SUBMITED BY

UNDER GUIDANCE
ER MD SHAKIBUL HAQUE
MOHAMMAD IBRAHIM
ABDUSSALAM
ADNAN
MD YASIR
AZAM RAHMAN
ABDULLAH KHAN
AMIR KHAN
Introduction and application

a.Introduction and accountability

This Practical Guideline Laser Welding is intended for:

- Companies that want to manage the laser welding process well;

- Companies that want to prove to clients that they manage the laser welding process well;

- Companies that want a certification of their laser welding process from an external

and independent authority;

- Companies that are considering reverting to laser welding or having products laser welded.

This introduction explains how this Practical Guideline is best deployed and used. The
guideline is written such that the laser welding process can be fully and independently
certified. However, it is also possible to use its content as an instruction for those companies
that want to manage the laser welding process well without passing into certification directly. In
the latter case, the chapters can be read as instructions, not as requirements.

This section is followed by the reading instruction on how this guideline is best applied. Also,
a short section is included with extensive literature, including all the information underlying
this guideline. After that, there is a section including a table with the applications and a
certification scheme.
 This Practical Guideline is a means to help manufacturing companies acquire trust in the market
of the laser welding process. Therefore, it is a supportive tool and by no means an
obligation.

This certification scheme is established by specialists in the fields of welding, laser certification
and laser welding from the Netherlands Institute of Welding (Nederlands Instituut voor
Lastechniek, NIL) and the Laser Application Center (Laser Applicatie Centrum, LAC).

All chapters including the certification scheme, were reviewed by a committee consisting of:

The industry (users)

− Tata Steel IJmuiden
− voestalpine Polynorm
− Wärtsilä
− Flexweld
− Demar Laser
− AWL−Techniek
− SKF Nieuwegein
Suppliers of laser equipment
− Trumpf Nederland
− Rofin−Baasel Benelux
Branch associations
− FDP
− Koninklijke Metaalunie
Knowledge institutes and suppliers
− Universiteit Twente, vakgroep WA
− M2i
− BWC

The original Dutch text of this Practical Guideline Laser Welding is translated into English by
Josephine Afua Zwaan (Young Eyes) and Henk Bodt IWE (BWC).

b. Reading instruction

This Practical Guideline Laser Welding contains all requirements, grouped per subject in 14
chapters, which should be met by the laser welding process and the company executing it, in
order to start executing a certified laser welding process. In addition, Chapter 15 includes the
certification scheme through which an independent external body (CI) can certify the laser
welding process. Chapter 15 also includes all further requirements demanded of CIs, the
auditors and the scheme itself, in order to acquire accreditation for CI.

Not all companies or clients will make high demands for every laser weld directly, but a
company would want to manage the laser welding process well internally. In the latter case, it
may suffice to
regard the requirements from the various chapters as instructions. It is also possible for a
company to gradually ‘certify’ the laser welding process internally by ticking the requirements from
the various chapters, or by ticking the certification scheme in Chapter 15.

The chapters are written such that the texts are short and brief, and are intended to describe
all requirements as correctly, concretely and practically as possible. Wherever needed or
useful, standards are referred to. It is attempted to refer to useful standards as much as possible.
Also, every chapter refers to in−depth knowledge, which could be of use for the executive company.

Chapter 2 includes a standards overview with all standards that can be used for the laser
welding process. All chapters also include specific standards in the reference list. All standards are
non−dated; the valid version of a standard is the version valid at the time of writing this
guideline: April 2011

Finally, a welding parameter table can be found in the attachments, that can be used to
record your own experience and knowledge, and in which some start values for often used
laser welds are included. A table with elements of the technical and functional specification
is included as an attachment. Further, a so−called documentation scheme is included. In this
scheme, it is included which information should be taken care of by which parties in case of
a certified laser weld.

Usage of this practical guideline is as follows:

1. In the table in this chapter, the user chooses the desired degree of control of
the laser welding process.

2. The table shows which chapters should be executed and how. The user should then
act on and follow the requirements per chapter.

3. If the process or welding ought to be certified by an external body (CI), the

certification scheme in Chapter 15 must be followed.

c.Application scheme

The scheme below outlines what requirements a company must meet in order to prove a
certain degree of control of the laser welding process to a specific client or to the market. The
scheme is chosen in the first table and elaborated in the second table as a program of
requirements. The chapters mentioned refer to the chapters within this Practical Guideline:
Table 1. Classification of requirement schemes

Requirements Extra Scheme

No requirements A

Control of laser welding Proving to a client B

process

Certification of laser welding Independent body C

process

Table 2. Set of requirements per requirement scheme

Scheme Requirements

A - Requirements Chapter 4 (Design and

calculations) and Chapter 12
Proving of eligibility of the laser weld, (Fabrication process) as instructions;
internal procedure
- Internal test weld;

- Chapter 14 (Safety) is compulsory.

B - Use this Practical Guideline as

an instruction;
Proving control of laser welding process to a
client - Provide the client with an overview
of the requirements which are fully
or partially met;

- Chapter 14 (Safety) is compulsory.

C - Verifiably complying with all

chapters according to the
Certification of laser welding process certification scheme (Chapter 15).

d. Project description

Irrespective of whether a company has certified a laser weld or the laser welding process, a
number of issues will have to be recorded in the project description. If a client lacks the
required knowledge, the company will have to state a preference based on the final
application and pressure on the laser weld(s).
The following issues should be recorded in the project description (recommendation):

- The category evaluation criteria welding defects, see Chapter 9 (Welding defects)

- Whether or not a test weld examination should be executed before the start of
fabrication and whether or not the welding process should be released formally,
see Chapter 12 (Fabrication process)

- In the execution of Non−destructive testing (NDT) or destructive testing: what criteria

apply, see Chapter 9 (Welding defects), Chapter 10 (NDT) and Chapter 11 (Destructive
testing)

- The ownership (and maintenance duty) of the weld mold(s), in case applicable

- What documents the company creates and archives, and what documents are provided
to the client after finishing the project, see Chapter 12 (Fabrication process)

2.Standards overview
This chapter includes a standards overview with all standards than can be used for the laser
welding process. Specific standards are also included in the reference list within each chapter.

