Design of Structu ral Steelw ork

J Mahachi, PrEng, PhD

'11CSIR
Your Technology Partner

I
 Design of Structural Steelwork

I
 Published by CSIR Building and Construction Technology
P 0 Box 395, Pretoria, 0001

Copyright vests in the CSIR

© 2004, CSIR, Pretoria

ISBN 0-7988-5551-7
Boutek Report No Bou/E0401

Layout and production by CSIR Building and Construction Technology, Pretoria

Photos courtesy of the Southern African Institute of Steel Construction
Printed by Capture Press, Pretoria
July 2004
 Preface
Carbon steel is one of the primary structural materials. It is a very versatile material and is used
extensively in buildings and structures. Its properties are well understood and comprehensively
documented in South African National Standards .

SANS 10162-1, The structural use of steel Part 1: Limit-states design of hot-rolled steelwork, and SANS
10162-2, The structural use of steel Part 2: Limit-states design of cold-formed steelwork, provide
a set of rules for the design of structural steelwork by a process of reasoning and calculation, which
satisfy societal expectations . SANS 2001-CS 1, Construction Works Part CS 1: Structural Steelwork,
establishes requirements for materials, drawings, workmanship (general, welding and erection),
inspections during manufacture, testing of welders, non-destructive tests of welds and permissible
deviations. On the other hand, SANS 1921-3, Construction and management requirements for works
contracts Part 3: Structural Steelwork, establishes requirements for managing the fabrication and
erection of structural steelwork.

No matter how well structural steelworks are managed or constructed, shortcomings in design can
compromise the performance of this material in buildings and structures. Inappropriate design
assumptions and incorrect interpretations made in the application of SANS 10162 can result in owners
being dissatisfied with their buildings or structures or, in the worst-case scenario, have catastrophic
outcomes .

Comprehensive design guides for structural engineers that are compatible with South African National
Standards are needed, particularly guides that provide insight into aspects of design, commentary on
the applications of certain clauses and most of all, worked examples. This publication breaches the
existi ng gap and provides a comprehensive and useful reference for both the novice and experienced
designer.

Ron Watermeyer

President, South African Institution of Civil Engineering (SAICE)

Chairperson , Technical Committee for Construction Standards, Standards South Africa

June, 2004
 Acknowledgements

This book would not have been possible without the help and support of many people and institutions.
Special thanks are due to the following :

CSIR Building and Construction Technology (Boutek) for providing funds and support for the book .

Helene Bekker (Boutek) for layout, typesetting, proofreading and production of the book.

Dr Rodney Milford (Boutek) for his continuous support.

Lineke Slump (Boutek) for producing the drawings.

Beverley van Reenen for language editing .

Bruce Knoetze (Machine, Pretoria) for the cover design and technical support.

I am also grateful for the contributions, reviews and checks made by the following experts :

I Adegoke Technikon Witwatersrand (University of Johannesburg)

Prof N Dekker University of Pretoria
Dr GP de Vos Devotee (Pty) Ltd
Prof P Dunaiski University of Stellenbosch
Dr M Dundu RAU (University of Johannesburg)
R Ford Consulting Engineer
Dr AM Goliger CSIR Building and Construction Technology
WT King University of KwaZulu Natal
Dr G J Krige AvGold, Division of Anglovaal Ltd
R Mackenzie Consulting Engineer
G Parrott Durban Institute of Technology
Prof J Retief University of Stellenbosch
Dr H Uzoegbo University of the Witwatersrand
Prof B van Rensburg University of Pretoria

J Mahachi
Pr Eng PhD
 Contents

1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS OF STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN

1.1 Introduction 1.1
1.2 Structural design 1.1
1.3 Codes and standards 1.2
1.4 Basis for design codes 1.3
1. 5 Reliability basis for limit-states design 1.3
1.6 Code application of reliability theory 1.4
1. 7 Limit-states design applied in South African codes for
structural steel design 1.5
1.8 Stability considerations 1.7
1. 9 Structural steel 1. 7
1.10 Outline of contents 1.8

2. STRUCTURAL LOADING
2.1 Introduction 2.1
2.2 Generation of loads 2.2
2.2.1 Self-weight 2.2
Example E2. 1: Self-weight of reinforced concrete slab 2.4
Example E2.2: Self-weight of chimney stack 2.4
2.2.2 Environmentally induced loads 2.4
Example E2.3: Wind loading on an industrial building 2.9
2. 3 Building use 2.13
2.4 Thermal loads 2. 14
Example E2.4: Expansion joints 2.16
2.5 Stability loads 2.16
2.6 Other loads 2. 17
2.6.1 Vibration loads 2.17
2.6.2 Earthquake loads 2.17

I~ 2.6.3

2.6.4
2. 6.5
2.7
Loads caused by the impact offailing objects
Example E2.5: Impact load
Loads generated by vehicular and crane motion
Foundation settlement
Load factors and safety
2. 18
2.18
2.19
2.19
2.19
~ Example E2.6: Design loads 2.20

3. DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS

3.1 Introduction 3.1
3.2 Member type and selection 3.1
3.2. 1 Wire ropes and cables 3.1
 3.2.2 Rods and bars 3.2
3. 2.3 Eyebars and pin-connected plates 3.2
3.2.4 Structural shapes and built-up members 3.2
3.3 Slenderness ratio 3.3
3.4 Design of tension members 3.3
3.4.1 Calculation of gross and net areas 3.4
3.4.2 Shear lag 3.6
3.4.3 Tension and shear block failure 3.8
Example E3.1: Net width of a plate 3.10
Example E3.2: Net area of a plate 3.12
Example E3.3: Design tensile resistance of an angle
section connected on both legs 3.15
Example E3.4: Design tensile resistance of angle
section connected on one leg 3.18
Example E3.5: Design tensile resistance of a welded
angle section 3.21

4. DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS

4.1 Introduction 4.1
4.2 Buckling of compression members 4.2
4.2.1 Flexural-buckling of compression members 4.2
4.2.2 Torsional-flexural buckling 4.8
4.3 Classification of sections 4.9
4.4 Design of compression members 4.12
4.4.1 Design of eccentrically loaded angle members 4.15
4.4.2 Design of built-up compression members 4.17
Example E4. 1: Effective lengths of columns 4.19
Example E4. 2: Classification of sections 4.22
Example E4.3: Compressive strength of an I-section 4.24
Example E4.4: Singly symmetric T-section 4.28
Example E4. 5: Singly symmetric parallel flange section 4.32
Example E4.6: Compressive resistance of an H-section
column in an office block 4.36
Example E4. 7: Concentrically loaded angle section 4.42
Example E4.8: Eccentrically loaded angle section 4.46
Example E4. 9: Design of lacings 4.49
Example E4. 10: Design of a battened strut 4.54

5. DESIGN OF BEAMS AND PLATE GIRDERS

5.1 Introduction 5.1
5.2 Classification of sections 5.1
5.3 Laterally restrained beams 5.2
5.4 Laterally unrestrained beams 5.4
 5.4.1 Elastic buckling of beams 5.4
5.4.2 Inelastic buckling of beams 5.5
5.4.3 Factors influencing the stability of beams 5.8
5.5 Shear strength 5.11
5.6 Resistance of webs to transverse forces 5.13
5.7 Deflection of beams 5.14
5.8 Particular aspects relating to the design of plate
girders 5.15
5.8.1 Moment resistance of plate girders 5.15
5.8.2 Resistance to shear and web buckling 5.16
5.8.3 Design of stiffeners 5.19
5.8.4 Combined shear and moment 5.21
Example E5.1: Laterally restrained beam 5.22
Example ES.2: Beam unrestrained between supports 5.31
Example E5.3: Beam with loading applied at restraints 5.37
Example E5.4: Laterally unrestrained beam with cantilevers 5.43
Example ES.5: Beam in a multistorey building 5.49
Example E5.6: Design of a plate girder 5.55

6. DESIGN OF BEAM-COLUMNS
6.1 Introduction 6.1
6.2 Eccentricity of reactions 6.1
6.3 Section classification 6.3
6.4 Second-order effects 6.3
6.5 Section resistance - combined bending and
\
' compression 6.7
6.5.1 Resistance of Class 1 and 2 I-sections 6.7
6.5.2 Resistance of all classes of sections except Class 1 and
2 I-shaped sections 6.8
6.6 Modes of failure 6.8
6.6.1 Cross-sectional strength 6.9
6.6.2 Overall member strength 6.9
6.6.3 Lateral-torsional buckling strength 6.10

I 6.6.4
6.7
6.7.1
Additional check for Class 1 and 2 I-shaped sections
Combined tension and bending
Resistance of Class 1 and 2 sections
6.10
6.11
6.11
6.7.2 Resistance of Class 3 and 4 sections 6.11
Example E6. 1: Beam-column subject to strong-axis bending 6.13
Example E6.2: Beam-column with intermediate restraint 6.20

7. STEELWORK CONNECTIONS
7.1 Introduction 7.1
7.2 Types of bolted connections 7.1
 7.2.1 Bearing bolts 7.3
7.2.2 High-strength friction-grip bolts 7.4
7.3 Behaviour of simple bolted connecti ons i n shear 7.5
7.4 Design of bolted connections 7.9
7.4. 1 Tension capacity 7.9
7.4.2 Shear capacity 7.9
7.4.3 Bearing capacity 7.11
7.4.4 Combined shear and tension 7.12
7.4.5 Other design considerations 7.13
7.5 Prying action 7.13
7. 5. 1 Procedure for calculating prying forces in simple tension
connections (Eurocode 3) 7.14
7.6 Eccentric connections 7.16
7.6.1 Bolts in direct shear and moment 7.17
7.6.2 Bolts in direct shear and tension 7.19
Example E7. 1: Simple tension member in single shear 7.23
Example E7.2: Simple tension member in double shear 7.26
Example E7. 3: Double-angle shear connection 7.28
Example E7.4: Double-lap joint 7.31
Example E7.5: T-stub connection subject to prying 7.33
Example E7.6: Beam-splice connection 7.36
Example E7. 7: Eccentrically loaded bracket 7.42
Example E7.8: Eccentric connection - direct shear and
tension (bracket connection) 7.45
Example E7. 9: Direct shear and moment 7.53
7.7 Welded connections 7. 56
7. 7.1 Advantages of welded connections 7. 56
7.7.2 Disadvantages of welded connections 7.56
7.7.3 Types of welded joints 7.57
7.7.4 Weld positions 7.58
7. 7.5 Electrodes 7.58
7.7.6 Groove-weld resistance 7.59
7. 7.7 Fillet-weld resistance 7.60
7.7.8 Minimum fillet-weld size 7.62
7.8 Design of fillet -welded connections 7.63
7.8.1 Pure shear or tension 7.63
7.8 . 2 Combined shear and moment 7.63
7.8 . 3 Combined shear and torsion moment 7.67
Example E7. 1O: Continuous fillet weld for a hanger 7.69
Example E7. 11: Welded steel bracket (shear and moment) 7.70
Example E7.12: Welded steel bracket (shear and torsion) 7.73
7.9 Column bases 7.77
7. 9.1 Types of column bases 7.77
7.9.2 Slab bases 7.77
7.9.3 Base subject to axial load and moment 7.80
iv
 Example E7.13: Column base with axial load only 7.82
Example E7. 14: Column base with axial load and moment 7.84
7.9.4 Column bases subject to shear 7.91
7.9.5 Holding-down bolts 7.91
7.10 Steel-concrete interfaces 7.93
7.10.1 Tolerances 7.93
7.10.2 Placing of holding-down bolts in foundations 7.94
7.10.3 Holding-down bolts in foundations 7.95
7.10.4 Wall and column fixings 7.96

8. BRACING
8.1 Introduction 8.1
8.2 Types of bracing 8.1
8.2.1 Cross-bracing 8.1
8.2.2 K-bracing 8.2
8.2.3 Knee-bracing 8.3
8.3 Effects of horizontal loads in industrial buildings
and temporary structures 8.3
8.4 Multistorey buildings 8.6
8.4.1 Shear walls 8.7
Example ES. 1: Reactions in shear walls 8.9
Example E8.2: Shear stress in shear walls 8.11
8.4.2 Steel bracing 8.13

9. TRUSSES AND LATTICE GIRDERS

9.1 Introduction 9.1
9.2 Types and uses of trusses and lattice girders 9.1
9.2.1 Trusses 9.1
9.2.2 Lattice girders 9.3
9.2. 3 Truss and lattice sections 9.4
9.3 Loading on trusses 9.4
9.3.1 Dead loads 9.4
9.3.2 Imposed loads 9.5
9.3.3 Wind loads 9.5
9.4 Analysis of trusses and lattice girders 9.6
9.4.1 Analysis of pin-jointed trusses and girders 9.6
Example E9. 1: Forces in a truss 9.7
9.4.2 Loads not applied at the nodes of the truss 9.8
9.5 Design of truss members 9.9
9.5.1 Design of compression members 9.9
9.5.2 Design of tension members 9.10
9.6 Bracing 9.11
9.6.1 Recommendations for bracing 9.11
v
9.7 Design of truss connections 9.11
9. 7.1 Gusset plate design 9.12
Example E9.2: Gusset plate connection 9.13
9.7.2 Gusset plates used as splice plates 9.14
Example E9.3: Splice plate 9.14
9.7.3 Eccentricities at connections 9.16
Example E9 .4: Eccentricities 9.16
9.8 Fabrication of trusses 9.18
9.8.1 Trusses fabricated using double angles 9.18
9.8.2 Trusses fabricated using single angles or T-sections 9.18
9.8.3 Trusses fabricated using I-sections or channel sections 9.18
9.8.4 Trusses fabricated using circular hollow sections (CHS) 9.18
9.8.5 Trusses fabricated using rectangular hollow sections (RHS) 9.18
Example E9.5: Roof truss design 9.19

10. COLD-FORMED STEEL

10.1 Introduction 10.1
10. 1. 1 Definitions, units and symbols 10.2
10.1.2 Materials 10.2
Example E10.1: Design stress 10.3
10.1.3 Section properties 10.4
10.1.4 General design aspects 10.4
Example E10.2: Effects of cold work of forming 10.5
Example E10.3: Flange width 10.7
Example E10.4: Curling 10.8
10.1.5 Local buckling considerations and section properties 10.9
10.2 Basic effective-width equations 10.11
10.2.1 Elements under uniform compressive stress 10.12
10.2.2 Stress gradient across element 10.14
Example E10.5: Effective widths of compression members 10.16
10.3 Tension members 10.18
Example E10.6: Concentrically loaded flat bar in tension 10.21
Example E10.7: Plain channel in tension 10.21
10.4 Design of compression members 10.21
Example E10.8: Member in axial compression 10.25
10.5 Design of flexural members 10.28
10.6 Web shear 10.32
10.6.1 Combined web bending and shear 10.33
10.6.2 Web crippling 10.33
Example E10. 9: Design of a beam 10.34
10. 7 Combined compression and flexure 10.39
10.8 Design of connections 10.40
Example E10. 10: Connection of thin sheet to thicker sheet,
connection resisting shear only 10.41
vi
 Example E10. 11: Two channels, connection resisting shear
and moment 10.44
10.9 Testing 10.46

