MAGNETISM

MAGNETISM WORD IS DERIVED FROM THE GREEK WORD MAGNETITE, WHICH IS A

NATURAL ORE HAVING PROPERTIES LIKE A MAGNET. A MAGNET IS OF 2 TYPES:
1. NATURAL MAGNET,
2. ARTIFICIAL MAGNET.

AN ARTIFICIAL MAGNET IS OF 2 TYPES:

1. PERMANENT MAGNET: MADE UP OF HARD IRON, HAVING PERMANENT PROPERTIES
OF A MAGNET. ARE DIFFICULT TO MAGNETISE BUT ONCE MAGNETISED IT IS
DIFFICULT TO DEMAGNETISE.
2. INDUCED MAGNET: MADE UP OF SOFT IRON, BEHAVES LIKE A MAGNET ONLY WHEN
PLACED IN A MAGNETIC FIELD. IT IS EASY TO MAGNETISE BUT LOSSES ITS
MAGNETISM WHEN REMOVED FROM THE MAGNETIC FIELD.

WE ARE INTERESTED ONLY IN BAR MAGNETS. A BAR MAGNET HAS THE FOLLOWING
PROPERTIES:
1. IT HAS MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND IN THE SHAPE OF CURVES.
2. THESE MAGNETIC LINES OF FORCE EMANATE FROM ONE END, WHICH IS KNOWN AS
THE RED END OF THE MAGNET. AND RE-ENTER FROM THE OTHER END WHICH IS
KNOWN AS THE BLUE END.
3. THE AXIS OF THE MAGNET IS A LINE JOINING THE RED AND BLUE ENDS, PASSING
LONGITUDINALLY THROUGH THE CENTRE OF THE MAGNET.
4. ANY POSITION (ALONG THE AXIS OF THE MAGNET) IS KNOWN AS THE END-ON
POSITION, AND THAT PERPENDICULAR TO THE AXIS IS KNOWN AS THE BROAD SIDE
POSITION.
5. FIELD STRENGTH AT THE END-ON POSITION IS 2 AS THAT AT THE BROAD-SIDE
POSITION.
6. GREATER THE LENGTH OF THE MAGNET, STRONGER THE MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND
IT.
7. POLES ARE AT A LENGTH OF ABOUT 1/12TH THE LENGTH, FROM EACH END AND ARE
ONLY AT THE SURFACE OF THE MAGNET.

PROPERTIES OF A MAGNET
1. A FREELY SUSPENDED MAGNET, ON EARTH, WILL ALIGN ITS MAGNETIC AXIS IN THE
DIRECTION OF THE MAGNETIC MERIDIAN, WITH ITS RED POLE IN THE DIRECTION OF
THE MAGNETIC NORTH POLE AND BLUE POLE IN THE DIRECTION OF THE MAGNETIC
SOUTH POLE.
2. LIKE POLES REPEL EACH OTHER AND UNLIKE POLES ATRACT EACH OTHER.

EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD

THE EARTH HAS A MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND IT, AND IT CAN BE IMAGINED AS A POWERFUL
BAR MAGNET OF LONG LENGTH KEPT AT THE CENTRE OF THE SPHERE. IT HAS ITS BLUE
POLE TOWARDS THE GEOGRAPHIC NORTH AND RED POLE TOWARDS THE GEOGRAPHIC
SOUTH, BUT THESE MAGNETIC POLES ARE SLIGHTLY AWAY FROM THE GEOGRAPHIC POLES.
A FREELY SUSPENDED MAGNET WILL BE PERPENDICULAR TO THE EARTH’S SURFACE AT
THE POLES, HORIZONTAL TO THE EARTH’S SURFACE AT THE MAGNETIC EQUATOR, AND AT
AN ANGLE AT ANY INTERMEDIATE LATITUDE.
THE MAGNETIC LINES OF FORCE ARE PERPENDICULAR TO THE EARTH’S SURFACE AT THE
POLES, AND PARALLEL AT THE MAGNETIC EQUATOR, AND AT AN OBLIQUE ANGLE AT ANY
INTERMEDIATE LATITUDE.
AT ANY PLACE THE ANGLE MADE BY THE RED POLE OF A FREELY SUSPENDED MAGNET
WITH RESPECT TO THE HORIZONTAL IS KNOWN AS THE DIP. DIP IS –VE ABOVE THE