Laser welding / cladding

Quality requirements for welding EN ISO 3834

Grouping of base material EN ISO 15608, CEN−ISOƒTR 20172, CEN−ISOƒTR 20173,

CEN−
ISOƒTR 20174,
Operator qualification EN 1418 (ISO 14732)

WPS EN−ISO 15607, EN ISO 15609−4

WPQR EN ISO 15607

EN ISO 15614−7 (cladding)

NDT staff ISO 9712

Welding coordination EN ISO 14731

Inspection and testing

during welding;

Measuring preheating temperatures EN ISO 13916

Recommendations for welding EN 1011−5 (ISOƒTR 17671−5), EN 1011−6 (ISOƒTR

17671−6)
Inspection and testing after
welding:
General NDT rules EN−ISO 17635

Visual inspection EN 970 (ISO 17637)

Radiography EN 1435 (ISO 17636)

Ultrasonic testing EN−ISO 17640

Magnetic testing EN−ISO 17638

Macro & micro inspection EN 1321 (ISO 17639) CR 12361 (ISO TR 16060)

Penetrant inspection EN 571−1 (ISO 3452−1)

Acceptance levels for NDT

Radiography EN 12517−1 (ISO 10675)

Ultrasonic EN−ISO 11666; EN−ISO 23279

Magnetic EN−ISO 23278

Penetrant EN −ISO 23277

Visual EN ISO 5817, EN ISO 13919−1

Calibration ƒ validation EN ISO 17662

Quality levels for beam welding EN ISO 13919 −1 ƒ −2

Geometric imperfections EN ISO 6520 −1 ƒ −2

Destructive testing

Toughness EN−ISO 9016

Tensile strength EN−ISO 4136, EN−ISO 5178

Bend tests EN−ISO 5173

Hardness tests EN−ISO 9015−1, −2,

Macro & micro inspection EN 1321 (ISO 17639), CR 12361 (ISO TR 16060)

Crack inspection EN ISO 17642−1, −2, −3

Delta Ferriet EN ISO 17655

Environment, safety and health

Fume sampling EN−ISO 10882−1 & −2

Filters EN−ISO 15012−1 & −2

Eye protection EN 169, 170, 171, 175, 379

Protective clothing EN ISO 11611, EN 12477

Welding curtains EN 1598

Environment check−list EN 14717

Filler material

Product EN 13479

Quality requirements for fabrication EN 12074

Technical supply conditions EN ISO 544

Procurement EN ISO 14344

Types of tests EN 14532−1, −2, −3

Tests EN 15792−1, −2, −3, 6847, 14372, 8249, 3690, ISO 2401

Protective gasses EN ISO 14175

Miscellaneous

Welding symbols EN ISO 2553

Process numbers EN ISO 4063 (beware, new version strongly deviates!)

Terms and definitions CENƒTR 14599 (ISOƒTR 25901)

Definitions of welding processes EN 14610

Terms for weld joint with images EN ISO 17659

Tolerances EN ISO 13920

Welding positions EN ISO 6947 (new version deviates)

Comparisons with international, CENƒTR 14633

European and American indications

Decline testing

equipment CO2 EN ISO 15616−1, −2, −3, −4

YAG EN ISO 22827−1

Optics EN ISO 13694

Robots for industrial environments EN−ISO 10218

Chapter 4. Design and
calculations

3.Design and calculations

a. Calculations

Calculations are only executed if strength−requirements are demanded for the weld(s) or if the weld
should be pressure, fatigue or vacuum resistant. The requirements of the commissioner or
the requirements recorded in the functional specification determine whether calculations
should be executed. The welding coordinator is responsible for this.

Whenever requirements are demanded for the strength of the weld, the commissioner
should specify what requirements the weld should meet (tensile strength, yield strength, notch
bar impact value) or which pressure scenario works on the weld (or the product).

Based on this, the process engineer will determine or calculate the evaluation criteria for the
weld. With this information, he can also make the right choice for the laser welding process
and weld seam. The welding coordinator in turn can hereby determine the laser welding
parameters and record them in the right welding documents.

The specific features of the laser weld, which should well be taken into account by the process
engineer and welding coordinator, are:

- An extremely high depth−width ratio (in keyhole welding);

- Minor heat input, but a quick cooling time due to the narrow weld (2 to 5 seconds).

Further, the following preconditions apply in the constructive determination of the weld seam
(positioning, weld seam shape and radiation by the beam):

- Tolerances (narrow tolerance field and consequence problems in deforming the

workpiece during welding as a result);

- Accessibility of the weld seam (pay attention to the welding head, sensors, cross
jet, protective gas (if applied), material supply (if applied), tightening means
and mold components);

- Dynamics of high welding speeds (speed of the beam and workpiece manipulation
sufficient, and vibrations from following the curves);

Other issues that could influence the welding result:

- The pretreatment (turning, milling, laser cutting) and cleanliness of the monocomponents;

- Present coating like covering welds, zinc, chromate, phosphate;

- Surface condition (roughness, oxide skin, casings like nitrating or carbonitrating,

whereby nitrogen is possibly released in the welding bath, etc.);

- Alloy elements with a low melting point (Mg with Al−alloys, see further in this chapter);
Chapter 4. Design and
calculations

b. Selection laser source

The applied laser source is also of great in fluence on the welding process and the
weldability of the materials to be welded. In practice, there is a large difference between the
solid−state lasers (the Nd:YAG laser source), the modern laser sources (fiber, disk or diode laser)
and the gas laser (the CO2 laser). This has to do with the wavelength of these laser sources.

In general, the following division can be made:

Solid−state lasers:
- Well deployable for welding as far as absorption;
- Laser beam can be conducted through fiberglass cable;
- Low energetic return (2%);
- More dangerous in connection with invisible stray radiation that can lead to severe
eye injury.
Modern laser sources
- Very good beam quality with the diskƒfiber laser;
- High energetic return (disk laser 25%, fiber laser 30%, diode laser 40%);
- Well deployable for welding as far as absorption;
- Laser beam can be conducted through fiberglass cable;
- Diode laser has a lesser beam quality, but has the possibility of melt and deep welding.
Gas laser sources
- Very good beam quality;
- Low energetic return (10%);
- Beam is strongly absorbed by the plasma plume that appears in welding;
- Laser beam can only be conducted using mirrors;
- Laser beam is ‘safer’ due to absorption in the eye lens.

c. Selection seam shape

Chapter 4. Design and
calculations

Butt joint Lap joint

Corner joints

Flange joints

Corner melt joint

Chapter 4. Design and
calculations

Selection criteria for the type of weld seam

 Welding process
 Heat conductance welding
 Keyhole welding
 Type of pressure, power currents, tensile condition in the weld seam
 Accessibility for welding and tightening
 Type of seam (for example a butt seam, corner seam)
 Production tolerances of the lateral surfaces
 Absorption ability for the production tolerances

Requirements for the weld seam

 Material (material, weldability, plate thickness, coating)

