CONCEPT OF CELL STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS assist in the creation of proteins when they come together with

messenger RNA.
The cell structure is defined by the cell membrane, the OTHER IMPORTANT PARTS OF CELL:
cytoplasm, and the nucleus. A cell is the smallest unit of life and its
structure helps it to work as the basic building block of biology. ENDOPLASCMIC RETICULUM
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is made out of various
The cell function is to keep all of the functions of the membranes, and it synthesizes proteins and for the cell. The
body performing as intended. This includes keeping toxins out of endoplasmic reticulum is referred to “rough ER” when it has the
the body, help to break down waste, make nutrients and act as ribosomes attached to it, and it is called “smooth ER” when there
barriers within organelles. are no ribosomes attached to it. The rough endoplasmic reticulum
synthesizes the proteins, while the smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Four Key Parts of a Cell: Cell Membrane, Cytoplasm, DNA and
performs two functions. The smooth ER synthesizes lipids for use
Ribosomes
in the cell, but it also detoxifies harmful substances.
CELL MEMBRANE
Cells have a plasma membrane, cell membrane, or cell GOLGI COMPLEX
wall that surrounds the cell and acts as their skin. It makes up the Golgi complex sorts the proteins out and then sends them to the
boundary between the cell and their environment and controls area that they are needed in. In this respect the Golgi complex is
what can move in and out of the cell. The cell membrane is like a post office, distributing packages to their destinations.
constructed out of a phospholipid bilayer, two layers of lipids
facing opposite directions. The lipid layers are made out of MITOCHONDRIA
building blocks of fatty acids and consist of a head and body. The Mitochondria are organelles which are responsible for converting
body of the lipid is hydrophobic, meaning it repels water while the the food eaten by an organism into energy. Food is converted into
heads of the lipids are hydrophilic meaning that it likes water. units of energy called ATP by the mitochondria and every cell has
In addition to the cell membrane found in animal cells, differing amounts of mitochondria depending on the cell’s
plant cells also have a cell wall. The cell wall is made out of function and needs. Cells that do more work, like heart cells, need
cellulose and it helps give the cell extra protection and support. A more mitochondria than other cells.
crucial difference is that unlike cell membranes cells walls do not
CHLOROPLASTS (IN PLANTS)
allow for the passage of materials through them. To get around
Chloroplasts in a plant cell are where photosynthesis happens,
this problem cell walls have unique structures called
converting the energy from the sun into chemical energy that the
plasmodesmata, special holes that allow the material to move in
plant cells can use. Plant cells also have a vacuole or seemingly
and out.
large empty space in the middle of the cell. However, the vacuole
CYTOPLASM of a plant cell actually contains important chemicals like sugar and
The cell membrane holds in a cell’s cytoplasm. The water.
cytoplasm is a jelly-like substance, made up of mostly water, that
keeps the various organelles within the cell separate from each
other. Many of the cell’s biochemical reactions, like metabolic
processes, occur within the cytoplasm. There are gaps in a cell’s
plasma membrane referred to as pores or channels.
These pores or channels are made out of proteins and
they control what chemicals, like water and food, are able to
move into the cell.

DNA
Deoxyribonucleic Acid, or DNA, is frequently referred to
as “the blueprints for life” and it contains the generic information
that allows cells to reproduce and perform their respective
functions. The DNA of a cell is held within the nucleus of the cells, PHOTOSYNTHESIS
specifically within the nucleolus.
The cell’s nucleus is often referred to as the “brain” of Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, some
the cell, or the control center. It is the largest part of the cell bacteria and some protistans use the energy from sunlight to
within the cytoplasm. Cells that have nuclei are found in plants, produce glucose from carbon dioxide and water. This glucose can
animals, algae, protozoa, and fungi. Bacterial cells do not have a be converted into pyruvate which releases adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) by cellular respiration. Oxygen is also formed.
nucleus. The nucleus is home to a smaller structure within it called
Photosynthesis may be summarised by the word equation:
the nucleolus. The nucleolus is an organelle which creates
ribosomes. The nucleus has nuclear pores that allow the
ribosomes to exit the nucleus and for other materials to move in. carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen