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HORIZONTAL AND +VE BELOW THE HORIZONTAL, THUS AT NORTH POLE DIP IS +90, AT
SOUTH POLE IT IS -90, AT MAGNETIC EQUATOR IT IS ZERO, IT WILL HAVE SOME VALUE
BETWEEN 0 AND 90 AT ANY INTERMEDIATE LATITUDE.
AT ANY PLACE THE ANGLE BETWEEN THE TRUE MERIDIAN AND THE MAGNETIC MERIDIAN
IS KNOWN AS VARIATION.
TOTAL FORCE
THE TOTAL FORCE AT ANY PLACE IS THE MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH OF THE EARTH AT
THAT PLACE. AS STATED EARLIER, THE FIELD STRENGTH OF THE IMAGINARY SHORT
MAGNET AT THE CENTRE OF THE EARTH, IN THE END-ON POSITION IS TWICW THAT IN THE
BROAD SIDE ON POSITION, AT THE SAME DISTANCE FROM THE CENTRE OF THE
MAGNET.THE TOTAL FORCE OF THE EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD IS THEREFORE MAXIMUM
AT THE POLES (48 A/m) AND MINIMUM AT THE EQUATOR (ABOUT 24 A/m). THE TOTAL FORCE
(T) AT ANY PLACE MAY BE RESOLVED INTO 2 COMPONENTS ACTING AT MUTUALLY
PERPENDICULAR DIRECTION: THE HORIZONTAL COMPONENT ‘H’ AND THE VERTICAL
COMPONENT ‘Z’. H IS ALWAYS POINTING THE MAGNETIC NORTH POLE. Z HAS A +VE
VALUE IN THE NH AND –VE VALUE IN THE SH.

H = HORIZONTAL COMPONENT
V = VERTICAL COMPONENT

H = T COS DIP
Z = T SIN DIP

Z / H = TAN DIP,

T2 = H2 + Z2

AT MAGNETIC SOUTH POLE: H=0, Z=-T

AT MAGNETIC NORTH POLE: H=0, Z=T.
AT EQUATOR: H=T, Z=0.

AT MAGNETIC SOUTH POLE:

1. THE LINES OF EMANATE,
2. DIP = -90,
3. H = 0,
4. Z = MAXIMUM BUT UPWARDS.

AT MAGNETIC SOUTH POLE:

1. THE LINES OF ENTER,
2. DIP = +90,
3. H = 0,
4. Z = MAXIMUM.

H IS MAXIMUM AT THE EQUATORAND ZERO AT THE POLES. H GOVERNS INDUCED

MAGNETISM IN HORIZONTALS OF IRON.

Z IS MAXIMUM AT POLES AND ZERO AT EQUATOR. Z GOVERNS INDUCED MAGNETISM IN

VERTICALS OF IRON.

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SHIP’S MAGNETISM
MAGNETISM ACQUIRED BY STEEL STRUCTURES OF A SHIP IS OF TWO TYPES:
1. HARD IRON MAGNETISM (PERMANENT MAGNETISM) EG HULL, DECKS,
BULKHEADS, TANK TOPS ETC.
2. SOFT IRON MAGNETISM (INDUCED MAGNETISM) EG BEAMS, GIRDERS, MASTS,
FUNNEL ETC.
SHIP’S PERMANENT MAGNETISM
THIS IS MAGNETISM ACQUIRED PERMANENTLY BY SHIP’S HARD IRON STRUCTURES WHEN
THE SHIP IS BEING BUILT IN THE SHIPYARD. WHEN IN THE SHIP YARD, THE HEADING OF THE
SHIP IS CONSTANT AND DUE TO CONTINUOUS HEATING, HAMMERING, WELDING, CUTTING
ETC, THE SHIP’S HARD IRON STRUCTURES ACQUIRE A PERMANENT MAGNETISM. THE SHIP
WOULD HAVE A BLUE POLE AND A RED POLE. THE POSITION OF THESE POLES DEPEND ON
THE HEMISPHERE IN WHICH THE SHIP IS BUILT AND IT’S AZIMUTH.
IF THE VESSEL WAS BUILT AT THE NORTH POLE, THE POLES WOULD BE IN THE SAME
VERTICAL PLANE, WITH THE DECK AS THE BLUE POLE AND THE KEEL AS THE RED POLE.
IF THE VESSEL WAS BUILT AT THE SOUTH POLE, THE POLES WOULD BE IN THE SAME
VERTICAL PLANE, WITH THE DECK AS THE RED POLE AND THE KEEL AS THE BLUE POLE.
IF THE VESSEL WAS BUILT AT THE EQUATOR, THE POLES WOULD BE IN THE SAME
HORIZONTAL PLANE BUT THEIR POSITION WILL DEPEND ON THE SHIP’S AZIMUTH. IF THE
AZIMUTH IS 000, SHE WOULD HAVE A BLUE POLE WILL BE AS THE STERN AND THE RED
POLE AT THE BOW OF THE VESSEL.
FOR ANY INTERMEDIATE LATITUDES THE POLES WILL NEITHER BE IN THE SAME
HORIZONTAL PLANE NOR VERTICAL PLANE. THEIR POSITION WILL DEPEND ON THE
AZIMUTH OF THE SHIP AND THE HEMISPHERE IN WHICH IT IS BUILT.
FOR NORTHERN HEMISPHERE THE SHIP WOULD HAVE A BLUE DECK AND RED KEEL AS THE
MAGNETIC LINES OF FORCES ARE ALWAYS POINTING DOWNWARD.
FOR SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE THE SHIP WOULD HAVE A RED DECK AND BLUE KEEL AS THE
MAGNETIC LINES OF FORCES ARE ALWAYS POINTING UPWARDS.