 Firmness requirements and notch effect
 Labor and function surfaces around the seam
 Seam length and course
 Closed and non−closed seams (split corrosion)
 Proneness to corrosion
 Appearance and design
 Porosity
 Absence of splashes
 Fatigue resistance

d. Determination laser welding parameters

The following parameters play a role in acquiring a robust laser welding process:

Laser parameters Machine parameters Workpiece parameters Material parameters

Pulsed laser: Beam conductance: Seam geometry: Material type:

- Pulse duration - Conductance fiber - Blind - Alloy composition

- Repetition - Mirrors - Lap - Unequal types

frequency
- Butt
- Pulse energy
- Flange
- Pulse shape

- Spot size

Cw−laser: Focusing: Welding position: Supply condition

- Laser power - Focal length - Horizontal

- Spot size - Focal position - Ascending

- Depth of focus - Descending

Chapter 4. Design and
calculations

Beam quality: Process gas: Material thickness Specific gravity

workpiece
- Intensity - Type
distribution
- Flow (debit)
- Divergence
- Supply method

Polarization Welding speed Surface condition Heat capacity

Wavelength Beaming angle of the Seam preparation: Heat conductance

beam
- Split width

- Alignment

Working gas nozzle: Coating: Pretreatment

- Diameter - Type

- Distance to - Thickness
the workpiece

Laser welding process

e.Materials and weldability

All materials that can be welded with conventional welding techniques can also be joined through
laser welding. The weldability of metal combinations is mainly determined by the metallurgic
aspects. For example, some combinations cause brittle welds andƒor shrinkage cracks. Brittle
intermetallic connections can sometimes be prevented, by applying an intermediate weld.
Galvanically applied covering layers on steel or nickel alloys, galvanized materials and paint
layers often do not cause any problems.

Laser welding combined with inductive heating is often applied for crack−free or pore−free welding of
steel with more than 0,4% carbon.

Some material types cause specific problems in laser welding and they are materials that:

- are sensitive to rapid cooling (steels with high carbon level or high carbon equivalent,
or brittle materials that are not able to compensate the rapid shrinkage)

- contain alloy elements with a much lower melting point than the main material

- have a layer that gasses or vaporizes quickly

4. Laser equipment

a. General and definitions

In order to acquire a correct laser weld, a combination is needed of:

- Laser source and beam conductance and manipulation

- Welding head, if necessary provided with sensors

- Manipulation of weld mold(s) andƒor welding head

- Welding filler materials and welding gasses, if prescribed

- Weld mold(s) or clamping

- The welding program (the software for control of the laser source and the
various manipulation mechanisms)

The laser equipment is defined as a combination of:

 The laser source;

  The beam conductance (fiber or mirrors);

 Optics;

 Welding head with optics and sensors;

 Equipment for the various laser gasses (gas bath, cross−flow, backing gas);

 Manipulation for the welding head (is called beam manipulation further on);

and serves to generate a correct laser beam on the right place on the workpiece,
whether or not provided with a gas stream that is correct for the application.

b. Requirements for the laser equipment

In advance, it should be verifiably guaranteed that the laser equipment:

- Delivers the laser beam conform to the specification in the WPS;

- Continues doing this during the entire production of the series to be welded;

- Does not fluctuate in values relative to the settings;

- Allows a setter to adjust or calibrate the beam in a controlled manner before the
start of production;

- Shows the delivered performance in relation to the set values to the production
staff, or gives a warning in case of deviations.
Also, the laser equipment, whether or not in combination with the sufficient shielding andƒor
personal protection resources for persons in the environment, should meet the necessary
safety rules. In any case, a Risk Inventory and Evaluation (RIE) should be established or the
laser equipment should be included in the valid RIE. In case of mobile or temporarily
arranged laser equipment, a safety plan should be established that falls under the
management of the responsible Safety or Quality Officer (coordinator quality, working
conditions and environment) andƒor the responsible department chef or the welding
coordinator.

The safety measures, coming from the executed risk analysis or RIE, should guarantee that
the programmer(s), setters, operators, maintenance staff or passers−by under no condition
whatsoever (thus also in power outage) come in contact with a direct or reflected laser beam,
whereby he following applies:

- That instead of a shielded workspace, it is allowed to work with instructed staff with
PBMs, on the condition that no passers−by or unauthorized persons can enter the
workspace when the laser source is switched on;

- The safety measures do not make a normal operation of the laser equipment impossible
or unworkable.

The European Guideline 2006ƒ25ƒEG gives instructions on how the risk analysis and
possible measurements of the laser equipment should be executed in order to achieve a
sufficiently safe work situation.

c. Decline and maintenance of the laser equipment

The laser equipment should only be used for welding if the following conditions are met:

- The laser equipment is installed, set and calibrated correctly during installation by the
supplier or an expert, which is recorded in reports;

- The laser equipment meets the requirements stated in the WPSs (fit for purpose
and fit for use);

- The laser equipment is in the same condition as at the time of delivery, as the result
of a preventive maintenance program in combination with a calibration procedure for the
setters or maintenance staff;

- The operators are able to get an indication on the correct functioning of the laser equipment

- The operators can get an indication of the correct functioning of the laser equipment
at any time during production. This is possible through a well visible control panel either
with clear readings of measurement values relative to the accompanying set values,
or with a clear optic andƒor acoustic signal for deviations of the laser source.
With regard to preventive maintenance, the following also applies:

- Preventive maintenance serves to guarantee that the laser equipment always produces
the right laser beam in the workplace;

- For preventive maintenance, a maintenance plan is needed including at least:

o An overview of maintenance activities and an overview of the right settings

of the laser equipment, provided by the supplier(s);

o A staff member within the company who is responsible for the maintenance
scheme, for example the TD or department chef;

o An annual planning of the maintenance inspections that is linked to the

production planning;

o A maintenance procedure including the parts and components that should be

checked, maintained, replaced and cleaned;

o A logbook or a comparable method to record the executed maintenance

inspections and their results in a way that is searchable;

o At least one verifiably competent maintenance co−worker;

- The maintenance plan should be drafted such that it can guarantee that the laser
equipment continues to work correctly in between maintenance intervals.

- Preventive maintenance can be outsourced to the supplier(s) of the laser equipment

or a verifiably competent maintenance company. In this case, there should be a
co−worker within the company who is responsible for the maintenance plan and who
will serve as a representative for the external party. This can be the welding
coordinator of the company.
5.Welding defects

a. Introduction

During welding, welding defects or indications may appear, this is inherent to the process.
Flawless welding is a utopia, therefore standards with acceptance criteria have been
developed, also especially for laser welding, see reference list.