RIBOSOMES
Ribosomes themselves are organelles which assist in the
creation of proteins. Proteins are necessary for the cell to carry Stages of photosynthesis
out their essential functions. Ribosomes are made out of one large
piece and one smaller unit. Both of the subunits in the ribosomes When chlorophyll a absorbs light energy, an electron gains energy
and is 'excited'. The excited electron is transferred to another
molecule (called a primary electron acceptor). The chlorophyll
molecule is oxidized (loss of electron) and has a positive charge.
Photoactivation of chlorophyll a result in the splitting of water
molecules and the transfer of energy to ATP and reduced
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP).
The chemical reactions involved include:
 condensation reactions - responsible for water
molecules splitting out, including phosphorylation (the
addition of a phosphate group to an organic compound)
 oxidation/reduction (redox) reactions involving electron
transfer
Photosynthesis is a two stage process.
The Light dependent reactions, a light-dependent series of
reactions which occur in the grana, and require the direct energy
of light to make energy-carrier molecules that are used in the
second process:
 light energy is trapped by chlorophyll to make ATP
(photophosphorylation)
 at the same time water is split into oxygen, hydrogen
ions and free electrons:
2H2O     4H+ + O2 + 4e- (photolysis)
 the electrons then react with a carrier molecule
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP),
changing it from its oxidised state (NADP+) to its reduced
state (NADPH):
NADP+ + 2e- + 2H+     NADPH + H+
The light-independent reactions, a light-independent series of
reactions which occur in the stroma of the chloroplasts, when the
products of the light reaction, ATP and NADPH, are used to make
carbohydrates from carbon dioxide (reduction); initially
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (a 3-carbon atom molecule) is
formed.
The light-dependent reactions
When light energy is absorbed by a chlorophyll molecule
its electrons gain energy and move to higher energy levels in the
molecule (photoexcitation). Sufficient energy ionises the
molecule, with the electron being 'freed' leaving a positively
charged chlorophyll ion. This is called photoionisation.
In whole chloroplasts each chlorophyll molecule is
associated with an electron acceptor and an electron donor. These
three molecules make up the core of a photosystem. Two
electrons from a photoionised chlorophyll molecule are
transferred to the electron acceptor. The positively charged
chlorophyll ion then takes a pair of electrons from a neighbouring
electron donor such as water.
An electron transfer system (a series of chemical reactions) carries
the two electrons to and from across the thylakoid membrane.
The energy to drive these processes comes from two
photosystems:
 Photosystem II (PSII) (P680)
 Photosystem I (PSI) (P700)
It may seem confusing, but PSII occurs before PSI. It is named
because it was the second to be discovered and hence named
second.
The light-independent reactions
In the Light-Independent Process (the Dark reaction)
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (or water for aquatic/marine
organisms) is captured and modified by the addition of hydrogen
to form carbohydrates. The incorporation of carbon dioxide into
organic compounds is known as carbon fixation. The energy for
this comes from the first phase of the photosynthetic process.
Living systems cannot directly utilize light energy, but can, through
a complicated series of reactions, convert it into C-C bond energy
that can be released by glycolysis and other metabolic processes.
 Carbon dioxide combines with a five-carbon sugar,
ribulose 1,5-biphosphate (RuBP). A six-carbon sugar
forms but is unstable. Each molecule breaks down to
form two glycerate 3-phosphate (GP) molecules.
 These glycerate 3-phosphate (GP) molecules are
phosphorylated by ATP into glycerate diphosphate
molecules.
 These are reduced by NADPH to two molecules of
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GALP).
 Of each pair of GALP molecules produced:
o one molecule is the initial end product of
photosynthesis; it is quickly converted to
glucose and other carbohydrates, lipids or
amino acids
o one molecule forms RuBP through a series of
chemical reactions
The first steps in the Calvin cycle
The first stable product of the Calvin Cycle is
phosphoglycerate (PGA), a 3-C chemical. The energy from ATP and
NADPH energy carriers generated by the photosystems is used to
phosphorylate the PGA. Eventually there are 12 molecules of
glyceraldehyde phosphate (also known as phosphoglyceraldehyde
or PGAL, a 3-C), two of which are removed from the cycle to make
a glucose. The remaining PGAL molecules are converted by ATP
energy to reform six RuBP molecules, and thus start the cycle
again.
 CELL THEORY
CENTRAL DOGMA OF LIFE

Cell Theory is one of the basic principles of biology. Credit for the
The central dogma of life is the basis of life on earth and required
formulation of this theory is given to German scientists Theodor
to control the biological processes. Following this hierarchical flow
Schwann, Matthias Schleiden, and Rudolph Virchow.
of information from DNA to protein allows nucleus to control all
biological activities in a cell. Under normal conditions, the flow of
The Cell Theory states:
information sequence-to-sequence requires 3 process. The three-
process required for flow of information is as follows: 
 All living organisms are composed of cells. They may be
(1) Sequence dependent synthesis of DNA from pre-exisitng unicellular or multicellular.
DNA [Replication].  The cell is the basic unit of life.
 Cells arise from pre-existing cells. (They are not derived
(2) Sequence dependent synthesis of RNA from from spontaneous generation.)
DNA [Transcription].
The modern version of the Cell Theory includes the ideas that:
(3) Sequence dependent synthesis of DNA from pre-exisitng
DNA [Translation]. 
 Energy flow occurs within cells.
 Heredity information (DNA) is passed on from cell to
cell.
 All cells have the same basic chemical composition.
The underlying process to flow the information in
proposed central dogma of life is as follows:  

1. Replication: Genomic content in an organism needs to be

duplicated during S phase of cell-cycle. Duplication of DNA is
done by replication utilizing the sequence information of parent
DNA. The enzyme used for this purpose is DNA dependent DNA
polymerase. 

2. Transcription: The DNA is present in nucleus whereas the

protein synthesis machinery is present in cytosol. Hence the
information present in DNA is used to synthesize RNA which has
ability to transport outside the nucleus to participate into protein
synthesis. Synthesis of RNA from DNA is done by transcription
utilizing the sequence information of DNA. The enzyme used for
this purpose is DNA dependent RNA polymerase. 

3. Translation: The RNA present in cytosol is utilized by translation

machinery to synthesize protein in a sequence dependent manner
through a process known as translation.