SINCE THE PERMANENT POLES ACQUIRED BY THE SHIP CAN BE IN ANY OBLIQUE
DIRECTION, THE SHIP’S PERMANENT MAGNETIC FIELD AT THE COMPASS, ALSO ACTS IN
SOME OBLIQUE DIRECTION. WE DIVIDE THE SHIP’S MAGNETIC FIELD INTO 3 COMPONENTS
WHICH ARE MUTUALLY PERPENDICULAR TO EACH OTHER.

F & A HORIZONTAL COMPONENT – FORCE P

ATHWARTSHIP HORIZONTAL COMPONENT – FORCE Q
VERTICAL COMPONENT – FORCE R
RESULTANT OF P AND Q IS O O2 = P2 + Q 2

FORCE P IS +VE IF THE MAGNETIC FIELD AT THE COMPASS ACTS TOWARDS THE BOW AND
–VE IF IT ACTS TOWARDS THE STERN.
FORCE Q IS +VE IF THE MAGNETIC FIELD AT THE COMPASS ACTS TOWARDS STBD AND –VE
IF IT ACTS TOWARDS PORT.
FORCE R IS +VE IF THE MAGNETIC FIELD AT THE COMPASS ACTS TOWARDS DOWNWARDS
AND –VE IF IT ACTS TOWARDS UPWARDS.

1. P,Q, R ARE CONSTANT FORCES,

2. THEY ARE NOT AFFECTED BY THE SHIP’S HEAD OR CHANGE IN THE MAGNETIC
LATITUDE OF THE SHIP.
3. THEIR EFFECT ON THE COMPASS CHANGES WITH CHANGE IN THE SHIP’S HEAD AND
MAGNETIC LATITUDE.

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SHIP’S INDUCED MAGNETISM

1. HORIZONTAL SOFT IRON:

1. THESE ARE INDUCED BY H. Z DOES NOT INDUCE H.S.I.
2. H.S.I. RECEIVES MAX INDUCTION AT THE EQUATOR, WHERE H IS MAXIMUM AND NIL
AT THE POLES.
3. SINCE H ACTS IN LINE WITH THE MAGNETIC MERIDIAN, THE INDUCTION IN H.S.I.
DEPENDS ON THE SHIP’S HEADING. IT IS MAX FOR N-S HEADING AND NIL FOR E-W
HEADING.
2. VERTICAL SOFT IROM:
1. THESE ARE INDUCED BY Z. H DOES INDUCE V.S.I.
2. V.S.I. RECEIVES MAX INDUCTION AT THE POLES WHERE Z IS THE LARGEST AND ZERO
INDUCTION AT THE MAGNETIC EQUATOR.
3. THE POSITION OF THE POLES WILL DEPEND ON THE HEMISPHERE THE SHIP IS IN. IN
N.H. THE SHIP WILL ACQUIRE A BLUE TOP AND RED BOTTOM AND VICE VERSA IN SH.