Not all welding defects are harmful or bad for the weld joint. This strongly depends
on the application of and pressure on the welded component.

In the welding instructions or the contract, which is provided along with the project
description, the commissioner will declare to the executorƒcontractor which welding defects
are or are not acceptable.

Also, the measurement method should be instructed before the start of the project. The next
chapter will further elaborate the measurement methods of welding defects in laser welding.

b. Acceptance criteria

In the standards ISO 13919−1 and ISO 13919−2, the evaluation criteria are mentioned per
welding mistake. They are subdivided into three categories, namely:
B: strict

C: average

D: moderate

Per category, the maximum allowable mistake size is mentioned. In case the commissioner or
contractor has not recorded anything about the acceptance criteria, category C of the applicable
standard for the material always applies.

In Table 1, the welding defects that can appear in a type of weld seam are stated.

Table 1. Welding defects summarized in a table

Welding Butt joint Lap joint Corner Flange Melt
mistake\configuration joint joint joint

Binding mistake x

Gas cavities, porosity x x x

Gas channel x x x

Joint collapsed x x

Undercut x x x

Insufficient x x
penetration

Holes over the x x

entire thickness of
the joint
Cracks or end crater x x x x
cracks

Welding splashes x x x

Rough welding surface x x x x x

Misalignment x x x x
Table 2. Explanation

Defect Prevention by:

 Surface if polluted; cleaning;

 Selection of the right
gas protection
 Too quick or too small
melt bath
 Wrongly selected
aluminum alloy
Porosity
 Cavities and splits in the
weld seam
 No proper zinc gassing
 Collapsed joint: by a split
or bad preparation of the
joint edges
 The right focus, clamps
and seam preparation
 Too heavy burn−through
welding
 Wrong beaming angle
 Air pressure air knife too
high (Cross jet)
Undercut

 Too much fume

development ƒ metal vapor
ƒ plasma which absorbs the
beam
 Shielding glass polluted,
causing a worse beam
quality
Insufficient burn−through welding (h1) or excessive weld  Wrong focal position
seam (h2)  Too little laser power
 Welding too quickly
 Insufficient penetration:
can occur with wrong
parameters but also for
example when the laser
beam does not enter
parallel with the seam
 Too heavy burn−through
welding
 Pressure backing−gas too high

Misalignment of the weld seam
No binding between the overlapping plates
Binding mistakes
Collapsed joint
Holes over the entire thickness of the joint
Cracks in the joint
Splashes on and around the
weld; Oxidation
Very rough welding surface
 Good alignment of the
laser beam;
 Good tightening of the
components to be
welded.
 The plates to be welded
did not connect during
welding, causing local or
entirely no binding
between the plates: Better
clamping of the
components
 Appear in materials with
good heat conductance
Cu, Al, little heat input.
Increasing laser power and,
if necessary, preheating
 Joint split too big
 Bad preparation of the
joint edges
 Excessive burn−through
welding
 Joint split way too big
 In galvanized steel: zinc
vapor could only escape
through the joint itself
 Pollution, e.g. oil
 Hardening cracks in hard,
brittle material (cast iron)
or high−carbon steel
 Cracks in aluminum
 HƒB cracks from unfavorable
proportions weld seam
 Surface of the components
is polluted; clean this
 Wrong protection gas
or incomplete gas
bath
  Air pressure air knives
too low
 Wrong focal position
 Laser power too little
 Welding too quickly
 Misalignment from
incorrect tightening of the
components to be welded;
 From tension from
injected welding heat

Misalignment: corner deviation

Misalignment: linear misalignment
WBZ: very high hardnesses  Wrong selection of material
WBZ: decrease in tensile strength ƒ process

c. Measurement or test methods

In the table below, it is stated which welding defects are best found using a certain
measurement or test method. In the summary, the non−destructive methods are mentioned first,
followed by the destructive methods.

No. Welding defect Measurement or test method

1. Cracks - Visual inspection

End crater cracks - X−ray testing
- Penetrant inspection
- Ultrasonic testing
- Eddy current test
- Metallographic inspection
2. Porosities, pores, pore nests - X−ray testing
- Ultrasonic testing
- Metallographic inspection
- Bend test
3. Cavities, shrink cavities and end Closed cavities, see 2.
crater cavities Open cavities, see 2.
and:
- Visual inspection
- Penetrant inspection
4. Binding mistakes - Ultrasonic testing
- Penetrant inspection
- X−ray testing
- Bend test
- Metallographic inspection
5. Insufficient burn−through welding - Visual inspection
- Ultrasonic testing
- X−ray testing
- Metallographic inspection
6. Undercut - Visual inspection
- Metallographic inspection
7. Excessive weld seam - Visual inspection
- Metallographic inspection
8. Misalignment (various types) - Visual inspection
- Measurement machine
9. Various binding mistakes - Visual inspection
Binding mistakes lap joint - Ultrasonic testing
6. Non-destructive testing

a. Visual inspection

Visual inspection is one of the most important and primary inspections that should always be
executed on the weld, as also on the laser weld seam. A visual inspection that is executed
well (if necessary using a 10x magnifying glass and sufficient lighting, minimum 1000 lux) can
detect circa 90% of all welding mistakes.

The visual inspection should be executed conform to ISO 17637. For the examination and
acceptance, see EN−ISO 13919−1 for steel and EN−ISO 13919−2 for aluminum. It should be
clearly indicated by the commissioner beforehand according to which quality group the weld
work should be evaluated. One can choose from B, C and D, where B stands for a higher
quality group and D stands for the lowest.
In visual inspection, the following points can be evaluated:
- seam filling (too round or too hollow)
- burn−through welding
- surface cracks or defects
- undercut
- weld splashes

Chapter 9 (Welding defects) can be used as a reference. In case it is agreed with the
commissioner what defects are or are not allowed, it can be used as a final reference.
The result of a visual inspection could be a disapproved weld. In that case, the welding
coordinator will decide whether the defect can be repaired, partially or entirely, and how this
should happen.