ADDENDUM: PROPERTIES OF COLD-FORMED SECTIONS

10.10 Introduction 10.48
10. 10. 1 Plain and lipped angles 10.48
10.10. 2 Plain and lipped channels 10.52
10.10.3 Plain and lipped Z-sections 10.55

11. PLASTIC DESIGN

11. 1 Introduction 11. 1
11. 2 Continuous beam 11. 1
11. 3 The elastic-plastic stress-strain relation 11.3
11.4 Plastic bending without axial force 11.4
11.5 Effects of axial load and shear force on the plastic
moment 11.6
11.6 Collapse mechanisms 11.6
Example E11.1: Elastic-plastic analysis of a fixed-end beam 11.7
11. 7 Methods of plastic analysis 11. 9
11. 7.1 Stability considerations 11. 9
11.7.2 Incremental collapse 11. 9
11.8 Application of plastic design to portal frames 11.10
Example E11.2: Plastic design of a continuous beam 11.12

12. COMPOSITE DESIGN

12.1 Introduction 12.1
12. 1. 1 Composite steel-concrete construction 12.1
12.1.2 Beams consisting of different materials 12.2
12.2 Flexural resistance of composite beams 12.3
12.2.1 Elastic-strength approach - transformed-section method 12.3
12.2.2 The concept of an effective width 12.4
12.2.3 Structural properties 12.5
Example E12.1: Stresses in composite beam 12.6
12.3 Ultimate-strength approach 12.9
12. 3. 1 Vertical shear resistance 12.12
12.3.2 Shear connectors 12.13
12.3.3 Horizontal shear - partial shear connection 12.14
12.3.4 Simply-supported beams 12.16
12.3.5 Continuous beams 12.16
12.4 Influence of the method of construction - propped
yjj
 versus unpropped construction 12.21
12.5 Calculation of deflections in composite beams 12.22
12. 5. 1 Deflection of simply-supported beams 12.22
12.5.2 Deflection calculation in continuous beams 12.24
12.5.3 Particular problems related to deflections 12.25
12.5.4 Influence of partial shear connection on the calculation
of deflections 12.25
Example E12.2: Design of a composite beam 12.27

13. INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS

13.1 Introduction 13.1
13.2 Load conditions and loading combinations 13.1
13.2.1 Permanent loads 13. 1
13.2.2 Imposed loads 13.1
13.2.3 Wind loads 13.2
13.2.4 Seismic loads 13.2
13. 2. 5 Loading combinations 13.2
13.3 Special design considerations 13.3
13.3.1 Type of use 13.3
13.3.2 Special loadings 13.3
13.3.3 Future expansion 13.4
13.3.4 Aesthetic considerations 13.4
13.4 Framing systems for industrial buildings 13.4
13.4.1 Economic considerations 13.4
13.4.2 Basic structural form 13.5
13.4.3 Trusses 13.5
13.4.4 Portal frames 13. 9
13.4.5 Design alternatives 13.10
13.5 Roof systems 13.11
13.5.1 General 13. 11
13.5.2 Purlins 13.11
13.5.3 Sheeting and thermal insulation 13.12
13.6 Wall systems 13.12
13. 7 Bracing system 13.13
13.8 Gable column design 13.14
13. 9 Serviceability design criteria 13. 15
Example E13.1: Design of an industrial building 13.16

14. FIRE-ENGINEERING DESIGN

14.1 Introduction 14.1
14.2 Principles of fire safety 14.1
14.3 The fire process 14.2
14.4 Fire insulation of steel 14.3
vm
 14.5 Determining the steel temperature 14.5
14.5.1 Uninsulated structural steel temperature 14.5
14.5.2 Insulated structural steel temperature 14.8
Example E14.1: Calculation of steel temperatures 14.11
14.6 Effect of elevated temperature on the properties of
structural steel 14.14
14.6.1 Strength and elasticity 14.14
14.6.2 Thermal deformation 14.15
14.7 Structural stability analysis 14.17

15. SITE CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES FOR STRUCTURAL STEEL

PROJECTS
15.1 Introduction 15. 1
15.1.1 The site operation in relation to other activities 15.1
15.1.2 In-house activities 15.1
15.1.3 Other contractors - off-site 15. 1
15.1.4 Other contractor - on-site 15.2
15.1.5 The client 15.2
15.2 Planning - general restraints 15.2
15.2.1 Client's requirements 15.2
15.2.2 Factors which can affect planning schedules 15.3
15.2.3 Provision for weather 15.3
15.3 Planning and reporting 15.3
15.3.1 Methods of planning - available systems 15.3
15.3.2 Degree of planning 15.4
15.3.3 Frequency and extent of reporting 15.4
15.3.4 Corrective action 15.4
15.4 Major cost inputs to site operations 15.4
15.4. 1 Management and supervision 15.4
15.4.2 Labour 15.4
15.4.3 Plant and equipment 15.5
15.4.4 Materials 15.5
15.5 Industrial relations 15.5
15.5.1 Current requirements 15.5
15.5.2 Permanent employees 15.6
~ 15.5.3 Contract workers 15.6

~ 15.5.4
15.5.5
15.6
Grievance and disciplinary procedures
Resolution of conflict
Health and safety
15.6
15.6
15.6
15. 6. 1 Current requirements 15.6
15.6.2 Causes of accidents 15. 7
15.6.3 Training 15.7
15.7 Quality assurance 15.7
15.7.1 Cost-effectiveness 15.7
ix
15. 7.2 "Keep it simple" 15.7
15.8 Excessive working hours 15. 8
15.8.1 General 15.8
15.8.2 Effect on productivity 15.8
15.8.3 Costs 15.8
15. 9 Delays 15.8
15.9.1 Comon causes of delays 15.8
15.9.2 Costs of delays 15. 9
15.9.3 Recording and claiming 15.9
15.10 Access and handover 15. 9
15. 10.1 Recording of access 15. 9
15.10.2 Handover to subsequent contractors 15. 9
15.10.3 Handover to client 15. 9
15.10.4 Final acceptance 15.10
15.11 Claims 15.10
15.11.1 General 15. 10
15.11.2 Daywork 15.10
15.11.3 Options in the event of failure to resolve 15. 10
15.12 Measurement and valuation of work 15.11
15. 12. 1 Monthly certificates 15. 11
15.12.2 Final certificate 15.11
15.12.3 Cash flows 15.12
15.13 Conclusions 15.12

REFERENCES
INDEX

x
 Selected Notation

Ab cross-sectional area of a bolt, based on its nominal diameter

Ag gross area

Agv gross area in shear for block failure

Am area of fusion face of weld

An critical net area; applicable area of parent metal normal to tensile force in partial penetration
groove weld

Ane effective net area

A~e effective net area reduced for shear lag

Ant net area in tension for block fail ure

Anv net area in shear for block failure

As area of steel section area of stiffener or pair of stiffeners

Ase area of steel shear connector

Ast area of steel in tension

Br factored bearing resistance of member or component

Bu ultimate bearing force in member or component

Ce Euler buckling strength = n 2 EI/ L2

Cr factored compressive resistance of member or component; factored compressive resistance of
steel acting at the centroid of that part of the steel area in compression
C' compressive resistance of concrete acting at the centroid of the concrete area in compression

cu ultimate compressive force in member or component; ultimate axial load

cw warping torsional constant

Cy axial compressive force in member at yield stress

Cl coefficient used to determine slip resistance

E elastic modulus of steel (assumed to be 200 x 103 MPa)

EC elastic modulus of concrete according to SANS 10100

e eccentricity; lever arm between compressive resistance C,. and tensile resistance Tr

~ e' lever arm between compressive resistanceCr of concrete and tensile resistance Tr of steel

I f
fcre
fcri
critical plate-buckling stress in compression, in flexure or in shear
elastic critical plate-buckling stress in shear
inelastic critical plate-buckling stress in shear
fcri inelastic critical plate-buckling stress in shear
+ specified compressive cube strength of concrete at 28 days to SANS 10100
lcu
fe elastic critical buckling stress in axial compression
fs ultimate shear stress
J; tension-field post-buckling stress
fu specified minimum tensile strength
fuw specified minimum ultimate strength of welding electrode
f vu ultimate shear strength
fy specified minimum yield stress
J; yield stress, including effect of cold working
G shear modulus of steel (assumed to be 77 x 103 MPa)
g transverse spacing between fastener-gauge lines (gauge distance)
h height; depth of steel section ; storey height
hs height of stud after welding
hw clear depth of web between flanges, or between web fillets of rolled section
I moment of inertia (subscripts refer to x- or y-axes)
J St Venant torsion constant of a cross-section
K effective-length factor
KL effective length
kb buckling coefficient
k5 mean slip coefficient
kv shear buckling coefficient
Ln net length - i.e. gross length, less design allowance for holes within the length
Mer critical elastic moment of laterally unbraced beam
MP plastic moment = Z plfy
M,. factored moment resistance of member or component

M,.c factored moment resistance of composite beam

Mu ultimate bending moment in member or component

Mug first-order moment under ultimate-gravity loads, determined assuming there is no
lateral translation of frame
Mut first-order translational moment under ultimate lateral loads, or moment resulting from
lateral translation of asymmetrical frame, or moment resulting in an asymmetrically
loaded frame under ultimate-gravity loading

xH
 MY yield moment= Zefy
m number of faying surfaces or shear planes in a bolted joint
N length of bearing of an applied load
n number; number of bolts; number of shear connectors required between point of
maximum positive bending moment and adjacent point of zero moment
Q,. sum of factored resistances of all shear connectors between points of maximum and zero
moment
qr factored shear resistance of a shear connector
q,.s factored shear resistance of shear connector in a solid slab
ry radius of gyration of a member about its weak axis
Tr factored tensile resistance of member or component; in composite construction ,
factored tensile resistance of the steel acting at the centroid of that part of the steel
area in tension

Tu ultimate tensile force in member or component

Ty axial tensile force in member at yield stress

t1 flange thickness

tw web thickness

U1 factor to account for moment gradient and for second-order effects of axial force
acting on the deformed member

U2 amplification factor to account for second-order effects of gravity loads acting on the
laterally displaced storey

vh total horizontal shear to be resisted at junction of steel section or joist and slab or
steel deck

vr factored shear resistance of member or component

slip resistance of bolted joint in a friction grip connection
~
v;, ultimate shear force in member or component

wn net width - i.e., gross width less design allowance for holes within width

ze elastic section modulus of steel section

~ z ef effective section modulus of steel section

I z p1
/:lu
plastic section modulus of steel section
relative first-order lateral (translational) displacement of the storey due to ultimate
loads (coincident with Mu 1)

xm
K ratio of smaller to larger ultimate moment at opposite ends of unbraced length,
positive for double curvature and negative for single curvature
A. non-dimensional slenderness ratio in column formula
L, Cu sum of ultimate axial compressive loads of all columns in the storey
L, Vu sum of ultimate lateral loads above the storey; total first-order storey shear
<j> resistance factor for structural steel
<Pb resistance factor for bolts
<l>be resistance factor for beam-web bearing - end
<l>bi resistance factor for beam-web bearing - interior
<l>br resistance factor for bearing of bolts on steel
<l>c resistance factor for concrete
"'s c
'f' resistance factor for shear connectors
<l>w resistance factor for weld metal
ro 1 coefficient used to determine equivalent uniform bending effect in beam-columns
ro2 coefficient to account for increased moment resistance of a laterally unsupported
beam segment when subject to a moment gradient

xiv
 Chapter 1
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS OF STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN

1. 1 Introduction

On the surface, structural steel may seem to be an unimaginative and limited material to the
uninformed - to the sensitive soul it may even seem to be harsh. In reality, in the hands of the
creative designer, it is one of the most powe rful and practical materials used to fulfil a function -
from habitat to heavy industry. It can provide strength, but also make the most elegant structures
possible . The history of innovation and development in steel, steel products and their application in
structures and facilities can be projected to great challenges and opportunities that still lie ahead -
not only for highly visible structures such as large industrial installations, but also for such basic needs
as housing for the poor.

The design of advanced and creative steel structures requires a high level of skill developed through
experience based on a sound technical knowledge and understanding of structural behaviour.
Attainment of such a skill must necessarily start with an introduction to the basic principles and
practice of the design of steel structures. By thoroughly covering the design of basic steel structures,
such an introduction is provided in this book. This could be the starting point of a lifelong involve me nt
with the intricacies and power of structural steel.

The scope of the book is implied by its reference to SANS 10162 (Parts 1 and 2). Building and other
stationary structures are therefore covered, with exclusion of road and rail bridges, antennae towers
and offshore structures. There is an additional focus on the design of structural elements and their
application in elementary structural systems . Advanced applications of structural steel are dealt with
only in an introductory manner. Such an introduction should serve to stimulate further interest. On
the other hand, it is also important for the designer to be aware of the limitations of his knowledge
and understanding.

1. 2 Structural design

The design of a steel building is preceded by, but closely linked to, the identification of a nee d for
such a facility, the establishment of its feasibility and mobilisation of the necessary resources for its
construction. Fabrication and erection follow and are directed by design. The safe and functional
performance of the structure during its use is, again, directly related to the adequacy of the design .

The objective of the design of a steel structure is to determine the optimal form which ensures its
safety and complies with client and regulatory requirements.

The design activity can be grouped into t hree consecutive phases - namely, conceptual, structural
and detailed design. By its very nature, design is an iterative process of concept, analysis and
verificat ion. The different phases can therefore not be decoupled completely. There is in fact, a close

1.1
 relationship between the number of interations at various levels, the overall efficiency of the design,
the complexity of the facility and the relative experience and competence of the designer.

The selection of the appropriate structural system and its overall geometry is of vital importance
in obtaining an efficient design solution. The ability and competence of the designer should be
developed from two points of departure. The behaviour and properties of different types of structural
elements - such as tensile and compressive loaded axial members, beams and beam-columns - should
be understood. The effects of the combining of elements into subsystems such as trusses, bracings
and cladding and their subsequent incorporation into buildings should be known . The two aspects of
structural elements and their integration into structural systems form the essence of the material
provided in this book.

The overall behaviour of structures as configured and dimensioned is determined by structural analysis
based on the theory of structures. Apart from using structural analysis to determine design forces in
elements and their connections, it should also be used to obtain optimal structural system layout and
overall geometry. Although structural analysis forms an integral part of the design process, it is only
superficially referred to in this book.

