaldesco'sexecutionand swore legal action
againstthe murderers. Mazarin,also shocked,sentan envoyto reprimand
Christinafor heractions.See Stolpe,Christinaof Sweden, 241; Norden-
falk,ChristinaQueen of Sweden,37, 296-97; and Marie-Louise Roden,
"TheBurialof Queen Christinaof Sweden in St. Peter'sChurch,"
ScandinavianJournalof History(1987), 68.
35. Rome'sVaticanLibrary (Vat.Lat.8193 [2] fol. 510). Author's trans.
36. Wittkower,Bernini,Cat. 43; Martin,Baroque,206.
37. Azzolinowas the liasonbetweenChristinaand the papal court.He
and Christinadevelopeda warmfriendship,and by 1664 he was manag-
ing her homeand financialaffairsin Swedenand Hamburg;see Roden,
"TheBurialof Queen Christina," 67-68.
38. See Boyer,"LesAntiquesde Christine," 257. ForT6rnheilm, see
Schr6der,"OmdrottningChristina."
39. ArneDanielsson,"S6bastienBourdon's Equestrian Portraitof Queen
Christinaof Sweden-Addressed to 'HisCatholicMajesty'PhilipIV,"
KonsthistoriskTidskrift
(1989), 97.
40. Ibid.HerLesVertusmanuscript is housedin Montpellier,Bibliotheque
de la facultede m6dicine(H.258, T. 15). Christina also wrote"Alexandre
avec tousses defautsa este le plusgranddes hommes,"in L'Ouvrage de loisir
de la reineChristine,Stockholm,RoyalLibrary (Ms.D 682, fols. 1-220).
41. Danielsson,"S6bastienBourdon'sEquestrian 97.
Portrait,"
42. Ibid.,99. A letterin Florence,Archiviodi Stato,FondoMediceo,
CarteggiPapi,Cardinalie Prelati(Vol.230, carta 3) requestsa plastercast
of the Greekhead of Alexanderthe Greatin the grand-ducalgalleryso
Christinacould have a replicamade in bronze;see Boyer,"LesAntiquesde
Christine,"256.
43. Nordenfalk,"Realismand Idealism,"1626-27 and Figure8.
44. GualdoPriorato,Historiadella Sacra RealMaest6,239-40.
45. InStolpe,Christinaof Sweden,272; Magnuson,Romein theAge of
Bernini,II,345.
46. Marder,Bernini'Scala Regia,209, n. 173; ShelleyKarenPerlove,
Berniniand theIdealizationof Death:TheBlessedLudovica Albertoniand the
AltieriChapel(University Park:Pennsylvania StateUniversity,1990), 13.
47. Chantelou,Journaldu voyage, 118-19.
48. The pope purchased6,292 gems in 1794 and in 1779-99 the
coins became the propertyof the FrenchBibliothequeNationale after
Napoleon seized them. On Christina'sdrawings and the fate of the
objects in her collection, see, among others, Carel van Tuyllvan
Serooskerken,"MasterDrawingsat the TeylerMuseum,"Drawing,X/6
(1989), 121-25, and Marcel Roethlisberger,"TheDrawingCollection
of PrinceLivioOdescalchi," Master Drawings,XXIV(1986), 5-30.
Lilian Zirpolo, co-editor/co-publisher of Aurora, TheJournal of the
History of Art, is a frequent contributor to WAJand author of Ave
Papa/Ave Papabile. The Sacchetti Family, Their Art Patronage and
PoliticalAspirations (2005).
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