For the execution of a visual inspection, the following requirements should be met:

- The person executing the inspection should verifiably have experience with (the
evaluation of) laser welding and welding defects;
- Sufficient visibility of (at least 1 side of) the entire laser weld;
- Sufficient and proper lighting (daylight or workplace lighting for precision activities);
- Lighting minimum 1000 lux on the workpiece to be inspected;
- A magnifying glass with magnification 10x.
In practice, laser welding in thin plate will almost exclusively be inspected visually (and if necessary
metallographic and peel test and chisel test).

b. Surface crack inspection

For surface crack inspection, when it comes to ferrite materials, it is best to choose for
magnetic inspection. Both as far as the detectability of indications and the speed, this is
the best method. In case of very small laser welds, it is recommended to use ultraviolet
detection liquid; this is even more precise than the standard detection liquid with steel
powder.
The inspection should be executed conform to EN−ISO
17638. The acceptance criteria are listed in EN−ISO
23278.
For austenite materials, penetrant inspection is used. The penetrant inspection should be
executed conform to ISO 3452−1, the acceptance criteria are listed in EN−ISO 23277.
c. X-ray testing

Finding internal indications in laser welding can best be done through radiographic
inspection. Porosities, inclusions and binding mistakes can be detected using this method. The
inspection ought to be executed conform to ISO 17636, acceptance criteria according to ISO
10675.

In x−ray testing (and ultrasonic testing as well), the method of beaming is determined by the weld
geometry and welding defects that one wants to find and evaluate.

d. Ultrasonic testing

Unfortunately, ultrasonic testing is only possible with plate thicknesses of more than 5 mm
in butt seams. In some cases, it is possible to inspect thinner plate thicknesses.
In case of larger plate thicknesses it is however possible to apply ultrasonic testing. It should be
taken into account that the heat affected zone and the melt line of a laser weld stands at 90
degrees to the plate surface. This means that it is difficult to find welding defects seeing their
preferred directionƒorientation.
The inspection ought to be executed conform to ISO 17640, the acceptance criteria can be found
in ISOƒDIS 11666.
7. Destructive testing

a. Hardness traverse

In one or more cross−sections of the laser weld, the hardness traverse from the mother material,
through the heat affected zone, over the weld and eventually to the mother material on the
other side of the weld, is determined using multiple micro−Vickers hardness measurements on a
path.

In order to gain good insight in the quality of the complete welded joint, cross−sections should be
taken from the weld on multiple places and important (highly pressured) zones.

It should be determined beforehand which maximum and minimum hardnesses may appear and
which hardness traverse is allowed at maximum.

For the acceptance criteria, the qualification requirements for conventional welding can be
observed, unless agreed differently.
b. Macroscopic and microscopic inspection (metallographic inspection)

A so−called Schliff is made from a cross−section of the weld: by graining, polishing and etching, a
preparation of the weld section comes about that can be inspected under different
magnifications. Through this inspection a lot of insight can be gained in the welding process,
the shape of the weld, the quality of the weld and the occurrence of welding defects. Next to
the aspects mentioned above, microscopic inspection allows for an inspection of the
microstructure of the weld, heat affected zone and the basis material.

c. Tensile test

By taking tensile bars from the welded material, this can happen across or parallel to the
weld, and executing a tensile test on them, insight is gained in the behavior of the weld and
the heat affected zone. This depends on where the fracture eventually takes place.

Various data come from the tensile test, which can serve as an entrance for structural
strength calculations. Also, a good statement can be made on the behavior of the complete
weld under various sorts of pressure scenarios.

d. Notch bar test

The notch bar test offers an indication on the notch toughness of the weld and the heat
affected zone. Here also applies that the test pieces should be taken from the weld
correctly and from the right place. The notch bar test can only be executed with plate
thicknesses of 5 mm or more.

e.Ericsson test

This test offers insight in the deep−drawability (deformability) of the laser weld. Further, it can be
determined relatively quickly whether the weld is sufficiently strong in relation to the mother
material. A test that primarily offers insight when the welded product is yet to be deformed.

The advantage of the Ericsson test is that the test pieces are reasonably easily taken from the
(test) weld. No demands are made for the measures and finishing as is done, for example, in
the tensile test or notch bar test.
8. Fabrication process

a. References:

- EN ISO 13920 Welding. General tolerances for welded constructions. Dimensions for
lengths and angles. Shape and position

- EN ISO 15613 Productietest. Hierin is beschreven hoe een 1e productietest

uitgevoerd en geëvalueerd dient te worden.

b. Welding parameters

In order to acquire a good welding process with a good weld, the welding specification
should be properly translated into a good welding process. The selection and execution of the
welding process can influence the proposal toward the commissioner.

The procedure should be executed as follows:

- The commissioner determines the (functional) requirements that the laser weld
should meet, or the process engineer determines this based on the product
requirements;

- The process engineer executes calculations, determines the weld geometry and such,
and delivers a technical specification to the welding coordinator;

- The welding coordinator established the pre−WPS with this. If the company already
has experience with the same type of weld, the welding coordinator can decide to
establish the final WPS directly. This should then be grounded with documentation
and the WPS of the comparable weld;
 - In case a pre−WPS is established, the welding coordinator will have a test weld executed.
This can be executed according to EN ISO 15613 Production test with test plates, or if the
product components are cheap and available, with these;

- If the test weld(s) look good visually, the test weld will be tested according to the
requirements from the technical specification. The test results are evaluated by the
welding coordinator and the process engineer. In case the commissioner has specified
the weld, the evaluation will be executed with him;

- The welding coordinator will now establish the definitive WPS. This information will
be shared with other departments that need this information.

- In case necessary or desired by the commissioner, the welding coordinator will

establish a WPQ based on the WPS and the technical specification.

c.Purchase

The purchase department or project preparation is responsible that all necessary (aid) materials,
(aid) tools and consumables for laser welding are in place at the right moment and are purchased
according to the right specification.

The goods to be purchased are:

- The materials or half−fabricates from which the final product will be composed, also those
for test welds;

- Aid materials like filler materials (if applied), welding gasses (if applied);

- Wear parts and spare parts for the welding equipment and the weld molds;

- Materials and standard supplies for the manufacture of weld molds and clamps.

The purchase department is responsible for:

- having a number of reliable suppliers for all goods to be purchased;

- requesting offers based on the right specifications;

- ordering these goods correctly and in time;

 - checking whether the received goods meet the order specification and are received in
good order;

- storing these goods correctly, such that they are clearly recognizable and do not
degrade (pollute, damage or corrode) during storage;

- recording all offers, orders, delivery papers, inspection results, reclamations if necessary
and used specifications as well as correspondence with the concerning suppliers,
correctly.

d. Preparation parts

All components of the constructionsƒproducts to be welded ought to be prepared such that:

- they fit in the concerning weld mold or clamp;

- the edges or seams to be welded are clean and straight;

- the dimensioning is conform to the drawing or production information;

- no remainders, pollution or other traces of preprocessing negatively influence the

laser welding process.

Special requirements are demanded for some seam types:

- the butt seam: both plate parts should be laid against each other over the entire
seam length, otherwise the laser beam misses the material and no welding process
comes about.