A number of design requirements are directly related to the functi on of the facility, such as the space,
layout and elevation of protected areas in the case of buildings, support of equipment in industrial
structures and degree of protection against adverse environmental factors for special facilities.
Standards of quality and aesthetics are also dependent on the client's brief. Schedule requirements
often play a dominant role in the execution of a project. Such limitations usually provide a competitive
advantage to structural steel.

The regulatory requirement of obtaining an acceptable standard of safety performance of the

structure is satisfied by designing the structure according to an accepted code of practice, and/or
national building regulations.

1. 3 Codes and standards

Codes of practice for structural steel design prescribe a set of design rules based on the results of
research and the captured experience of good practice, according to which acceptable levels of
structural safety will be obtained. The types of behaviour of steel structures at local, elemental
and global levels that can lead to failure or unacceptable performance are identified. The necessary
formulae, coefficients, limits and other requirements are then specified, which an acceptable
structure must satisfy. Uncertainties in conditions to which the structure will be exposed, the
subsequent behaviour of the structure and modelling approximations are taken into account in the
process .

Because of their prescriptive nature, design codes are perceived to be rigid and stagnant. In actual
fact, while maintaining the necessary conservatism , codes are progressively refined in order to
capitalise on a better understanding of structural behaviour, advanced modelli ng and improved
materials.

1.2
 1.4 Basis for design codes

Application of the theory of elasticity to the modelling of structural behaviour took structural design
from empirical rules of proportion into the era of science-based technology. Linear elasticity made
the prediction of structural behaviour possible down to stress distributions across the structure. The
dependence of the failure of structural materials on stress conditions was also established . This led
to the principle of using, as the basis for design codes, the close relationship between t he maximum
stress in a structural element and its failure . Allowable Stress Design (ASD) codes therefore obtain
the necessary conservatism and safety by limiting the maximum stress in the structure through the
relationship

allowable stress =yield stress/ factor of safety ( 1 . 1)

Variations in conditions and failure mechanisms are taken into account by making the factor of safety
sufficiently large and prescribing a range of factors.

A number of requirements in structural design cannot readily be accommodated in ASD codes. The
empirical nature of the factor of safety does not make allowance for applications in advanced
structures where the consequences of failure are larger, but only a limited experience base is
available. Even in conventional structures, the opposing trends of improved economic performance
and more stringent and regulated safety standards cannot be accommodated. In particular, the non-
elastic reserve capacity of structural steel cannot be utilised. The contribution of such diverse factors
as loading and structural performance to the risk of structural failure is not taken into account in a
rational and balanced fashion . The revised SANS 10162 no longer supports ASD.

These requirements have become clear in the light of advances made in structural analysis through
experimental research and numerical modelling. Structural reliability analysis is one of the tools that
provide a basis for the rational development of design codes. This has led to the introduction of Limit-
States Design (LSD), also known in the USA as Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD). Limit states
refer to the general formulation of failure expressed as the exceedance of certain performance limits.
Two classes of performance limit of the structure, related to the safety and functionality, are defined.
Differentiation in the allocation of partial safety factors to structural resistance or capacity and load
effects is referred to in the term LRFD. Another important feature of LSD-based codes is that the set
of partial safety factors is derived probabilistically, to provide a deterministic design basis with an
implicit level of structural reliability.

A simplified outline of the reliability theory basis for LSD will now be presented, followed by an
outline of its application in the design codes.

1. 5 Reliability basis for limit-states design

Describing the resistance of a structural element (for example, its moment capacity) in terms of a
probabilistic or basic variable, R, and the effects of load actions in the same dimensions (for example,
moments caused by self-weight and imposed loads) as the basic variables G and Q respectively, the
structural performance (g) is described by the probabilistic function
1.3
 g=R-(G+Q) (1.2)

The limit state is then given by g = 0, with failure taking place when g < O. For Gaussian or Normal
basic variables, the performance function is also Normal, resulting in the following probability of
failure (Pf)

(1. 3)

where <I> is the cumulative Normal function and ~ is called the reliability index, given by

(R-G-Q)
~=---;:::::::==~ (1.4)
{(J2
'\/ R
+ (J2G + (J2Q

where R, Gand Q are the mean of the variables R, G and Q respectively, and cr the standard
deviation of the respective basic variables.

Approximate methods have been developed to obtain similar solutions (Ang et al, 1984) for actual
structures with non-normal distribution of basic variables and more involved performance functions.

1. 6 Code application of reliability theory

A number of practical and conceptual adaptations are made in the application of the structural
reliability model to LSD codes of practice.

Target reliabilities are derived from previously existing accepted practice and standards
of safety. Inconsistencies and anomalies are eliminated in the process. The fundamental
development of safety standards is directed towards advanced structures for which acceptable
design standards are not available.

Although load actions and structural resistance are interrelated, separate codes are developed
in each case . The Loading Code SANS 10160 is applicable to structures in general, while SANS
10162 is formulated specifically for steel structures.

• Structural performance is classified in two categories, namely:

Ultimate Limit State (ULS): This limit state reflects the safety performance of the structure;
low failure probabilities are reflected by partial safety factors deviating substantially from the
value of 1,0; plastic reserve capacity is integrated into the conservatism .

Serviceability Limit State (SLS): This limit state is related to the functional performance of
the structure; failure probabilities are in the range of 5% to 10%.

1.4
 • Partial safety factors are applied to nominal values of load actions Qn.

• Load actions, apart from self-weight loads which are accepted to apply over a long period of
time, are combined through separate load cases: high factored values for each load action in
turn are combined with lower values for other applicable load actions. This is similar to the
rule of Turkstra et al (1980), which states that an extreme value for load combinations can be
approximated by the extreme value for each load action in turn, combined with expected or
arbitrary point-in-time values for the other load actions.

• More conservative resistance factors are applied to cases where failure has more than a
local effect, or could occur in a brittle fashion - for example the design of structural steel
connections.

1. 7 Limit-states design applied in South African codes for structural

steel design

Motivation for the application of LSD basis for South African structural design codes of practice was
presented by Kemp et al (1987). SANS 10160, referred to here as the Loading Code, provides the
general outline of LSD in Chapter 4, with the specific application of load factors and load combinations
given in Clause 4.4. The application of LSD to structural steel is covered in SANS 10162. A very useful
summary is presented in an article Take it to the limit: A brief description of limit-states design
philosophy for the design of steel structures (SASCH, 1997).

The general formulation of the limit-states criterion of failure is given in Clause 4.2 of the Loading
Code in terms of the design resistance Rd and the design load action or effect Qd, as

(1 .5)

which can be positively expressed as a design criterion

where (1.6)

and <I>1 is the resistance factor, fk is the characteristic material strength and y m the associated
partial factor. Expressions are provided in SANS 10162 for the range of structural steel elements such
as axial members, beams and beam-columns .

The simplified expression for the design load effect given above is provided more specifically in Clause
4.4.1, SANS 10160, to determine load cases for different load combinations as

(1 . 7)

1.5

I
Load factors y i for the corresponding load effects are tabulated together with the corresponding load
combination factor <pi. Dn is the nominal permanent load effect and QnJ the selected dominant
imposed load effect which is combined with the applicable other load effects Qni . The selection of
alternative dominant load effects results in a number of load cases.

Two limit states are defined in Clause 4 .3 of SANS 10160 as follows :

(a) The ultimate limit state concerns safety and corresponds to the maximum load -carrying
capacity. SANS 10162 specifies the following failure machanisms to be considered :

Clause 6.3.1 Strength

Clause 6. 3.2 Overturning and uplift
Clause 6.6 Fatigue

(b) The serviceability limit state is defined as a state which restricts normal use and occupancy or
affects durability. SANS 10162 specifies the following serviceability limits to be considered :

Clause 6.2.1 Deflections

Clause 6.2. 2 Camber
Clause 6.2. 3 Dynamic effects

A number of typical load combinations derived from the tabulated load factors 'Y and load combination
factors cp , as given in the loading code, are tabulated in Table 1.1.

Table 1. 1: Load combinations

Load case Design load combination Dominating load

Ultimate limit state

U1 1.5Dn Self-weight

U2 1.2Dn + 1.6Ln Imposed

U3 1.2Dn + 0.3x1.6Ln +1.3Wn Wind

= 1.2Dn +0.5Ln +1.3Wn

U4 0.9Dn +1 .3Wn Wind-uplift

Serviceability limit state

S1 1.lDn + 1.0Ln Imposed

S2 1.lDn +0.3L11 +0.6Wn Wind

1.6
 D , Land W denote the self-weight, imposed floor, or accessible roof and wind load actions,
respectively. The subscript n refers to the nominal values of the actions.

1. 8 Stability considerations

Due to the slenderness of steel structures, stability effects play an important role in structural design .
The effects of buckling need to be taken into account when considering the strength capacity of a
section, the behaviour of a structural element and the overall stability of the structure.

For elements where compressive forces act across the section, a classification system, based on width -
to-thickness ratios of flange and web components of the profile, is applied to take account of local
buckling effects, as prescribed in Clause 11 and Tables 11 .2(a) and (b) of SANS 10162. Classification
of standard profiles of Grade 300W steel is given in the Southern Africa Steel Construction Handbook
(limit-states design), (SASCH, 2003) hereafter referred to as the SASCH.

Provision for stability effects of structural elements exposed to compressive forces forms an integral
part of the element design and is covered in the chapters on the design of columns, beams and beam -
columns . Effective lengths used in element design must be determined according to Clause 10, SANS
10162. Support and end conditions need to be considered in the determination of effective lengths.
For simply-supported beams the destabilising effect of loads that are free to move laterally is taken
into account through the effective length (Table 10.2.1 SANS 10162). According to Clause 10.4.2,
maximum slenderness ratios are limited to 200 for members under compression and 300 for tension
members. The slenderness ratio of an element is the ratio of its effective length to the radius of
gyration of the section, which is tabulated in the SASCH for standard profiles.

For the entire structure, lateral stability should be provided to resist not only lateral load actions
such as wind loading, but also the side-sway caused by unsymmetrical vertical loads or structural
layout. Provision for lateral stability through bracing, shear walls or continuous framed construction
is prescribed in Clause 9, SANS 10162. Second-order effects produced by vertical loads that act on
the sway-displaced structure should be taken into account according to Clause 9.2.7 of the Code. As
an alternative to second-order structural analysis or an iterative analysis, an amplifying factor (U2 )
is given by which the sway moments ( Mut) must be increased and added to the unswayed moments
(Mug) to obtain the ultimate moment (Mu) (Clause 8.7, SANS 10162).
1. 9 Structural steel

The manufacture of structural steel, its properties, selection of performance factors and the grading
of structural steel available in Southern Africa are covered in the introductory chapters of the SASCH,
together with a tabulation of dimensions and dimensional properties of standard cross-sectional
profiles . Properties such as strength, weldability, toughness, thermal strength and brittleness, and
corrosion characteristics need to be carefully considered in particular applications. However, Grade
300W steel, a weldable steel with a yield strength of 300 MPa, has such a wide application as structural
steel that tables of resistance properties are based on this material.

1.7
 1.10 Outline of contents

A logical progression is given in the following chapters. Chapter 2 deals with determining design
loadings of steel structures and the basic elements are introduced in order of complexity. The design
of axially loaded tensile members, dealt with in Chapter 3, establishes a number of basic principles.
This includes the calculation of the effective net areas and the effects of shear lag on the tensile
resistance. The dominating effect of stability in structural steel on a local and elemental level is made
clear in Chapter 4, which deals with the design of compression members.

The flexural design of members consisting of beams and plate girders is considered in Chapter 5,
and beam-column design for members subjected to combined axial and flexural loads is covered in
Chapter 6. Forces are transferred between structural elements and foundations through connections
and interfaces. This is covered in detail in Chapter 7. Bracing systems (Chapter 8) are used, inter alia,
to provide lateral stability and load-transfer capability. The analysis and design of lattice girders and
trusses is dealt with in Chapter 9.

The design of cold-formed sections, which is discussed in Chapter 10, provides economical solutions
to light substructures, particularly in the case of roof systems. The utilisation of the plastic reserve
capacity of structural steel contributes to the economic use of the material. Plastic design is covered
in Chapter 11. The integrated use of structural steel and concrete is another example of obtaining
economical solutions through increased complexity of design. This subject is introduced in Chapter
12, which deals with composite structures .

Chapter 13 presents the integrated design of a steel structure consisting of most of the elements
considered in the chapters preceding it, using light industrial buildings as a specific application.

The critical design considerations of providing protection against fire hazards are presented in Chapter
14, and site construction activities for structural steel projects are discussed in Chapter 15.

--------oOo--------

1.8
 STRUCTURAL LOADING

2. 1 Introduction

From the laws of physics and gravity it is evident that everything has some mass, and therefore an
associated weight. Whenever such a weight is imposed on a structure, the structure is required to
support this weight and it thus constitutes a load on the structure. The most convenient units to
express the weight are kilonewtons (kN). To get some physical feel for what a kilonewton is, note
that:

• a large person weighs about 1 kN (he/she has a mass of about 0.1 ton, i.e. 100 kg).
• a medium-sized motor car weighs about 10 kN (it has a mass of about 1 ton) .

It needs to be recognised that there are different types of loads. Most loads on buildings can be
considered as point loads or distributed loads. A load which is placed at a point on a structure is
referred to as a "point load" (or a concentrated load). When a single large person stands on a floor,
that person's weight is a point load of 1 kN. If the weight is spread out over any area, it constitutes a
pressure (distributed) load on that area. The pressure may be calculated as the total weight divided
by the total area over which it is spread. Thus, in a closely packed crowd of people, there will
typically be about six people per square metre, leading to a floor load of about 6 kN/m 2 , as shown in
Figure 2.1.

1
l 1m l
>]

Figure 2. 1: Pressure loading (6 kN/m 2 )

Similarly, if 20 cars are parked in a space 12 m wide and 14 m long, they could be considered as a
pressure load on the floor of

Pressure=
I
2ox10 = 1.2 kN m 2
12x14

2.1
 This chapter gives an overview of the loads carried by structures . It is not intended to be a
comprehensive study of loads, but rather aims to give an introduction which will aid the reader's
understanding of what causes loads on structures. Details of the loads for which structures must be
designed are provided in the South African loading code, SANS 10160:1989 (as amended in 1990).

2. 2 Generation of loads

Loads arise from various sources . The most important of these are described as follows .

2.2.1 Self-weight

Any structure must be made of some kind of material and all materials have some weight. Table 2.1
lists the densities and specific gravity values of several typical building materials. (Note that the
gravity acceleration constant, which is used to calculate weight from mass, is typically taken as 10
when dealing with engineering calculations, as implied in Table 2. 1.)