THE INDUCED MAGNETISM IS THEORETICALLY AND MATHEMATICALLY DEALT WITH MORE

CORRECTLY BY THE USE OF ROD CONCEPT, SINCE IT HAS A MORE MATHEMATICAL
APPROACH. THE ENTIRE SHIP’S SOFT IRONS CAN BE REPRESENTED BY NINE IMAGINARY
SOFT IRONS, WHETHER HORIZONTAL OR VERTICAL.

RULES OF NINE RODS:

1. WHEN A ROD IS INDUCED, IT ACQUIRES A RED POLE AT ONE END AND A BLUE POLE AT
OTHER END. ONLY THE POLE NEARER TO THE COMPASS IS CONSIDERED EFFECTIVE
WHEN CONSIDERING DEVIATIONS THEY CAUSE.
2. LOOK AT THE CLOSEST END TO THE COMPASS, IF IT IS FORWARD , STARBOARD AND
DOWNWARDS W.R.T. THE COMPASS, IT IS NAMED +VE OTHERWISE –VE.
3. NOW LOOK AT THE OTHER END, IF IT IS FORWARD , STARBOARD AND DOWNWARDS
W.R.T. THE FIRST END, IT IS NAMED +VE OTHERWISE –VE.

SIGN CONVENTION:
1. IF BOTH THE POLES OF THE ROD ARE +VE OR BOTH –VE, THE ROD IS POSITIVE.
2. IF ONE END IS +VE AND OTHER –VE, THE ROD IS NEGATIVE.

IF A COMPASS IS WELL SITED, MANY OF THE RODS MAY NOT BE PRESENT.

a, c, e, k RODS ARE PRESENT ONBOARD.
b, d, h RODS ARE NOT PRESENT.
f, g RODS MAY BE PRESENT.

COEFFICIENTS
A COEFFICIENT IS THE MAXIMUM DEVIATION CAUSED BY ONE OR MORE OF THE SHIP’S
FORCES ACTING AT THE COMPASS POSITION. IT MUST BE CLEARLY UNDERSTOOD THAT
COEFFICIENT IS A DEVIATION, MEASURED IN DEGREES AND NOT A FORCE.

THERE ARE 3 TYPES OF DEVIATIONS CAUSED BY CO-EFFICIENTS:

1. CONSTANT: DEVIATIONS OF SAME SIGN AND VALUE ON ALL HEADINGS, COEFF A.
2. SEMI-CIRCULAR: DEVIATIONS OF ONE SIGN OVER ONE CONTINUOUS HALF OF THE
COMPASS HEADINGS AND OPPOSITE SIGNS FOR THE OTHER. COEFF B AND C.
3. QUADRANTAL: DEVIATIONS OF ONE SIGN OVER CONTINUOUS OPPOSITE QUARTERS OF
THE SHIP’S HEAD AND OF THE OPPOSITE SIGN OVER THE OTHER TWO CONTINUOUS
QUARTERS. COEFF D AND E.

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1. THE VALUE OF EACH IS THE MAXIMUM DEVIATION PRODUCED BY THAT COEFFICIENT.
2. DEVIATIONS ARE +VE WHEN EASTERLY AND –VE WHEN WESTERLY.
3. THE COEFFICIENTS ARE A, B, C, D AND E.
4. THE TOTAL DEVIATION IS GIVEN BY:
A + B SIN Co + C COS Co + D SIN 2 Co + E COS 2 Co

COEFFICIENT A
IS OF TWO TYPES:
1. REAL A: COEFFICIENT REAL A IS THE CONSTANT DEVIATION, BOTH IN AMOUNT AND IN
NAME, CAUSED BY INDUCED MAGNETISM IN SYMMETRICAL PAIRS OF HORIZONTAL
SOFT IRON AROUND THE COMPASS.
IT CAN BE PRODUCED BY b AND d RODS OF EQUAL VALUE BUT OPPOSITE NAMES, IT
TAKES THE NAME OF THE d ROD.