- the lap seam and flange seam:

o here the component should be so even that the seam part ƒ flange lies against
the other component over the entire length to prevent binding mistakes.

o for this reason the flange cannot be polluted, to prevent inclusions and bad
lying against.

General requirements that are demanded for preprocessing:

- The processing process should meet the requirements demanded by laser welding
with regard to size, shape and place tolerances, surface condition, and robustness of
the processing process (for serial production). These requirements should be recorded
verifiably in component drawings andƒor work receipts or production information.

- The component should not contain rest product or aid substances of the
preprocessing process.

- The transportation andƒor storage between preprocessing and laser welding should not
have a negative effect on the product to be welded (rust formation, conservation oil,
damages, material degradation). The requirements for transportation and storage should
be recorded verifiably.
e.Preparation surface

The surface of the components to be laser welded ought to support the laser welding
process. The laser weld comes about because the laser beam links in to the material to be
welded. Either the reflection and transmission coefficient should be at a minimum, or the
absorption coefficient should be at a maximum for the wavelength of the laser beam.
Concretely, the requirements are:

- The surface to be welded should not be polluted (otherwise the laser beam cannot reach
the material to be welded): this means no oxides, oil or grease, paint or marker etc.
The surface should not be damaged during cleaning (no grind or grain tracks that could
obstruct the laser beam). With aluminum, only the normal oxide skin is there, which is
part of the supply conditions of the material;

- For strongly reflective material surfaces (high reflection coefficient like copper),
measures should be taken to improve the absorption of the laser beam;

- The presence of an oxide skin (aluminum) should also be examined from the
absorption of the laser beam.

f. Clamps, molds

In automated welding, a mold or in any case a clamp or fixating of the product to be welded
is often used. The quality of the weld mold or clamp, both with regard to design and
execution, determines the final quality of the weld for the most part.

Clamping or fixating can suffice if:

- The product to be welded is already whole;

- The product to be welded consists of components and subassemblies that already

form a whole through stitch welding.

Weld molds are used to fixate various components and subassemblies that later form the
final product in relation to each other and to the beam manipulator, such that all welds
can be welded without geometric or a misalignment mistakes.

The functions of the weld mold are:

- Fixating all components and assemblies to be welded together and pushing away splits;

- Positioning the weld seam such that the programmed beam manipulator can lay
down a nominal weld;

- If necessary, cooling the product to be welded;

- If necessary, providing backing gas;

- If necessary, providing clamps to absorb tensions during and after welding.

Problems that may arise in weld molds or clamps are:

- Collision between weld mold components or product components caused by the wrong
weld mold with the wrong programming;

- Collision between weld mold components or product components caused by

programming mistakes;

- Collision between weld mold components or product components caused by clamps that
are open, or wrongly clamped components;

- Welding mistakes caused by an incorrect clamping of components;

- Welding mistakes caused by expired settings or wear of weld mold components such as
zero points.

These problems can be solved using a combination of technical and organizational measures;

- The technical marking of weld molds with RFID or coded plugs in combination
with a combination check of the welding program;

- Having all clamps in a weld mold close automatically, if this is economically possible;

- Equipping hand clamps with closing sensors and question these sensors with a robot or PLC;

- Good training of the operators to visually check once again whether everything is
closed correctly after the placing of product components and closing of the
clamps;

- Inspection after mounting of a weld mold before the start of production whether it is
mounted correctly, whether the zero points of the weld mold lie in the right place, and
then do a test by having the beam manipulation execute the program ‘dryly.’ If necessary,
marking the component with the laser on a low power. This way, it can be verified
whether the weld lies in the right position;

- Measuring the main sizes of the welded products at random and checking these
methodically with Statistical Process Control (SPC) on traverse, so that wear of
zeropoints can be recognized and adjusted in time;

- Always make the zeropoints in the weld mold (manually) settable, if this is
economically possible.

g. Production test

Before the actual production is started, and after setting and programming of the welding cell
(laser source, manipulation, weld mold and sensors and controls if necessary) based on the
established WPS, a production ought to be executed. The operator executes this production
test under supervision of the responsible welding coordinator.
The test can be executed in two manners:

1. With test plates

2. With the products themselves (first product

test) Ad 1. With test plates.

This has the advantage that a destructive test can be executed more easily. The necessity for a
destructive test is determined by the requirements demanded by the process engineer.

Preparation and welding of the test plates should be executed under the same conditions as
production welding, the test plates and products being similar with regard to shape,
dimensions, welding position and other crucial issues such as internal and external tensions,
heat effects, limited access, material, coating (zinc) etc.

Ad 2. With the products.

In this case, the welding process is entirely executed in the production weld mold according to the
WPS. For the evaluation of the test weld, at least the following examinationsƒmeasurements
should be executed:

- Visual inspection of the entire weld (100%)

- Check on surface

- Hardness measurements, if demands are made for the strength of the mother material

- Macroscopic inspection, if demanded

Only when the responsible welding coordinator has approved the weld based on the
requirements demanded by the process engineer, the actual production can be started.

h. Welding

The laser welding process starts when all preparations are verifiably executed well and are
recorded (the latter if desired); the equipment is tuned well, the programming is tested dryly
on programming mistakes, the weld molds are correctly mounted and all clamps are checked on
correct functioning.

The operator will arrange the workplace around the welding cell, placing within reach:

- All entry material (components and subassemblies that will be welded). He checks
whether all papers and codes are corresponding on material, pallet and work receipt,
he checks whether all components to be welded are preprocessed properly, are clean
and undamaged and whether enough quantities of the components to be welded are
in place;

- All necessary aid tools and measurement instruments, as should be stated on the
work receipt;

- The required packaging material and the accompanying packaging instruction, in which
the heat of the welded components is taken into account.

The operator will check all safety facilities on correct functioning before the start of the process

After that, the operator starts with the inlay or tightening of the components and checks
whether the weld mold clamps work correctly the first time and all components lie well
against each other. During the welding process, the operator visually (via a filtered
window or a monitor) checks the progress of the welding process. After the first welding
cycle, the operator examines the welded component visually. If this welded component
visually looks flawless, the operator will weld the entire series.

In the measurement plan accompanying the work receipt, the following is stated:

- Whether the operator or metrological department should measure the first welded
product, and if so, whether the production series can only start after release of the
first product;
 - How many products should be measured by the operator or metrological department
during the welding of the series (test sample);

- Whether the last product of the series should also be measured by the operator
or the metrological department;

- What sizes or shape and place tolerances should be measured, with what
measurement instruments these sizes should be measured and what tolerances
are allowed.