Table 2. 1: Densities and specific gravity values of selected building materials

Density Specific gravity

Material 3)
(t/m (kN/m 3 )

Concrete 2.240 22.4

Reinforced concrete 2.560 25.6
Steel 7.850 78.5
Brickwork 2.160 21 .6
Granite masonry 2.640 26.4
Hardwood timber 0.850 8.5
S.A. pine timber 0.500 5.0

In certain instances the self-weight of a structure may constitute only a very small proportion of the
total weight that must be supported by the structure. This applies to most small and medium steel
structures. In other cases (for example, large bridges) the self-weight may be virtually the entire
weight to be supported. The ratio of self-weight to total load supported depends on various factors,
the most important of which are the size and type of structure, and the structural materials . Typically,
the bigger the structure and the longer the spans, the greater the proportion of self-weight to total
load. Some simplified typical values are shown in Figure 2.2 . Heavy finishes, such as masonry or thick
concrete panels, also lead to high self-weight loads. Table 2.2 lists the weights of some common
roofing and cladding materials.

A difficulty in assessing the self-weight of any structure is that, before assessing the self-weight
properly, it is necessary to know how big the structural members are. This cannot be done until the
loading, including the self-weight, is known. So one finds oneself in a cycle of needing the member
sizes to establish their self-weight, the self-weight to find their required strength, and their required
strength to determine their sizes, as shown schematically in Figure 2.3.

2.2
 N' 7.5 N' 7_5 . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
E
z
~ ~
zE
Floor spans
Ol Ol

~
c c
32 32
:g 5.o :g 5.o>--
0 o
:E Floor spans :E
Ol 10 m Ol
'iii
·~ s:
-.!.
Qi
================-~m -.!.
Qi
(/) 2.5 .______.__ __.__ _.__ _.__--'----_ _.____, (/) 2.5 ._______._,_ __.__ _.__ _.__--'----_-'--'
5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30
Number of floors Number of floors

(a) Steel frame with composite floors (b) Concrete construction

Figure 2.2: Comparison of self-weight of typical office building

Table 2.2: Weight of roofing and cladding materials

Weight
Matenal
(kN/m 2 )

Cement tiles 0.5

Clay tiles 0.7 - 1.2
Asbestos cement 0.25
Slate 0. 5 - 0.8
Steel sheeting 0.1
Aluminium sheeting 0.05

Member strength

Member size Self-weight

Figure 2.3: Self-weight cycle

In order to enter this cycle, it is necessary to guess the self-weight of the members. Experience, or
information such as that given in Figure 2.2, makes this possible. In many cases, particularly with small
and medium-sized steel structures which have a small self-weight, it may also be possible to ignore the
self-weight for determination of the load on individual structural members. Once a member has been
sized, its exact self-weight is known, and the loads and member strength can then be checked.

In the case of most steel structures the self-weight is sufficiently low so that it is not necessary to go
to any length to reduce it. There are, however, some situations where it is most important to reduce
the self-weight as much as possible. One situation is where earthquakes are experienced or areas with

2.3

~ J
 poor founding soil conditions. Under these conditions it may be difficult to achieve a safe structure
unless the total loads are kept as low as possible. It is then important to minimise the self-weight in
order to provide a safe structure. Another situation is where the ratio of self-weight to total loads is
very high, such as on a major bridge. Here the final cost of the whole structure is largely dependent
on the self-weight, so it is only possible to achieve an economical structure by ensuring a minimum
self-weight.

Example E2.1: Self-weight of reinforced concrete slab

The total self-weight of a floor must be calculated and expressed as a pressure over the floor area.
The floor is made of a 150 mm thick reinforced concrete slab and has 305 X 146 X 31 kg/m I-beams
spaced 3 m apart. The floor spans 5 m and is 15 m long.

There are 5 steel beams, each 5 m long. Each beam has a mass of 31x5 = 155 kg = 0.155 tons.

Thus, each beam weighs 0.155 x I 0 = 1.55 kN.

The 5 steel beams together weigh 1.55 X 5 = 7 .8 kN .

The concrete weighs 0.150x5 x15x 25.6 = 288 kN.

The total weight of the floor is thus 7.8+ 288 = 295.8 kN.

Expressing this as a pressure over the floor area, we get (

295.8 I 2
) = 3.94 kN m .
5x15
Example E2.2: Self-weight of chimney stack

A steel chimney stack is 18 m high, has a diameter of 1.3 m, and is made of 8 mm thick plate. The
entire stack is lined with a 50 mm thickness of heat-resistant brickwork. Calculate the self-weight of
this stack.

The steel stack weighs 18x1.3 x 7t x 0.008 x 78.5 = 46.2 kN.

The diameter of the fire-brick lining is 1.3-0.05=1.25 m .

The fire-brick lining weighs 18x1.25 x 7t x 0.05 x 21.6 = 76.3 kN.

The total weight of the stack is thus 46.2+76.3=122.5 kN.

2.2.2 Environmentally induced loads

An important function of almost all building structures is to provide space in which to live or work
and in which people are protected from the environment. This environmental protection requires that
wind, rain, snow, hail, etc., are kept on the outside of the structure, which implies that the structure
must carry their weight or pressure, as shown in Figure 2.4.

2.4
 (a) Wind and rain forces (b) Hail and snow forces

Figure 2.4: Typical weather loads

Environmentally induced loads are typically considered to be of two different types. Wind blowing
against a structure causes pressure loads which act perpendicular to the wall or roof surface of a
building. Other environmentally induced loads derive from the weight of water or ice and thus act
vertically downwards on the roof only. These two different types of loads are dealt with in different
ways .

Wind loads (Clause 5.5, SANS 10160)

Wind loads are difficult to predict and calculate accurately. In an attempt to provide a reasonable
method of calculating likely wind loads, the South African loading code, SANS 10160 (in common with
many other loading codes), gives a three-step approach which incorporates the major parameters
influencing this load.

Step 1 Determine the nominal wind speed (V';)

The wind speed is determined by:

(a) A variety of meteorological and geographical factors, which are rather complex. The South
African Weather Service Bureau has, however, for many years kept records of measured wind
speeds at different locations around South Africa, and these have been analysed statistically by
Milford (1987). This resulted in the development of a regional basic wind-speed contour map of
South Africa, given in SANS 10160, which is reproduced here as Figure 2. 5. For structural design
the basic wind speed which is likely to occur within a 50-year period is t aken as the appropriate
wind speed.

From Figure 2.5 it can be seen that, for most of South Africa, the basic wind speed is 40 mis,
but it rises to 45 mis in the central Karoo and to 50 mis around Beaufort West.

(b) The presence of any local terrain features, such as buildings or trees, creates a roughness,
which reduces t he wind speed . Four different terrain categories are defined. Terrain Category
1 is essentially flat, open countryside or sea. Terrain Category 2 has small, scattered buildings
or trees, such as typical farmland. Terrain Category 3 includes suburban and light industrial
areas, with closely spaced small to medium buildings and large trees. Terrain Category 4 has
many large buildings, as in the centre of major cities.

2.5
 ..c 25
"5
0
(/)
(/)
Q)
E?
O>
Q)
"O
ai
"O
:e
1il
....J
30

15 20 25 30 35
Longitude, degrees east

Figure 2.5: Regional basic wind speed (V) mis contours for South Africa

These last two effects are combined by SANS 10160 into a factor ( kz) which gives the variation
of characteristic wind speed for building height and terrain categories. This factor is simplified
in Table 2.3 for Class B structural elements (corresponding to a 5-sec gust profile), where
neither the height nor the width nor the depth of the building exceeds 50 m.

Table 2.3: Multiplying factor (kz) for wind speed

Building Level, clear Scattered small Close buildings and Major buildmgs
height terrain bu1ldmgs or trees trees (City centres)
(m) (Sea or desert) (Farmland) (Suburbs or light
industrial)
5 1.02 0.92 0.64 0.62
10 1.08 0.98 0.71 0.62
20 1.13 1.05 0.83 0.62
50 1.21 1.15 0.98 0.84
100 1.27 1.22 1.10 0.98

The nominal wind speed is obtained by multiplying the basic wind speed from Figure 2.5 by the
appropriate multiplying factor from Table 2.3, i.e.

(2.1)

2.6
Step 2 Determine free-stream velocity pressure (qz) (Clause 5.5.3.1)

The wind pressure is dependent on the square of the wind speed and the density of the air. The air
density factor depends on the height above sea level as given in Table 2.4. The free-stream wind
pressure is thus given by

(2. 2)

Table 2.4: Air density factor ( k P)

AltitlJde t.. ,,
0 0.60
500 0.56
1 000 0.53
1 500 0.50
2 000 0.47

Step 3 Determine pressures on each structural element

The pressure exerted on part of a structure is a function of the free-stream velocity pressure, the
geometry of the structure and its orientation towards the flow. The relationship between the free-
stream pressure and the pressure exerted at a particular point of the structure is represented by
the pressure coefficients . The pressure coefficients are multiplied by the site wind pressure ( qz) to
obtain the actual wind pressure for any particular building surface.

A great deal of experimental work has been done worldwide to quantify these pressure coefficients.
SANS 10160 lists the coefficients for a large variety of different building shapes and sizes. The Code
introduces two pressure coefficients - the external pressure coefficient ( C pe) and the internal
pressure coefficient ( C pi) .
The external pressure coefficient ( C pe) is used to determine the pressure on the external surface
of a space-endorsing element, such as a wall or roof. The C pe coefficients are given in Tables 6 to
9 of SANS 10160, depending on the type of element under consideration. It should be noted that a
positive pressure coefficient indi<::ates a pressure towards the surface, whereas a negative coefficient
indicates a pressure away from the surface, or a suction . For roofs with a slope of less than about 30°,
the wind develops a suction which tends to lift the roof up and off the building (see Table 7 of SANS
10160).

The internal pressure coefficient ( C pi) is used to determine the pressure on the i nternal surface of
the element. The fluctuating internal pressures are generated by the wind as soon as there are any air
passages allowing the flow between the exterior and interior. These may include

permanent openi ngs (vents, air conditioning, louvres);

temporary openings (windows and doors);
2.7
 leakages (through the doors, windows, roof cladding); and
accidental openings (broken windows, wall or roof sheeting) .

Internal pressures tend to adjust to the external pressures at the position of air leakage. Thus, openings
on a windward side tend to produce positive internal pressures, and those in the side or end walls
negative internal pressure. In cases where there are several openings on various sides of buildings, the
internal pressures tend to equalise towards a weighted average, with large openi ngs having a greater
influence. The approach used in SANS 10160 in determining Cpi is based on calculating the relative
permeability of various external walls in relation to the wind direction.

Permeability is defined as the ratio of openings to the "solid" portion of the wall. For rectangular
buildings of open interior plan, Cpi values are given in Table 10 of the Code. For two opposite walls
equally permeable, with the other walls impermeable

C pi = +0.2 (wind normal to permeable wall)

Cpi = -0.3 (wind normal to impermeable wall)

Step 4 Determine resultant forces

The force on the structural element can then be calculated as

(2. 3)

where Az is the area of element at height z .

For the determination of overall forces on clad buildings, the reader is referred to Clause 5.5.3.3 of
the Code.

It has to be noted that it is never possible to define wind direction for design, as the wind may blow
from anywhere. When assessing the wind loads, it is thus always necessary to determine the worst
wind load, considering any wind direction.

Other weather loads

All other weather loads are very simply dealt with in SANS 10160 (Clause 5.4.4.3) by using a uniform
load which varies from a minimum value of 0.3 kN/m 2 to a maximum intensity of 0.5 kN/m 2 depending
on the tributary area. This makes allowance for rain and hail or light snow, provided the hail or snow
does not collect in valleys within the roof structure. If the roof structure is such that hail is likely to
collect in large quantities in valleys, then extra allowance should be made for it. Over most of South
Africa no snow - or only light snow - is expected, but if heavy snow can be expected where a building
is to be sited this may necessitate an increase in the applied load. SANS 10160 does make allowance
for snow depths exceeding 250 mm. Where it is known that snow depth exceeding 250 mm could be
expected to accumulate on a roof, a distributed load corresponding to the expected depth of snow
should be considered.

2.8
SANS 10160 Example E2.3: Wind loading on an industrial building Output
Reference

A light industrial building, located in an industrial area

outside Bloemfontein, is 10 m high to the top of the walls and
measures 80 m long and 20 m wide. The roof slope is 20°, and
windows and doors are equally distributed along both ends of
the gable walls. Calculate the wind pressure on the roof and
all sides of the building, and whatever other loads may be
applied to the roof of the building.

Solution

Step 1 For the Bloemfontein area, the basic wind speed is

Figure 3 V =40 m/s 1 - 40 m/<>

A light industrial area falls into terrain category 3 and Class B.

Therefore the height and terrain category factor for a height
of 13. 6 mis

Table 5 kz - 0.76

The nominal wind speed is thus

I z = 30.4 mf ~

Step 2 The altitude in Bloemfontein is about 1 400 m, so the

free-stream velocity pressure is

5.5.3.1 kp =0.51

2 2 2 2
5.5.3.1 qz =kpVz =0.51x30.4 =471N/m =0.47 kN/m qz -0.47 kV/m"'

Step 3 Determination of wind-pressure coefficients and

pressures on the different surfaces of the building

(i) Wind across building 8 = 0°

The external pressure coefficients ( C pe) for t he walls are

obtained form Table 6 and the internal pressure coefficients
(Cpi) from Table 10 of the Code.

2.9
SANS 10160 Example E2.3: Continue d Out put
Reference

Wind C
direction

~
20·

~[.....___..
E
B g
A II
.0

' " - - - - - - - ' ---''<

l
...
w = 20 m l
"
J, w =~Om i
Side elevation Plan

Figure E2.3(a): Dimensions of structure

For -
h
= 10 = -1 and -
b
=-80 =4 the pressure
w 20 2 w 20
coefficients are shown in Figure E2.3(b).

I
Table 6 and Wind
direction
+0.7
- I-- -0.3 - 1---0.25 c" = -0.3
Table 10

I
I
-0.6
Figure E2.3(b): Pressure coefficient on walls for 8 = 0°
The wind pressure for each element is then obtained from
qz (C pe - C p1.) and is shown in Figure E2.3(c).
0.141
t

0.47 - ~ 0.0235

~
0. 141

Figure E2.3(c): Wind pressure on walls (kN/m 2 ) 8 = 0°

2.10
SANS 10160 Example E2.3: Continued Output
Reference

The external pressure coefficients ( C pe )

for the roof are
obtained from Table 7. The internal pressure coefficient can
be assumed to be +0.3 although it is not clearly stated in Table C1,, = +0.3
10 of the Code.

h
For a roof angle of 20° and - =-1 , the maximum pressure
w 2
coefficients and wind pressures are shown in Figures E2.3(d)
and E2.3(e) respectively.