+A IS PRODUCED BY –b AND +d RODS

-A IS PRODUCED BY +B AND –d RODS

+A WILL PRODUCE CONSTANT EASTERLY DEVIATIONS ON ALL HEADINGS

-A WILL PRODUCE CONSTANT WESTERLY DEVIATIONS ON ALL HEADINGS

IN CONSIDERING THE DEVIATIONS THAT WILL BE CAUSED DUE TO THE INDUCED

MAGNETISM IN THE RODS, ONLY THE EFFECT OF THE POLE NEAR THE COMPASS WILL BE
CONSIDERED.
IT SHOULD ALSO BE NOTED THAT WHEN A ROD IS ALIGNED IN THE N-S DIRECTION, ITS
ENTIRE LENGTH IS PRESENT FOR INDUCTION, AND THUS ARE INDUCED TO THE
MAXIMUM EXTENT. A ROD ALIGNED IN THE E-W DIRECTION IS NOT INDUCED AT ALL
WHILE THOSE AT INTERMEDIATE ANGLES ACQUIRE INDUCTION OF AN INTERMEDIATE
VALUE.

EFFECT OF COMPONENT A ON DF
DIRECTIVE FORCE (H) AT THE COMPASS POSITION IS THE HORIZONTAL MAGNETIC FIELD
WHICH ACTS TOWARDS THE NORTH. IT IS DUE TO THIS FIELD THAT THE COMPASS
POINTS TOWARDS THE NORTH. THE SUM OF THE FIELDS CAUSED BY b AND D RODS AT
THE COMPASS POSITION ALWAYS REMAINS THE SAME AT ALL HEADINGS AND IS
ALWAYS IN THE E-W DIRECTION. THERE IS THEREFORE NO COMPONENT TOWARDS THE
NORTH SOUTH DIRECTION AND THUS IT WILL HAVE NO EFFECT ON THE DF AT THE
COMPASS, ON ANY HEADING.

EFFECT OF CHANGE OF LATITUDE

THE VALUE OF H WILL CHANGE WITH A CHANGE IN LATITUDE. PROPORTIONATELY THE
VALUE OF F (DEVIATING FORCE) WILL ALSO CHANGE WITH H. THEREFORE THERE IS NO
CHANGE IN DEVIATION DUE TO A CHANGE IN LATITUDE. THE VALUE OF COEFFICIENT A,
THAT IS THE DEVIATION DUE TO A, DOES NOT CHANGE WITH CHANGE IN LATITUDE.

COEFFICIENT A RARELY EXISTS ONBOARD, EVEN IF IT IS THERE IT IS VERY SMALL. THUS

THERE IS NO CORRECTION FOR IT. IT IS SAME FOR ALL HEADINGS AND THUS IT IS
CORRECTED IN THE FORM OF AN INDEX ERROR.
IT CAN BE CORRECTED BY SHIFTING THE LUBBER LINE TO THE AMOUNT EQUAL TO
COEFFICIENT A. BUT STILL THE BEARING OBSERVED WILL HAVE THE ERROR.

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2. APPARENT A: IS THE VALUE OF THE COMPASS ERROR WHICH REMAINS SAME IN NAME
AND AMOUNT AT ALL HEADINGS OF THE SHIP. IT EXISTS DUE TO FACTORS OTHER THAN
THE MAGNETIC FIELD OF THE SHIP AT THE COMPASS POSITION.

CAUSES OF APPARENT A:
1. THE MAGNETIC AXIS OF THE NEEDLE SYSTEM NOT BEING PARALLEL TO THE 0-180
DIRECTION OF THE CARD.
2. THE LUBBER LINE NOT BEING PARALLEL TO THE SHIP’S FORE AND AFT LINE.
3. AN INDEX ERROR IN THE AZIMUTH MEASURING DEVICE.
4. TOO RAPID A SWING, WHEN OBSERVING THE BEARINGS.
5. HOUR ANGLES WORKED OUT INCORRECTLY.
6. VARIATIONS APPLIED WRONGLY.

1. IF APPRECIABLE COEFFICIENT A IS PRESENT, CHECK FOR APPARENT A BY CHECKING

THE AZIMUTH CIRCLE, VARIATION, LUBBER LINE, HOUR ANGLES, ALIGNMENT OF
CARD GRADUATIONS AND NEEDLES.
2. IF APPARENT A IS NOT PRESENT IT MEANS REAL A IS PRESENT.
3. IF BOTH ARE PRESENT TOGETHER – IT IS NOT POSSIBLE TO OBTAIN THERE SEPARATE
VALUES.

IF COEFFICIENT A EXIST ITSVALUE CAN BE OBTAINE AS A MEAN OF DEVIATIONS OF

ATLEAST FOUR HEADINGS WITH EQUAL DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THEM.