In case of deviations observed by the operator before or during the process, or size or other
deviations of the welded component, the operator will discuss with the setter, programmer
what measures should be taken. Production can only be resumed when the operator is granted
release from the setter, programmer who institutes the improvements.

During production of the series, the operator executes the following tasks:

- Correct inlay of the components in the weld mold

- Verifying a correct functioning of all equipment

- Removal of the welded products

- If necessary, cleaning of the welded products and packaging these welded

products according to the packaging instruction. Also, if desired, he places the
instructed code in the welded products

- Continuous cleaning of the lay−on surfaces of the weld mold during inlay and

removal After production of the series, the welded products will be transported to the

next processing or
storage room in their packaging; the used aid tools are stored back in their place. If the
operator has checked that the welding cell is switched off, he or the setter dismounts the
weld mold(s) and puts it back in the right place. Then, the operator cleans the welding cell
and makes sure that it is prepared for the next series.
i. Evaluation welding quality

Depending on the requirements demanded for welding by the client or its end client, a
measurement plan should be established by the work preparer before welding takes place. In
this measurement plan it will be stated, among others, how, when and by whom the welding
quality will be examined during production.

In any case, the operator should visually examine every weld of every welded product on a
good− looking appearance and the absence of visible deviations. In case of doubt, he
discusses the application of other measurement methods with the metrological department ƒ
quality service.

It is stated in the measurement plan whether a first product measurement or last product
measurement should be done and how big the test sample size is. The metrological department
will measure the products provided by the operator according to the established measurement
plan and will examine every weld based on Chapter 9 (Welding defects).

j. Traceability

In connection with the liability of the producer, all welded products should be traceable
to the production data and circumstances. The company executing the laser welding
process should establish a system, which allows tracing:

- What components are used for the welding of the product;

- With what settings (laser parameters) the welder has welded;

- The used programming (revision mode);

- According to what drawing(s) and measurement plan(s) the products are welded
(revision mode);

- Which programmer and which operator have prepared and welded the series;

- The date on which the products were welded.

All welded products can be traced back to their production date by applying a production
code in the product. The coding method (letter punch, laser engraving, transfer, code plate)
should be able to resist all follow−up processing (especially coating) and should be discussed with
the client, as well as the place on the product where the code should be applied. The product code
should at least contain the code of the series, but the production date, operator code or project
code could also be included in the product code. The product code should be unique and
recognizable per series and per individual product.

The product code should be traceable to the above−mentioned information in the production or
administration system.
The company executing the welding process should keep copies and backups of all drawings,
measurement plans and welding programming per revision stand, so that the used documents
or software can always be linked to every welded product one−on−one.

k. Inspection

Inspection of the entire production chain (from preprocessing to storage after laser welding)
should be executed under the responsibility of the welding coordinator. The welding coordinator
evaluates or has someone evaluate whether:

- All required production information such as drawings, work receipts etc. are present at
the right persons, whether they have the latest revision mode and whether they are
complete and clear;

- All processes are executed according to this production information;

- All inspections and measurements (first production check, test samples, end of series
check) are executed according to the instructions of the process engineer andƒor client
andƒor work preparation, are executed correctly by qualified staff and whether actions
follow on identified deviations;

- All measurement results are recorded and archived correctly and whether, if desired by
the client, a measurement report with the end products is supplied along;

- All used weld molds and laser welding equipment is used, set, cleaned, stored
and maintained correctly, such that these are always correctly deployable;

- Repairs of the weld molds are correctly executed and documented according to the rules
by the right qualified persons and, if desired by the client, reported to the client
andƒor discussed with the client beforehand.

l. Storage

The following items should be stored (temporarily):

- weld molds or clamps

- welding programs (software)

- components and final products

- aid materials
The following requirements are demanded for their storage:

- The items should not degrade or get damaged during storage;

- The concerning items should be packaged sufficiently and coded such that they are
directly recognizable;

- The storage location should at least be known centrally;

- It should not be possible for unauthorized persons to remove or adjust these

items (software) unintentionally and unnoticed;

- All items should be stored such that they can never get lost or end up in the wrong place;

- Software should be backed up with sufficient regularity. There should be a protocol for this;

- It should always be possible for production staff and the welding coordinator to
recognize weld molds, clamps, welding programs, components and final products that
belong together as such.
9. Economics

1. The costs of the laser welding process:

The laser welding process has some specific advantages with regard to other welding processes,
making this process directly deployable if these advantages are needed.

The specific characteristics of laser welding are:

- A very high penetration of the weld. Depending on the laser power and welding
speed, the penetration can be millimeters deep. This enables other weld seam shapes
in laser welding that are impossible in other welding processes;

- A very high welding speed. Depending on the laser power, very high welding speeds
can be achieved;

- A much lower heat input in the mother material. This is easily a factor 10 lower than
in a comparable arc welding process. However, heat input will always be there and it
should be taken into account;

- In many cases, no post−processing is needed (for example in RVS laser welding under argon);

- More material combinations can be laser welded (for example steel to RVS without
filler material).

To enable laser welding, a selection should be made from the available laser welding systems:

 Remote welding;

 Beam Switch Management, applied in installations with standard optics and robots;

 Remote welding applied in robots.

Further, there are different types of laser welds, in broad lines:

- Keyhole welds (penetration welds)

- Melt welds (appearance of weld is important)

- Hybrid welds (combination of laser welding and arc welding to combine advantages of
both processes)

- Laser welds with hot or cold wire

The selection of the welding process is based on the requirements demanded for the weld
or the bottlenecks that ought to be solved in welding. Due to the high initial investment of
laser welding, the tariff of the laser welding cell will be high. This is compensated by a much
higher welding speed, a higher welding quality or a weld in a difficultly accessible place. The
work preparer should be privy to the requirements demanded for the weld and the advantages
and disadvantages of all welding processes to make the right decision here.

Depending on the weld seam shape and the material to be welded, the welding speed, laser
power and penetration are mutually dependent; every laser power has a curve of the relation
between penetration and speed (inversely proportional). In calculating the welding costs per
meter, the following should be taken into account:

- The tariff of the laser welding cell and operator;

- Programming and setting costs;

- The welding speed, which is determined by laser power and the speed of the laser
beam manipulation, plus parameters like spot size (focus) and beam quality of the laser
and laser installation.

The realized welding speed is not just determined by the laser welding process, but also by
the robotics ƒ automation in the laser welding cell. A single robot or simple automation is
often slower than the laser welding process. Through the deployment of remote welding or
working with multiple robots in combination with one laser and a beam switch, much shorter
cycle durations can be realized. The calculator should be privy to the operation of the laser
welding cell and the selected laser welding process.