Table 7 and -o~.4

Table 10 +0.3

Figure E2.3(d): Pressure coefficients on roof for 9 = 0°

0.376 0.329
,)-----L _
Figure E2.3(e): Wind pressure on roof (kN/m 2 ) for 9 = 0°

(ii) Wind acting along building (9 = 90°)

A similar analysis to that for the wind acting across the
Table 7
building is performed. For wind acting normal to a permeable
wall Cpi = +0.2. The pressure coefficients and wind C111 - +0.2
pressures on the walls are shown in Figures E2.3(f) and E2 .3(g)
respectively.
Wi nd

!! direction

+0.7

t
Table 6 and
-o.s- - +0.2 -e---o.s
Table 10

t
-0.1

Figure E2.3(f): Pressure coefficients on walls for 9 = 90°

2.11
SANS 10160 Example E2.3: Continued Output
Reference

0.235
i

0.329- i--0.329

•
0.141

Figure E2.3(g): Wind pressure on walls (kN/m 2 ) for 0 = 90°

The maximum pressure coefficients and wind pressures on the

Table 10 roof for wind acting along the building are shown in Figures
E2.3(h) and E2.3(i) respectively. Cpi is assumed to be +0.3. CP = +o.3

Table 7 and -0~.7

Table 10 +0.3

Figure E2. 3(h): Pressure coefficients on roof for 0 = 0°

0.470 0.470
y---z
Figure E2.3(i): Wind pressure on roof (kN/m 2 ) for 0 = 90°

Note that there are also drag forces arising from friction on
the roof, in addition to the forces calculated above. These
forces are described in Section 9.3.3. The effects of local
pressures have also been ignored in the calculations.

Step 4 Other weather loads

5.4.4.3 The only other load which will be applied to the roof of
this building is a maximum uniform pressure of 0.5 kN/m 2
which covers all other weather loads. Snowfalls may occur in
Bloemfontein but are unlikely to be very heavy, so it would not
be appropriate to either increase or reduce this load.

2 . 12
 2.3 Building use

The intended use of any building is a further important criterion in determining the Loads that must be
carried. A warehouse floor that is intended to carry heavy stores, such as bolts or stacks of paint tins,
will be much more heavily Loaded than a floor which is intended as a restaurant in which tables and
diners are well spread out. It may be possible to build up an assessment of the Load to be carried by
a floor by adding the weight of each item likely to be on the floor. This would have to include people,
furniture, filing cabinets, equipment, stored materials, and other items. It would thus be a very
laborious process, requiring many assumptions to be made. The loads are thus defined from typical
experience and load history. Over the years, many studies have been done to determine the likely
floor Loading in a wide variety of different building types. Table 2.5 shows the floor toads specified by
SANS 10160 to be used for the most common types of building occupancy. The values given may appear
fairly high, but this is because the structural design of any building must ensure that the highest likely
load can be carried safely.

Table 2.5: Typical floor loads (Clause 5 of SANS 10160)

KN/m 2

Residential 1.5
Normal office 2.5
Entertainment areas 3.0
Corridors and lobbies 3.0
Retail sales areas 4.0
Assembly halls 4.0
Sports complexes 4.0
Hotels 5.0
Exhibition halls 5.0
Library 5.0
Warehousing 2.0 - 8.0

In selecting the appropriate building occupancy type, it is important to consider, together with the
client, whether this may change at any future date. Should this be likely, it may be sensible to design
the structure to carry the highest contemplated occupancy load, because structural changes are
extremely difficult and costly to make after completion of the building.

One further aspect of loads derived from building usage is the loads imposed by any partitioning and
other fixed furnishings. In typical office buildings this is likely to be about 1.5 kN/m 2 • This can be
treated as a dead load if it is definitely permanent. However, since the building occupancies often
change during the life of the building, partitioning and fixed furnishings may well be repositioned or
removed entirely. They are thus usually treated as live loads.

2 . 13
 2.4 Thermal loads

All materials expand as the t emperature increases and contract as it decreases. The amount of
expansion/contraction is given by the equation

11L = a(11T )L (2.4)

where

11L = the change in length

a = the coefficient of thermal expansion
11T = the change in temperature
L = the length or span of the member

The thermal expansion coefficients for the most important building materials are given in Table 2.6.

Table 2.6: Thermal expansion coefficients

Expansion coefficients
Matenal
/°C

Steel 12x10-6
Aluminium 24x10- 6
Concrete lO x l0-6
Glass 7x10-6

These properties may or may not lead to additional loads on the buildings. Whether loads are induced
or not depends on any restraint to this movement taking place . Vert ically the top of every building
is free to move upwards or downwards, so there is no restraint at all on the main vertical members
in a building. Vertical expansion simply causes a small change in the height of any building, without
inducing any additional loads, so this is usually not considered in building design. It may, however, be
important in some types of structures, because during the day the sun heats only the north side of a
building in South Africa and not the south side. Examples of structures which are influenced by this
differential thermal effect are storage silos.

Building structures also expand horizontally. In most small to medium-sized buildings this does not
lead to any loads being developed. This is because horizontal forces are resisted by a single central
core, as described in more detail in the chapter dealing with bracing. There is thus only one position
in the building at which horizontal movement is restrained. Temperature changes thus lead to free
outward expansion or contraction, away from this braced core. The expansion equation given above
can be used to determi ne the amount of outward or inward movement of the walls relative to the
core, and it is then up to the architect or engineer to decide whether this temperature movement
is acceptable or not. Where a large building has two or more cores, expansion or contraction of the

2 . 14
 building between these cores may induce quite severe loads into the structure, unless adequate
expansion joints are provided to allow free expansion and contraction. It is thus good practice to
provide expansion joints between all cores in a building, to eliminate thermal loads. These would
typically be laid out as shown in Figure 2.6 .

c
:Q,
c:
0
"iii
c:
a
x
UJ

:oc
c:
-~ ::=:::::::::=:::::::::=~I
c:
"'
0.
x
UJ

Figure 2.6: Typical layout of expansion joints

The amount of expansion that must be accommodated by these joints can be calculated from the
expansion equation above, and the joints must then be wide enough to allow this movement to take
place freely. It is very difficult to provide for an expansion joint at the same place, since bending
moments must be resisted, so expansion joints are almost always placed along beams between
columns, where the slab bending moments are zero for slabs that are simply supported . Single-span
bridges are normally anchored at one end and supported on sliding bearings, with an expansion joint
at the other end to prevent any thermal loads developing.

If no provision is made for expansion joints to eliminate expansion loads, and it is assumed that the
ends of members are rigidly restrained, the induced loads can be calculated for a building member
of elastic modulus ( E) which has a length of ( L) , a cross-sectional area (A) and a temperature
change of ( !:::.T).

The change of length of the member is f::.L = ax f::.T x L

The strain ( e) on the member is thus e = f::.L =ax f::.T

L
and the stress (a) in the member is therefore O' = ex E = ax f::.T x E.

For steel, where the coefficient of thermal expansion is a= 12 X10-6 ° C - l and the elastic modulus
is usually taken as E = 200 x I 03 MPa , this temperature-induced stress becomes

a= 12x10- 6 x f::.T x 200x103 = 2.4 x f::.T MPa.

The temperature range can be as much as 40 °C, which implies a thermal stress of about 32% of the
yield stress of steel a = 2.4 x 40 = 96 MPa .

2.15

/~I
Example E2.4: Expansion joints

A concrete floor is 100 m long and is required to have an expansion joint in the middle since the
building has a braced core at each end. Calculate the required width of this joint.

The length that can expand is 50 m each side of the expansion joint. If the floor is likely to be cast in
winter, we can assume a temperature of 5 °C when it is cast. If we then assume a maximum summer
= =
temperature of 35 °C, we have !!.T 35 - 5 30 °C .

The expansion each side of the joint is thus !!.L = I 0 x I o-6 x 30x50x103 = 15 mm .
The required width of the expansion joint is thus 2x15 = 30 mm.

2. 5 Stability loads (Clause 9 of SANS 10162)

The concept of stability is vital to the satisfactory structural design of buildings. Any member which
is loaded in compression or in bending, tends to deform sideways and may even collapse due to
geometric and material imperfections. This is shown in Figure 2.7.

Unstable condition Stable condition

Figure 2. 7: Instability and stability concepts

This tendency must be resisted by the provision of bracing to prevent lateral movement and rotation
of the building at each floor level. The possibility of any movement in both horizontal directions and
rotation in the horizontal plane must be prevented for complete stability. Some of the movements and
rotations that can occur are shown in Figure 2.8.

In preventing movement, the bracing is required to carry an assumed lateral load. The bracing is
required to carry a load of at least 0.02 times the factored compressive force at each brace point in
the member or element being braced.

It is usually not necessary to make specific allowance for these loads in the architectural layout of
buildings, as bracing can be fitted within internal or external walls, or the walls themselves can be
2.16
 .. .. .. .. .. - - - ----~
''
''
''
'' "'
''
' ' '' ''
''
' ' ----------------------..----
r~-·- - ""
No bracing - allows movement One brace - allows movement
allows rotation allows rotation

''
''
''
,,
''
'' ''
''
''
'L---::: ;:: •-- -- ••=~~: ..' ''
"
One brace - allow s movement Two braces - allow movement
allows rotation
----------~
~ - ----- - --- --------- - ~------------ --- - ---~
'' ''
"
"

Two braces - allow rotation Adequate bracing - no movement

no rotation

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Indicates bracing

Figure 2.8: Possible movement of a building

used as "shear walls" to resist horizontal loads and stability loads. It must, however, be remembered
that the structural engineer will have to fit these structural components in somewhere to ensure
adequate performance of the building. This is likely to be a particularly difficult problem in cases
where large windows or other openings are required all around the building.

2.6 Other loads (Clause 5.8 of SANS 10160)

A wide variety of other loads may be applied to structures but are not described in any detail here,
either because they are encountered only on special or unusual structures or because their complexity
is beyond the basic treatment of structural design presented in this text.

2.6.1 Vibration loads (Clause 5.8.1)

Many different types of machinery, such as crushers, vibrating screens, printing presses, washing
machines and mills can apply vibration loads onto a structure. Even certain human activities can
lead to vibration loading. These loads are often not easy to define and their i nfluence on structures
requires complex analysis of the structures.

2.6.2 Earthquake loads (Clause 5.6)

A special case of complex vibration loading on structures is caused by earthquakes or ground motion.
Throughout most of South Africa the rock integrity is fortunately such that earthquakes are not a

2 . 17
 major problem . Measurements have been obtained of the ground motions during many of the major
recent earthquakes that have occurred and these are used as the basis for analysing how buildings
within earthquake zones will respond during earthquake loading.

2. 6.3 Loads caused by the impact of falling obj ects

When an object falls through any distance, it quickly attains a high velocity, which gives it a high
kinetic energy. If it then strikes a structure, the loads applied can be many times higher than
the weight of the object, because the kinetic energy must be absorbed into the elastic energy of
deformation of the structure. We define the "impact factor" as the ratio of the load applied on the
structure to the weight of the object. Figure 2. 9 shows the impact factor resulting from an object
falling a distance ( H) onto a structure which would normally deflect by an amount ( S) under the
static weight of the object.

100

)'
/
/J
0
t5
(
l1l
:: 10
/
(.)
l1l ,,,
a. /
E JJ

..,......, /
_.~r-

1
0.01 0.032 0.1 0.316 1 3.16 10 31 .6 100 316 1000
H/s

Figure 2. 9: Impact factors for falling objects

Example E2 .5: Impact Load

A conveyor-belt counterweight, which has a mass of two tons, falls 0.5 m onto a platform which has
a stiffness of 1 000 kN/m. Calculate the impact load on the platform .

The weight of the counterweight is 2 x 10 = 20 kN .

load 20
The static deflection S = = - - = 0.02 m .
stiffness 1 000

Thus, the ratio of distance fallen to static deflection is SH = 0.0

0.5
2
= 25.

From Figure 2. 9 the impact factor is about 8. The impact load is thus 8 x 20 = 160 kN.

2 .18
 2.6.4 Loads generated by vehicular and crane motion (Clause 5.7 of SANS 10160)

Loads generated by motion are either special cases of impact loads or the forces required to impart an
acceleration which will change the direction of motion of the vehicle. The only loads in this category
defined by SANS 10160 are the loads applied to structures by overhead travelling cranes. There are
four types of cranes covered in the Code, ranging from Class 1 to Class 4. The light-duty cranes are
in Class 1 and the heavy-duty in Class 4. Specified impact factors are simplified in Table 2. 7 for Class
1 and 3 cranes.

Table 2. 7: Overhead crane impact factors

Class 3 Class 1
Vertical impact 1.25 1.10
Lateral impact 0.15 0.05
Longitudinal impact 1.00 1.00

The vertical impact loads are given by the maximum wheel loads multiplied by the impact factors in
Table 2. 7. They are caused by surface irregularities and imperfect vertical alignment of the rails. The
lateral impact loads are also given by the maximum wheel loads multiplied by the impact factors.
They are due to horizontal misalignments of the rails, acceleration or braking of the crab as it travels
across the crane bridge, or acceleration or braking of the crane with off-centre loads. The longitudinal
impact loads result from the crane striking the end stops at its full travelling speed, and are given by
the weight of the crane bridge and crab being multiplied by the impact factors specified .

2.6.5 Foundation settlement

In certain circumstances there may be settlement of the foundations of a structure. As a foundation

settles, this will lead to deformation of the members connecting to the column supported on this
foundation. This deformation will, in turn, alter the forces being transmitted through those members
and reduce the force on this foundation and increase the force on other foundations . Thus foundation
settlement does not change the total loads, but it changes the distribution of forces which these loads
induce in the members of the structure.

2. 7 Load factors and safety (Clause 5.2)

The most important consideration for any building structure is that it must be safe. In order to ensure
the safety of a structure it is necessary not only to know the likely magnitude of the loads but also to
assess the maximum value that may occur, thus providing an acceptable margin of safety. The concept
of "limit states" design is explained in Chapter 1 where it is seen that safety is ensured by applying
"load factors" to the nominal loads specified. Typical load factors used in different cases, as defined
by SANS 10160, are given in Table 2.8. It is seen that lower factors are used for self-weight than other
loads, because these loads can be more accurately defined than most other loads. Wind loads have
a lower factor applied than live loads, because the wind very seldom blows at its maximum speed .
It should also be noted that the self-weight is multiplied by a load factor of less than 1.0 when it is
combined with wind uplift, because these act in opposite directions. A low estimate of self-weight

2.19
combined with a high estimate of wind uplift thus gives the required estimate of maximum total
design load.

The factored design loads are obtained by multiplying the nominal loads, as specified in Section 2.2,
by appropriate load factors and combining them with other loads, as required.

Table 2. 8: Typical load factors defined by SANS 10160

Load factors
Load case
Self-weight Wind load Live load
Primarily self-weight 1.5 - -
Wind-uplift load 0.9 1. 3 -
Primarily live load 1.2 - 1.6

Example E2. 6: Design loads

It has been calculated that the nominal loads on a particular member are:
self-weight= 20 kN, live load= 250 kN, wind load= -90 kN.

Calculate the factored design loads.

The maximum positive load = 250x1 .6+20x1.2 = 424 kN.

The maximum negative load = - 90x1.3 + 20 x 0.9 = - 99 kN .

It is most important to remember that all loads must be multiplied by the load factors before they
are used to determine the required strength of any structure. Failure to do this means that there is
an increased likelihood of structural collapse.

--------oOo--------

2.20
 Chapter 3
DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS

3.1 Introduction

Tension elements in a structural frame transmit a direct axial pull. In compression or bending
elements, the loading capacity is often reduced by buckling effects, while tension elements can work
to the full tensile yield stress of the material. Consequently, full advantage can be taken of high-
strength materials to create light, efficient and cost-effective structures.

3. 2 Member type and selection

Some of the most efficient steel tension member types are shown in Figure 3.1. These elements are
used where there is no reversal of load. For cases where there is a possibility of load reversal, such
as in trusses, structural shapes and built-up members may be used. Load reversal in light trusses is
caused by wind suction on the structural members (i.e. members that were in tension due to the dead
and imposed loads can go in compression due to wind suction) . The reader is referred to Chapters 9
and 13 for more details on load reversals in structures.

(a) Wire cable

(b) Rod with upset end

(c) Eyebar

(d) Pin-connected plate with welded

reinforcing plates

Figure 3.1: High-efficiency steel tension members

3.2.1 Wire ropes and cables

Cables are flexible tension members, each of which may consist of one or more groups of wires,
strands, or ropes (see Figure 3.2). Wire cables are finding increasing use in structural steel design, and
have been used both as primary and secondary supporting members in a wide variety of structures,
including prestressed concrete members, guyed towers and wide-span roof constructions.

3.1
 (a) Strand

(b) Rope

Figure 3.2: Wire strand and wire rope

3.2.2 Rods and bars

Rods and bars are either square or round tension members. Rods with upset ends such as the one shown
in Figure 3.1 (b) are high-efficiency tension members. To guard against loosening after overloading,
provision can be made for tightening at the ends of the members, or by means of a turnbuckle
between the ends of a two-piece member.

3.2.3 Eyebars and pin-connected plates

Eyebars and pin-connected plates, like those shown in Figures 3.1(c) and (d) are used in a variety of
special situations. These include the transfer of tensile load from a wire rope or cable to a structural
steel assemblage, or an anchorage.

3.2.4 Structural shapes and built-up members

Structural shapes and built-up members, like those shown in Figure 3.3, are used when rigidity is
required in a tension member to resist small lateral loads, or when reversal of load may subject the
member to alternate compression and tension. The most commonly used shapes are:

• open sections - e.g. angles, tees, channels and I -sections;

• closed sections - e.g. circular, square and rectangular hollow sections; and
compound and built-up sections - e.g. double channels and double angles.

The tension member in a structure must, if it is bolted or welded, be designed on the basis of the net
effective cross-sectional area. The type and selection of tension members is largely governed by its
method of connection to adjacent portions of the structure. The number and disposition of fasteners
will influence this choice. Usually, 100% efficiency at the connections can be achieved by increasing
the size of the member at the connections, as in upset rods, or usi ng a higher strength steel at the
connection . In some cases the tension members must resist moment in addition to the axial load . This
moment is usually caused by eccentricities in the end-connections or may be due to lateral load on
the member. Members subject to axial load and moment are dealt with in Chapter 6 on beam-column
design.

3.2
 L JL I 0
Angle Tee I-section Circular hollow
section

~L Double angle
J[ [~ ___]
Double channel Built-up plate and
angle shape

Figure 3.3: Tension member sections

3. 3 Slenderness ratio (Clause 10)

To avoid the buckling of ties subjected to compressive forces, Clause 10.2.2 (SANS 10162) states that
the value of the slenderness ratio should not exceed 200 . However, the slenderness ratio for a tension
member shall not exceed 300. This limit may, however, be waived if other means are provided to
control flexibility. The slenderness ratio of a member in tension is calculated by dividing the unbraced
length of a member by the radius of gyration about the relevant axis (Clause 10.1 ).

3.4 Design of tension members (Clause 13.2)

The tension capacity (T,.) of axially loaded members is given in Clause 13.2 of SANS 10162. This is
given as the least of the following three conditions:

(a) Tr= cp Agfy (3.1)

(b) T,, =0.85cp Anefu (3.2)

(c) T,, = 0.85<j> A~efu (3.3)

where

=0.9
<1>

Ag =gross cross-sectional area

A11e =effective net cross-sectional area
A~e =effective net cross-sectional area reduced for shear lag
f y = yield stress
fu =ultimate tensile strength

3.3

I
For pin connections:

(3.4)

3.4.1 Calculation of gross and net areas

(1) Gross area (Ag)

A section is made perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the element along which the tensile
force is acting, and the gross area is calculated as the area of the cross -section . Note that no
holes or other area reductions are made on the gross area.

(2) Net area ( Ane)

Where there is at least one hole, the effective net area is considered as the summation of the
critical net areas ( Ane) of the segments or elements of a cross-section. These net areas are
calculated as follows:

(a) For a segment normal to the force and subjected to direct tension

(3.5)

where

Wn = net width ofsegment (i.e. width minus the sum of hole diameters along section.
Hole diameter is taken as 2 mm larger than the specified hole diameter for a
punched hole, and as the specified hole diameter for a drilled hole.)

t = thickness ofsegment/element

A
I

[
'
©
~
' -"',..-

© ~
I
I,
A
Figure 3.4: Normal segment

In Figure 3.4, the net width ( wn) along line A-A' is

wn = w-2 X (hole diameter) (3.6)

3.4
 (b) For a segment inclined to the force, i.e. subjected to both tension and shear

Figure 3. 5: Inclined segment

Wherever there is more than one hole and the holes are not lined up transverse to the loading
direction, the potential failure lines may be subject to both tension and shear. An example of
this failure is in line B-C in Figure 3.5. The influence of the staggered hole can be accounted for
g)
by introducing a ( s 2 / 4 term for every stagger in the chain,

where

s = pitch or spacing of holes parallel to the loading

g =gauge distance transverse to the loading as shown in Figure 3.5

When there are ( m) holes, there will be ( m-1) staggers for a chain, and the generalised form
of the net width ( wn) is calculated as:

(3.7)

where

dh =hole diameter (not bolt diameter)

w = gross width

In Figure 3.5, the net lengths of paths (A - B - D) and (A - B - C - E) are:

net length of(A-B-D) = w-hole diameter

net length of(A - B - C - E) = w- 2 x hole diameter+ s2 I 4g

The gauge length for an angle section is obtained by using a length between the centres of the
holes measured along the centre-line of the angle thickness, as shown in Figure 3.6.

3.5
 fit
'
I

Figure 3.6

(3.8)

The calculation of the net area for an angle section is illustrated in Example E3.3.

3.4.2 Shear lag

For practical reasons it is unusual to be able to connect all elements of a section . For example, in
an angle section one leg can be connected while the other may not. Since the load is not transferred
to all the cross-sectional elements, the portion of the area that is participating effectively in the
transfer of the force is smaller than the full net area . This phenomenon is referred to as shear lag.

Shear lag may reduce the efficiency of the net section by as much as 40%. The Code takes account of
this shear lag effect by modifying the effective net area ( Ane) by some factor to give the reduced
effective net area ( A~e). This is given in the Code in Clause 12.3.3.2 and is illustrated here in Tables
3.1 and 3.2.

(a) Shear lag in bolted connections

See Table 3.1 on next page.

(b) Shear lag in welded connections

The reduced effective net area ( A~e) for welded connections is represented by the sum of the
effective net areas of the connected plate elements as

(3. 9)

where Anel, Ane 2 and Ane 3 are as defined in Table 3.2.

3.6
Table 3. 1: Shear lag in bolted connections

Clause 12.3.3.2

For I- and H-sections with b ~ 0.66h A~e = 0.90A11e

(3 or more lines of transverse bolts connected to the flange)

For angles connected by only one leg with 4 or more transverse lines A~e = 0.80Ane
of bolts

For angles connected by only one leg with fewer than 4 transverse A~e =0.60Ane
lines of bolts

For other sections with 3 or more transverse lines of bolts A~e = 0.85Ane

For other sections with 2 transverse lines of bolts A~e = 0. 75Ane

Table 3.2: Shear lag in welded connections

Clause 12.3.3.3

Elements connected by transverse weld Anel =wt

Elements connected by longitudinal welds along two parallel edges:

L~2w Ane2 =wt

2w>L~w Ane2 =0.50wt + 0.25Lt
w>L Ane 2 = 0.75Lt
Note:
L = average length of welds on the two edges
w =plate width (distance between longitudinal welds)
(see Figure 3.7)

Elements connected by a single longitudinal weld:

L~w Ane3 = (1- ~) wt

w>L
Ane3 = 0.50L
Note:

x =eccentricity of the weld with respect to centroid

of the connected element
L =length of weld in direction of loading
(see Figure 3. 7)

3.7

--
 Figure 3. 7: Shear lag in welded connections

3.4.3 Tension and shear block failure

When a portion of a member attached by bolts is thin, a tearing failure limit state, known as "tension
and shear block", may control the strength of a tension member. The resistance to this tear-out is a
combination of shear on one plane and tension on a plane normal to it. This is illustrated in Figure 3.8.

Vr
~0--~0-~-Q

...- Vr...-
-.
r-·
r._ •
- -o---- -0--- -:0
...-

Figure 3.8: Tension and shear block failure

Note that the failure mode will be a tensile fracture and either a shear yielding or shear fracture on
the section perpendicular to the fracture plane. In Clause 13.11 of the Code, the factored resistance
(T,. + Vr) for gusset plates, angle cleats, simple plate connections and ends of tension members is
calculated as:

(i) Tensile fra cture+ shear yielding

= <j>AntJ;, + 0.60<j>Agvf y (3 .10)
(T,. + vr )= min ..
(zz) Tensile fracture + shear fracture
= <J>An1fu + 0.60<j>Anvfu (3.11)

where
Ant =the net area in tension for block shear
Agv =the gross area in shear for block shear
Anv = the net area in shear for block shear
3.8
Note that in order to calculate the minimum of Equations 3.10 and 3.11 it is only necessary to compare
the shear yielding and shear fracture . This is illustrated in Example E3.4.

For notched beams subject to failure mode involving both tensile fracture and either shear yielding
or shear fracture, the factored resistance is given as:

(i) Tensile fracture+ shear yielding

- . = O.SO<J>An1fu + 0.60<j>Agvfy (3.12)
(Tr +Vr ) - mm
(ii) Tensile fracture+ shear fracture
= O.SO<J>An11i1 + 0.60<J>Anvfu (3.13)

The reader is referred to Chapter 7 for more information on connections. Illustrative examples for the
design of tension members are given in Examples E3.1 to E3.5.

3.9
 SANS 1016 2 Example E3. 1: Net width of a plate Output
Reference

Determine the net width of a 250 X 12 mm plate with M20

bolts punched in 3 lines as shown i n Figure E3.1 .

B~ 0 0

+--0¢·I / 0
0
0
75
i

(All dimensions in mm)

Figure E3 . 1

Solution

The hole diameter is always taken as 2 mm larger than t he bolt

diameter. For punched holes , the hole diameter is increased
by another 2 mm to take into account the deformation around
t he hole during punching.

12.3.2 hole diameter = 20 + 2 + 2 = 24 mm

.. dh =24 mm d1 -24mm

(i) Path (A- B - D - E)

12.3.1 (a) Net length (A -B-D-E)

=length ( A - E )-2 x hole diameter path
= 250 - 2 x 24 (A-B-D-E )
=202 mm =202mm

(ii) Path (A - B - C - D - E)

For a staggered path, the net width is given as

12.3.1(b)

3. 10
SANS 10162 Example E3.1: Continued Output
Reference

where
s =pitch (or spacing of holes parallel to the
loading)
g = gauge distance transverse to the loading
m =number of holes along the staggered path

For this path

m =3

ssc =Seo = 75 mm
gsc=gco=5 0mm
75 2 Path
wn = (250 - 3x24)+2 x-- IA-8-( -D E
4x50
.. wn = 234.25 mm =234mm

.\'et u1dt'1
Net width= min(202;234 )mm = 202 mm =202mm

. . ,\et width= 202 mm

3.11
 SANS 10162 Example E3.2: Net area of a plate Output
Reference

Determine the mini mum net area for a 250 X 12 mm plate,

with M20 bolts placed in three lines as shown in Figure E3.2.
Assume the holes are punched, and the steel is Grade 300W.

(All dimensions in mm)

Figure E3.2

Solution

Hole is punched

12.3.2 . . hole diameter = 20 + 2 + 2 = 24 mm

(i) Path (A - B - D - F)

12.3.1(a) Net length of (A - B-D -F)

= length of (A - F) - 2 x hole diameter PutIi
= 250- 2x24 (.1-B ( D-f.)
=202mm = 202 mm

12.3.1(b) (ii) Path (A- B - C - D - F)

Path (A - B-C-D -F)

s2 s2
=length of(A- F)-3 x dh + -1l.£_ + _£Q_
4gBC 4gCD

3. 12
 SANS10162 Example E3.2: Continued Output
Reference

50 2 50 2
= (250-3 x 24) + - - + - - Path
4x50 4x50
= 178+ 12.5+12.5 (1-8-( D f)

=203 mm =203mm

12.3.1(b) (iii) Path (A- B - C - E - G)

Path (A-B-C-E -G)

s2 s2
=length of(A - F)-3 x dh + __JJL_ + _s§_
4gsc 4gcE
50 2 75 2
= (250-3 x 24) + -- + - -
4x50 4x50 Path
= 178+12.5 + 28.125 < .1 - B ( E G)
= 219 mm =219 mm

12.3.1(b) (iv) Path (H - J- C - E - G)

Path (H - J - C - E - G)
s2 s2
=length of(H - G)-3 x dh + _g_ + _s§_
4gCJ 4gCE

=178+~+~ Path
4x50 4x50
= 178+ 28.125 + 28.125 (11 J ( E Gl
=234mm = 234mm

12.3.1(b) (v) Path (H - J - C - D - F)

Path (H -J-C-D-F )
s2 s2
=length of(H - G)-3 x d17 + _g_ + __£Q_
4gCJ 4gCD Path
=178+28.125 +12.5 (fl-.! -( D ,. )

=219 mm =219mm

3.13

- -
SANS 10162 Example E3.2: Continued Output
Reference

.. Path (A - B - D - F) governs
Net area= 202 x12 = 2 424 mm 2 A I = 2 424 111111 2
"

II'III,•c.;• U/ t."t1 •
..1_
ne = 2 4-,4
- min 211
Note:
It is not necessary to calculate the net length for all possible
paths, since by inspection some paths will be longer than
others. In this example the net lengths of possible failure
paths have been calculated to illustrate the methodology.