The selection of the laser welding process, then, should also be done in the following manners:

1. Is a specific advantage of laser welding necessary?

2. Are the welding costs per meter lowest in laser welding?

If on of the two questions is answered with ‘yes’, the constructor or process engineer
ought to specify laser welding and determine:

- Which laser welding process

- Which seam shape

- Which laser source and which laser power

- Which quality (disapproval criteria)

The quality of the components can be of influence on the final product price. In some cases,
the fabrication of components becomes more expensive because they should meet higher
demands for the laser welding process. A better or faster weld, or the absence of post−processing
can compensate this. If cost compensation is lacking, it is recommended to select a weld seam
shape andƒor laser welding process in which a looser tolerance of the components does not
cause any hindrances. For instance, a lap seam instead of a butt seam.

2. The tariff of the laser welding cell

The tariff of the laser welding cell is determined by the required investment and the operation
of the laser welding cell: the beam manipulation, the laser source, the safety components, the
sensors, the mode of programming. Also, issues like tightening, switching of program, switching
of weld mold and such are determining for the (production) time of a product in the laser
welding cell.

The logistics around and within a laser welding cell are also of great importance and
determine the final product price for a large part: the logistics should keep up with the speed
of the laser welding process in the supply of components and the removal of welded
products. The total process time of the laser welding cell determines the product price of
welding. Additional costs are the costs of weld mold(s) and the programming of the CNC
code for the welding cell.
10. conclusion
a. Laser beam

• Burning of body parts

• Damaging of eyes directly and via reflections

• Generation of fire through direct radiation by the laser beam of the

inflammable materials (oil, cleaning−rags or grease on the parts to be
welded)

b. The welding process

• Burn wounds from splashes

• Dangerous welding vapors

• Hearing impairment by damaging sound of process gasses under pressure

c. Equipment

• Wounds by robots or automatic manipulators or automatic weld molds

 • Stray radiation of laser sources

• Shocks and fire caused by high voltage

The starting point in laser safety is that the equipment, the welding process and the laser
beam or stray radiation are separated from all people, both the operators, programmers,
maintenance staff and passers−by. The advantages of laser processes are the easy automation
and high speed. Every laser process should be able to operate in isolation from people as
much as possible.

The following situations are distinguished in laser processes:

d. Execution of the laser process (laser welding)

e. Programming and setting of the equipment and weld molds

f. Maintenance and tuning of the equipment

Laser safety is an integral concept that comprises the following activities, which should all be
executed verifiably:

g. Purchase of laser equipment with the right classification;

h. Purchase of equipment and automation with CE mark;

i. Nomination of a (laser) safety coordinator. In some countries, this is already obligatory

for bigger companies. Smaller companies should deploy external expertise;

j. Arrangement of the laser and process equipment in the production space such that people
in place can never get in touch with the laser beam or stray radiation. Guideline
2006ƒ25ƒEG provides instructions for this (establishing risk analysis and if necessary
execution of measurements).
Due to the nature of laser radiation (in the invisible spectrum and not absorbed by
transparent shields like glass, perspex and comparable), the space where people are and
the space where the laser radiation is should be completely separated (light−proof);

- Arrangement of the laser and process equipment in the production space, such that
the programming and setting of the equipment and weld molds can occur without a
chance of the setter andƒor programmer being touched by the laser beam or stray
radiation. This can be achieved by working with a safety switch on the laser source
and, if necessary, an interlock or safety switch on the entrance door of the laser cell ƒ
space, which only switches on the laser source when the equipment is in operation
mode and there are no people in the process space. Supporting measures are the
deployment of a pilot laser (laser pointer) and offline programming software.
Further, only verifiably instructed staff is allowed to execute these activities;

- Of all equipment that people should be around in setting and programming,

the rapid traverses should be switched off during programming and setting
activities;
- A user instruction should be in place of all (automatically working) weld molds and should
be known by the operators working with it;

- In larger workplaces or shift work, it is recommended to appoint an LSO (Laser Safety

Officer) who keeps track of the laser safety within the company and instructs people
about it;

- In maintenance and setting of all equipment, it should be supervised that all

maintenance staff strictly sticks to the maintenance instructions of the manufacturer(s)
of all equipment. Further, only verifiably instructed staff is allowed to execute these
activities.
Whenever possible, the laser source should be switched off and blocked by a personal
key of the maintenance co−workersƒsetter.
If it is not possible to switch off the laser source continually during maintenance and
tuning activities, the following is required:

o All present staff should make use of safety glasses that are tuned to the
radiation of the present laser source. This can always be checked through a
sticker or mark on the safety glasses. On this sticker or mark, the wavelength
against which the filter protects, the protection value (L−value for example L6)
and whether it is suitable in this class for D (CW laser), I (Pulsated laser), R
(Q−switch pulsated laser), are stated. This MUST be stated on the glasses or
shield, otherwise they should not be used. The wavelength for which the safety
glasses are intended should correspond with the stated wavelength of the
laser source (is mandatorily stated on the laser source or on the work optics);

o Also, the safety glasses or safety shield should be undamaged. This means
no scratches, cracks or other deviations. If this is however the case, the glasses
should not be used;

o The rapid traverse of the manipulation equipment should be switched off;

o It should be checked in advance whether direct contact with the laser

beam is impossible, for example by programming the beam manipulation with
prohibited zones;

o The dangerous space should be free from other persons except for the
authorized maintenance staff.

- All fixed and moveable shields that serve to protect people against the laser beam or
laser stray radiation should either:

o Be able to absorb the entire laser beam completely, or;

o Be able to identify a deviant laser beam through sensors and then switch
off the laser source directly via an emergency circuit with the emission of a
recognizable alarm signal.

- All operative staff should be privy to the dangers of the welding process, the laser beam
and stray radiation. Specific dangers like hot parts and fume gasses should also be
known.
PBMs for operators are weld hand gloves, work shoes with a steel nose, work overall and
 hearing protectors. Specific laser safety glasses are not needed if the welding process,
the laser beam and the operator are completely separated;

- Fume, a mixture of flue gasses and (dine) dust is released in laser welding. All staff
should be protected against these through an adequate suction of the welding fume
during and directly after the welding process. The employer is obliged to evaluate and
adjust the present situation via the toolbox welding fume;

- Laser welding does not have a huge negative impact on the environment, except for
the emission of welding fume. This emission can be strongly reduced by working
with clean equipment, clean materials, clean process gasses, an optimal setting of the
welding process, the welding of material without environmentally dangerous alloy
elements and a good filtering of the welding fume.