3 . 14
 SANS 10162 Example E3.3: Design tensile resistance of an angle Output
Reference section connected on both legs

Determine the design tensile resistance of a 150 X 90 X 15

angle section with M20 drilled bolts as shown in Figure E3.3(a).
Use Grade 300W steel.

~L~~-: -: ~l I J50} 50 J50 _l 50 J

GiJ
(All dimensions in mm)

Figure E3.3(a)

Solution

-·
A
'

)8 0 ~--
--- )c 0 - ""'"" 50
-
,I 9
/1
De;'.>
I i
0 0 -- 30
------'-

.l J l
Ej, 5o_r5o 50 50
(All dimensions in mm)

Figure E3.3(b): Flattened angle

gauge g = 60 + 60 - t = 60 + 60 -15
.. g=l05mm
/
11
= 450N I mm 2 (Grade 300W steel)

12.3.2 hole diameter dh = 20 + 2 = 22 mm (drilled hole) d,, =22mm

3.15
 SANS 10162 Example E3. 3: Continued Output
Reference

(i) Failure by yielding of gross cross-section

,
SA SCH Ag =3390mm 2 A =3390mm
13.2(a)(1)
T,. = <)>Agfy
T,, = 0.9 x 3 390x300x10- 3
... T,, = 915 kN T, =915 kN

(ii) Failure along path (A - B - C - F)

12.3.1(a) A11e = Ag - 2 X hole diameter X t

= 3 390 - 2 x 22 x 15
.,
.. A11e = 2 730 mm
2
A11 -2 730mm

12.3.3.1 j Note : No shear lag effects as both legs are connected j

13.2(a)(ii) T,, = 0.85<)>A efu

11

= 0.85 x 0.9 x 2 730x450x10-3

.. Tr =940kN Tr 940kN

(iii) Failure along path (A - B - C - D - E)

2
_ SCD Xt
12.3.1(b) A11e - Ag -3xdh Xt+
4gCD
scD =50mm
gcD = 105 mm
50 2
Ane = 3 390 - 3 X 22 X 15 + X 15
4x105
.. A11e = 2 489 mm 2 A = 2 489 mm 2

13.2(a)(ii) T,, = 0.85<)>A11efu

= o.85 x o.9 x 2489x450x10- 3
.. Tr= 857 kN T, -857 kN

3.16
SANS 10162 Example E3.3: Continued Output
Reference

The tensile resistance is the minimum of (i), (ii) and (iii).

13.2(a) T, = min{9I5 ; 940; 857}kN

.. T, =857 kN T 857 kN

ll remile re\i,tan ce T, =857kN11

3.17
SANS 10162 Example E3.4: Design tensile resistance of angle Output
Reference section connected on one leg

Calculate the design tensile resistance of a diagonal truss

member shown in Figure E3.4. The member consists of a pair
of angles 100 X 75 X 10. The bolts are connected through the
long leg using a single line of four M20 bolts. Assume that the
holes are punched, and the threads of the bolts are in the
shear plane. Use Grade 300W steel.

....

-------
-4-
Figure E3.4

Solution

12.3.2 hole diameter dh = 20 + (2 + 2) = 24 mm d1 =24 mm

fu = 450N I mm 2
(i) Failure by yielding of gross cross-section

SASCH Ag = 1 660 mm 2 (for one angle)

13.2(a)(i) Tr = "'A
'f'.l':tg f y

Tr= (o.9xl 660x300x10-3 )x2

Tr =896kN T =896kN

(ii) Failure along path (A - C)

A11e = (Ag -1 X hole dia X t) X 2

= (1 660-1x24x10) x 2

. . A11e = 2 840 mm
2
Am - 2 840 mm~

Outstand leg is not connected. Therefore net area should

be reduced to take shear lag effects into account.

3.18
SANS 10162 Example E3.4: Continued Output
Reference

12.3.3.2(b)(i) For angles with 4 or more transverse lines of bolts

A~e = 0.80Ane
.. A~e = 0.80 X 2 840 = 2 272 mm 2 4' --
, m ?_ 27"_mm 2

The tensile resistance (Tr) is then given by

13.2(a)(ii1) Tr= 0.85cj> A~efu

Tr = 0.85 x 0.9 x 2 272x450x 10- 3
.. Tr =782 kN T = 782kN

13.11(a) (iii) Tension and shear block failure (i.e. failure along path
A- B - D)

For this failure mode, path (A - B) is in tension and (B - D) in

shear. The minimum of shear yielding and shear fracture will
govern the design.

shear yielding= 0.60<j>Agvfy

Agv = (30+3x75 )x10 = 2 550 mm 2

.. shear y ielding = (0.60 x 0.9 x 2 550x300x 10-3 ) x 2

=826kN
shear fracture= 0.60<j>Anvfu
Anv ={(30 +3 x75) - 3.5x24}x1 0
= 1710mm2
... shear fracture= (0.60x0.9x 1710x450 x10- 3 ) x 2
=831kN

.. shear yielding governs design

3.19
SANS 10162 Example E3.4: Continued Output
Reference

.. Tension and shear block resistance is

(Tr+ Vr) = <J>Antfu + 826 kN

Ant= (40 - 0.5x24)x10 = 280 mm 2
<J>An1fu = ( 0.9 x 280x450x10- 3 ) x 2
= 227 kN
.. (Ty + Vr) = 227 + 826 kN (Tr +V)
= 1053 kN = l 053/cN

Tensile resistance is the minimum of (i) , (ii) and (iii ).

13.2(a)

T,. = min{896; 782; 1053}kN

.. Tr =782kN Tr =182/cN

llrensile resistance T,. = 782 kMI

()

3 .20
 SANS 10162 Example E3. 5: Design tensile resistance of a welded Output
Reference angle section

If the member in Example E3.4 is welded as shown in Figure

E3 .5, determine the design tensile resistance of the member.
Assume fillet weld size is 6 mm .

Figure E3. 5

Solution

(a) Consider the long leg connected on both sides by the

weld.

110+220
Average weld length L = = 165 mm
2
12.3.3.3(b) L = 165 mm< 2xleg width (w) = 2 xlOO = 200 mm

:. shear reduction is required

L =165 mm> leg width (w) =100 mm

For elements connected by longitudinal welds along two

parallel edges, and 2w > L;::: w .

12.3.3.3(b)(i1) Ane2 = 0.50wt + 0.25Lt

~e2 = (0.50x l OO x 10+0.25x165 x 10) x 2
2
.. Ane2 =1 825 mm 1 ., 1825 mm

3 .21
 SANS 10162 Example E3.5: Continued Output
Reference

(b) Consider the outstand leg

12.3.3.3(c) The outstand leg is connected by a single longitudinal weld .

x =distance between centroid of outstanding

leg and the weld
t' = thickness of weld
b - t' 100 - 6
x= - - = = 47mm
2 2
L = 110 mm > w = 100 mm

Net effective area of outstand leg is

12.3.3.3(c)(ii) Ane3 = ( 1- ~) · wt
w= (75 -10) = 65 mm
47
Ane3 = (1- ) X 65 X 10 X 2
110
. . Ane) = 745 mm 2 A11c3 = 745 mm
2

Total net effective area ( A~e) is

A~e = Ane2 + Ane3 = 1825 + 745 = 2 570 mm 2

I ,
12.3.3.3 A 11, = 2 570 mm-

Tensile resistance of the section is therefore

13.2(a)(iii) Tr = 0.85cp A~efu

. = 0.85 x 0.9 x 2 570x450x10-3
Tr= 885 kN 1; =885 kN

jTensile resistance Tr = 885 kN j

Note:
If an additional transverse weld was provided, then the
net effective area for the long leg would be calculated as
follows:

3 .22
SANS10162 Example 3.5: Continued Output
Reference

2
12.3.3.3(a) Anel = wt = (lOOxlO)x 2 = 2 000 mm

.. The total effective net area for t he cross·section would

be

12.3.3.3 A~e = Anel + Ane3 = 2 000 + 745 = 2 745 mm 2

13.2(a)(iii) and Tr = 0.85<j> A~efu
= 0.85 x 0.9 x 2 745x450x10- 3
.. Tr = 945 kN T,. = 945 kV

60
Increase in tensile strength= x 100 = 6.8%
885

--------oOo--------

3.23
3 .24
 Chapter 4
DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS

4. 1 Introduction

Structural members that are predominantly in compression are often referred to as columns,
stanchions or struts. The word "strut" is, however, normally reserved for compression members in
lattice structures or trusses . Columns and stanchions, on the other hand, normally refer to vertical
structural members subjected to axial forces in building frames. In this chapter the words "column "
and "strut" will be used to refer to any member carrying axial compressive loads.

In most practical situations, columns are subjected to bending, in addition to the axial forces. The
bending in these columns can be caused by in-plane loadings such as wind load, or the column can
either be a "corner or an external column" in a building. These columns are referred to as "beam-
columns", and their design is given in Chapter 6.

Several types of steel section are available for use as compression members, and these are shown in
Figure 4.1 .

l: a •
H-section I-section Square hollow
section
Circular hollow
section

3E m m
I
Built-up H-section Battened column Box column

~
~ jl T {
Single angle
I
Double angle Tee Channel

Figure 4. 1: Compression member sections

The following is a general guide for choosing a section:

• Frames (where axial forces predominate) - use H-sections or fabricated sections.

4.1
 • Light trusses, lattice girders and bracings - use single and double angles, tees and channels.

Larger trusses and space frames - use circular hollow sections, rectangular hollow sections,
compound sections and H-sections.

Note that the choice of a section is also influenced by practical considerations such as connections . It
is considerably easier to make simple site connectio ns on open sections than it is on closed sections.

4.2 Buckling of compression members

4.2.1 Flexural-buckling of compression members

When a compression member is subjected to axial loads, it must not only be capable of withstanding
the loads, but also remain stable under these loads . The length of a member and t he e nd connections
determine the stability characteristics of that member.

A pin-ended strut is a member whose ends are supported such that they cannot translate (move)
relative to one another, but are able to rotate freely. However, most compression members that a re
found in actual structures have different degrees of fixity in terms of translation and rotation. For
example, a fixed-end strut has both translation and rotational restraints - i. e . the strut is not able to
rotate or translate in any direction at the supports.

Consider a perfectly straight, pin-ended elastic column of length ( L) loaded concentrically by an

axial force ( C), as shown in Figure 4 .2. Provided that load C is small, the column will remain in a
straight position, referred to as stable equilibrium , and undergo axial deformation only. As load ( C)
increases, a condition is reached whereby the column is no longer stable, and it buckles normal to
the direction of the load.

' x
y','
L .
.
.
;-Deflected shape

..
Original shape
,

Figure 4 . 2: Pin-ended column

Using classical column theory first developed by Leonhard Euler (Timoshenko and Gere, 1961), t he
equilibrium equation is given as

Ely" + Cy =0 (4.1)

It can be shown from Equation 4. 1 that the critical buckling load, sometimes referred to as Euler load

4.2
 (Ce) is given as

rc 2 EI
Ce=--2- (4.2)
L

where

I = moment of inertia
E = modulus of elasticity (200 GPa)

If A is the cross-sectional area of the strut, and r the radius of gyration, then

2
I =Ar (4.3)
Equation 4.2 can therefore be rewritten as

(4.4)

Equations 4.2 and 4.4 show that in long columns the strength is independent of the yield stress (fy).
For different materials with the same sectional properties, the strength is directly proportional to the
modulus of elasticity. Realise that, as the column buckles, the load becomes eccentric, and so the
cross-section will be stressed not only in compression but also in bending.

The classical column theory can be extended to columns with other end-conditions, and then
compared to the pin-ended case in order to introduce the concept of effective length. The effective
length of an end-restrained column is defined as the length of an equivalent pin-ended column that
will give the same critical load as the end-restrained column. In a more physical sense, the effective
length is the distance between the points of inflection (real or imaginary) of the buckled shape of the
end-restained member.

As an example, for a column with both ends fixed, the inflection points are at a distance of ( L/2)

I
apart, as shown in Figure 4.3.

...
\ Inflection point

L U2 .
I Inflection point

Figure 4.3: Fixed-end column

4.3
 The critical buckling load ( Ccr) of this column is given as

2
C = 4n EI (4.5)
er L2

If (KL) is defined as the effective length of a fixed-end column in Figure 4. 3 (i.e. the equivalent pin-
ended column with length (KL) that will carry the same critical load as the fixed-end column with
length ( L)), then effective-length factor ( K) can be obtained as follows:

n 2EI 4n 2EI
2
(4.6)
(KL) 2 L

i.e. KL =_!_L
2

Therefore the effective-length factor ( K) of a fixed-end column is 0. 5.

K can therefore be evaluated from the following equation

(4.7)

where

Ccr = critical load of the end-restrained column

Ce = Euler load of the pin-ended column having the same length as the end-restrained
column

Thus the critical load can be expressed (from Equations 4.2 and 4. 7) as

2
n EI
cer =(KL)2
-- (4.8)

The theoretical and experimental effective-length factors for different boundary conditions are
shown in Table 4.1, and were adopted from Annex E of SANS 10162 (Figure E1).

In Table 4. 1, the recommended design values are higher than the theoretical values for the cases in
which reliance is placed on externally provided rotational fixity; this is in recognition of the practical
difficulties of providing sufficient rotational restraint to approach the condition of full fixity. In cases
where the structural designer doubts the effective length, the safe approach is to use a higher
approximation, leading to an overestimate of the column slenderness, and thus underestimate the
strength of the column.
4.4
Table 4.1: Effective-length factors of compression members

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

!
. ...
J.
·-- 1 J"•-..
.
..' ... . ''
. ... ...
....
Buckled shape of '
column is shown by
dashed line ,
I
. .'
'

.
' '

Theoretical K-value 0.5 0.7 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0

Recommended design
value when ideal 0.65 0.80 1.0 1.2 2.0 2.0
conditions are
approximated
~ Rotation fixed Translation fixed
End-condition code ~ Rotation free Translation fixed

•' Rotation fixed

Rotation free
Translation free
Translation free

Effective length of columns in braced frames (Annex F SANS 10162)

When dealing with frames, it is very important to be able to distinguish between sway cases and
non-sway cases. A sway structure is one in which the translation of one end , relative to the other, is
possible. For a non-sway structure, the relative end translation is prevented by, for example, bracing.
It should be noted that the effective lengths for the sway case are not less than the geometrical
length of the strut, whereas, for the non-sway case, effective lengths will not exceed the geometrical
length. In fact, for the non-sway case the effective length decreases as the rotational fixity increases,
approaching the full fixed ends.

Since SANS 10162 (Section 8.7 and Annex F) requires that sway effects produced by the vertical loads
acting on the structure in its displaced configuration be included in the analysis, K for a framed
structure braced against side-sway will only be considered. A typical model of a column in a braced
frame is shown in Figure 4.4. The following assumptions have been used to develop the equation for
the effective length (for more details the reader is referred to Chen and Lui (1987)):

(1) All members are prismatic and behave in an elastic manner.

(2) Axial forces in the girders (g) are negligible.

(3) All columns (c) in a storey buckle simultaneously.

(4) The restraini ng moment provided by the girders at a joint is distributed among the columns i n
proportion to their stiffness.

4.5
 (5) The rotations at the near and far ends of the girders are equal and opposite (i.e. the girders are
bent in single curvature) after buckling .

c
!
c1
Su - Su g2

{
g1 u Su
c - column
c2 g - girder
C - compressive
g3 L el axial force
el g4
el

c3
I
Lg

c
t
Figure 4.4: Model for a braced frame

Using the above five assumptions, it can be shown that at bifurcation the following equation holds

GuGL(n ! K)2+Gu+Gi(l-
4 2
n !K
tann / K
J+ 2 (tannn / /2K)=l
K
(4.9)

where the subscripts U (upper) and L (lower) refer to the joints at the two ends of the column being
considered, and G is defined as

G _ u
I(EJ) I
L c _ of column stiffness meeting at joint U
u- I(EJ) -I of girder stiffness meeting at joint U
(4.10)

u L g

G _
I(EJ) I
L L c _ of column stiffness meeting at joint L
L - I(EJ) -I of girder stiffness meeting at joint L
(4. 11)

L L g

Equation 4.9 can be expressed in a nomograph as shown in Figure 4.5, given in the Code as Figure F1
in Annex F. In order to evaluate the effective length (K) using a nomograph all that is required is to
determine the relative stiffness (Gu) and ( Gi) from Equations 4. 10 and 4. 11 . A straight line joining
the two G-values will cut the middle line, thus giving the value of K. For a braced frame the value
of K will lie between 0.5 and 1.

4.6
 Gu K GL
50.0 1.0 50.0
10.0 10.0

0.9 5.0
3.0 3.0
2.0 2.0

0.8
1.0 1.0
0.9 0.9
0.8 0.8
0.7 0.7
0.6 0.7 0.6
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4

0.3 0.3
0.6
0.2 0.2

0.1 0.1

0 0.5 0

Figure 4.5: Nomograph for effective lengths of columns in continuous braced frames

Alternatively, Equation 4. 9 can be solved and the value of K can be approximated from

1
K=I - - - (4. 12)
5+9Gu

The following notes should be considered when evaluating the relative stiffness values of G.

• Although the theoretical value of G for pin-ended support is infinity, for practical designs G
may be taken as 10, to account for the fact that an ideal pin-ended condition does not exist.
Typical situations would be when a column is supported by, but not rigidly connected to, a
footing or foundation .

• If a column end is rigidly attached to a properly designed footing, G may be taken as 1.0
(although the theoretical value is 0) . The Code, SANS 10162, recommends smaller values only
if justified by analysis.

• From assumption 5 above, if the far end of the girder is pinned, then the girder stiffness should
be multiplied by 1.5. On the other hand, if the far end of the girder is fixed against rotation,
then the girder stiffness should be multiplied by 2.0.

Example E4.1 illustrates the calculation of the effective length using the nomograph and Equation
4.12.

4.7
4.2.2 Torsional-flexural buckling

When some structural sections are subject to a concentric load ( C), they either buckle flexurally
by deflecting in the x-direction (u -deflection), or in the y-direction (v-deflection) or may buckle
torsionally by twisting (<I>) along the longitudinal z-direction. The subject of torsional-flexural
buckling is treated extensively by Timonshenko and Gere (196 1).

It can be shown that the differential equilibrium equations for a simply supported column of length
(L) subject to a concentric load ( C) are:
(4. 13)

(4.14)

(4.15)

where x 0 , y 0 are the coordinates of the shear centre

and Cw = warping constant

r2 =Ix +Iy +x2 +y2

o A o o
= rx2 + r2
y
+x2 +y2
o o
(4.16)

The solutions to Equations 4. 13 to 4. 15 above are obtained provided that the axial force ( C) satisfies
the following det erminant :

0 =0 (4.17)

where
2
EI
ex = n 2 x= flexural buckling load about the x-axis (4.1 8)
L

n 2EI
CY = Y = flexural buckling load about the y-axis (4.19)
2
L

(GJ +n 2 ECw/ L 2 )
Cz = _2 = torsional buckli ng load about the z-axis (4.20)
ro

4.8
Expanding Equation 4. 17, we get

C 3 {~2 -x;-yn-c {(ex +Cy +cz)~ -Cy x;-cx

2
2
y;}
2
+C ~ { CxCy +CyCz +CzCx } - {CxCyCz ~2 } = 0 (4.21)

Expressed in terms of stresses (f), Equation 4.21 can be re-written as

(4.22)

Equation 4.17 can also be expressed in terms of stresses as

(Jex - le) 0

0 - feYo =0 (4.23)

- feYo ~2 (!~ - le)

Equations 4.22 or 4.23 can then be solved to obtain the flexural torsionally buckling stresses. This is
illustrated in more detail in Section 4.4.

4.3 Classification of sections (Clause 11)

Most of the sections used in axial compression members and bending members are made up of thin
elements (webs and flanges). When these elements are subjected to axial compressive stresses they
may fail by local buckling, a phenomenon referred to as "local instability". The local buckling load
is usually lower than that of the cross-section as a whole, and will result in a lower load-carrying
capacity of the section.The code avoids local buckling by restricting the slenderness of the elements.
The elements may be classified into any of the following four classes (Clause 11.1.1 ):

• Class 1 section - Plastic design sections

Plastic cross-sections will permit attainment of the plastic moment and subsequent
redistribution of the bending moment. These sections are the only ones permitted in plastic
design (see Figure 4.6(a)).

• Class 2 sections - Compact sections

Compact sections will permit attainment of the plastic moment but need not allow for
subsequent redistribution of the bending moment (see Figure 4.6(b)).

4.9
 • Class 3 sections - Semi-compact sections

Semi-compact sections will permit attainment of the yield moment. Sections can attain the
design strength of the extreme fibres, but the full plastic moment may not develop because of
local buckling (see Figure 4.6(c)) .

• Class 4 sections - Slender sections

Slender sections will generally have local buckling of elements in compression as the limit
state of structural resistance. These elements may not attain the design strength due to local
buckling (see Figure 4.6(d)) .

(a) Plastic (b) Compact (c) Semi-compact (d) Slender

Figure 4.6: Permitted stress distributions

Table 11.2(a) in the Code specifies the maximum width-to-thickness ratio as a ratio b/t. In this book
the notation (b1/t) will be used for width-to-thickness ratio in order not to confuse the element
width b1 and the flange width b. The width (b 1) is illustrated in Figures 4.7 and 4.8 for elements
supported along one edge and two edges respectively.

·r l

Built-up section
L Angles Rolled channel

tt=

b
Welded tee Rolled tee Rolled beam or
column

Figure 4. 7: Dimensions for section classifications: Elements supported along one edge

4 . 10
 Figure 4.8: Dimensions for section classifications: Elements supported along two edges

Note that a cross-section may contain more than one class of element; in this case it is the classification
of the most slender element which governs its own classification. For members under axial compression,
it is only necessary to ensure that the Class 3 width-to-thickness ratios given in Table 11.2(a) of the Code
are not exceeded. The maximum limiting width-to-thickness ratios adopted from Table 11 .2(a) of t he Code
a re shown here in Table 4.2.

Table 4.2: Maximum width-to-thickness ratios for elements in axial compression

Maximum width-to-
Maximum width-to-thickness
Description of element thickness ratio for Grade
ratio
300W steel
Elements supported along one
edge
b1 200
Flanges of I-sections, T-sections
and channels
-<--
t - p; 11.55

Legs of angles
Plate-girder stiffeners

b1 340
Stems of T-sections - < --
t - p; 19.63

Flanges of rectangular hollow

sections
Flanges of box sections
~< 670
Flange cover plates and
diaphragm plates between t - p; 38.68

lines of fasteners or welds

Webs supported on both edges

bl 840
Perforated cover plates -<--
t - p; 48. 50

d 23 000
Circular hollow sections -<
t - p; 76 .67

4.11

/~/
 Illustrative examples for section classification are given i n Examples E4.2 and E4.3.

In addition to considering the width -to-thickness ratio, the slenderness ratio of a member i n
compression shall be ckecked to ensure that it does not exceed 200. Clause 10.4. 1 stipulates that the
slenderness ratio shall be taken as the ratio of the effective length (KL) to the corresponding radius
of gyration (r).
The slenderness ratio is limited for ease of handling and the load-carrying capacity.
The compressive resistance of members becomes quite small as the slenderness ratio increases and
the member becomes relatively inefficient.

4.4 Design of compression members

Perfectly straight columns are rarely encountered in real life, largely due to geometric and material
non-linearity. Geometric imperfection is caused when a column is not axially straight (i.e. the column
has an initial out-of-straightness). This is caused by some inevitable manufacturing defects.

A section is not stress-free in the unloaded state because of the presence of residual stresses. Residual
stresses are a set of "self-equilibrating stresses" in a cross-section. They are caused by uneven cooling
of the cross-section during the fabrication process. Parts of the cross-section for which the surface
area-to-volume ratio is largest will lose heat more rapidly than the part for which the ratio is small .

Based on extensive research, reflecting material and geometric non-linearity, the Code defines the
maximum compressive strength of a column as a function of a non-dimensional slenderness ratio
(A.) as

lcr= <j>Afy (1+ A2n )-1 I In (4.24)

where

(4.25)

and n is a parameter which reflects the residual stress pattern and geometric out-of-straightness.

n = 1.34 for hot-rolled, fabricated structural sections, and hollow structural sections
manufactured according to SANS 1657-1 (cold-formed non-stress-relieved).

n = 2.24 for doubly symmetric welded three-plate members with.flange edges oxy-
fiame-cut and structural sections manufactured according to ISO 657-14 (hot-
formed or cold-formed stress-relieved).

<1> is the resistance factor = 0.90

The resistance factor is used to reduce the nominal value of the compressive resistance in order to
account for the possibility of under-strength in materials or any other variations in workmanship.

4 . 12
The compressive resistance defined in Equation 4.24 is valid for doubly symmetric sections conforming
to the requirements of Class 1, 2 or 3. Doubly symmetric sections which may be governed by torsional
flexural buckling must be further checked to meet the requirements of Clause 13.3.2. These checks
are given in more detail below.

(a) Doubly symmetric sections and axisymmetric sections (Clause 13.3.2(a))

In the case of doubly symmetric sections (e.g. cruciform sections) and axisymmetric sections
(e.g. Z-sections), the shear centre coordinates are given by

(4.26)

If we substitute Equation 4.26 into Equation 4. 22 or 4.23, we get

(Jex - fe)·(fey - fe)·(fez - fe) =0 (4.27)

li.e. fe = f ex or /ey or fez I (4.28)

The buckling modes are therefore independent and the column buckles at the lowest stress and
in a corresponding mode.

(4.29)

where

rr.2 E (4.30)
fex = 2

(\L,J
(4.31)

and

(4.32)

Clause 13.3.2 stipulates that the effective length factor for torsional buckling Kz can be
conservatively taken as 1.0. Kx and KY are the effective-length factors about the x- and
y-axes respectively.

4.13
 The value of fe obtained from Equation 4.29, is used to obtain the factored compressive
resistance (Cr) in Equation 4.24.
(b) Singly symmetric sections (Clause 13. 3.2(b))

(i ) For singly symmetric sections with symmetry about the y-axis (e .g. T-sections)

(4.33)

Substituting Equation 4.33 into Equation 4.22 or 4.23, we get

(4.34)

The solution of Equation 4. 34 is the lesser of (Iex ) and ( /eyz) where

(4.3 5)

in which

BJ 0
2 (4.36)

:. fe =min {Jex, /eyz } (4.37)

(ii) For singly symmetric sections with symmetry about the x-axis (e.g. Channel section)

(4.38)

Substituting Equation 4.38 into Equation 4.22 or 4.23, we get

(4. 39)

The solution of Equation 4. 39 is the lesser of ( /ey) and (fexz) where

I'
Jexz
=lex+ fez
2Q
[l- 1_l4lexl
t
~
1

ex+ )2
(
ezQ ]
fez
(4.40)

in which

4 . 14
 BJ 0
2

:. le= min{fey, fexz}

(4.41)

(4.42)

(c) Asymmetric sections (Clause13.3.2(c))

For asymmetric sections (e.g. angle sections), j~ is the smallest root of Equation 4.22, which
can be re-written as:

(4.43)

The solution to Equation 4.43 indicates that the modes are interdependent and the lowest
buckling mode is lower than each of the stresses associated with the independent modes.

i.e. le < min { f ex, ley, fez} (4.44)

The value of le thus obtained is used to calculate the compressive resistance (Cr) in Equation
(4.24).

Note:

For Class 4 sections, the compressive resistance (Cr) shall be determined

using an effective area, calculated with reduced element widths meeting
the maximum width-to-thickness ratio of a Class 3 section. However, the
slenderness ratio shall be calculated using the gross-section properties (Clause
13.3. 3).

4.4.1 Design of eccentrically loaded angle members

Angles connected by one leg are subject to eccentric loading, which results in a moment being
induced in the member. The Code takes this into account through an interaction equation involving
axial load and moment. This exercise may be very complex and time-consuming, and therefore the
following simplified method based on Eurocode 3 (ENV 1993-1-3) is recommended.

Clause 5.8. 3 of Eurocode 3 assumes that appropriate end restraint to the web members and the end
connections of the web members provides appropriate fixity (i.e. at least two bolts if bolted) . The
Code neglects the end eccentricity and uses the effective-slenderness ratio (~eff ), defined as:

For buckling about the v-axis: Ae;;

, (1'
.v = 0.35 + 0. 7/... v (4.45)

For buckling about the y- axis: 'Aeff.y =0.50 + 0.7/...Y (4.46)

4.15
 - -
For buckling about the z-axis: Aeff.z = 0.50 + 0. 7Az (4.47)

where

(4.48)

A is the slenderness for the relevant buckling mode and is determined from

'A=KL/r

~A = 1 for Class 3 cross-sections

Aeff
~A = - - for Class 4 cross-sections
A

Aeff is the effective area calculated with reduced element widths and meeting the requirements
of the maximum width-to-thickness ratio of a Class 3 section .

(4.49)

The compressive resistance (Cr) is then calculated as :

(4.50)

Note: In Eurocode 3, the compressive resistance is denoted by Nb.Rd and Equation 4. 50 is given in
Clause 5.5.1.1. y M l is the resistance factor.

In SANS 10162, ljy M l =resistance factor= 0.90.

(4.51)

X is a reduction factor given as :

I
x= -----;:=== (4.52)
cp+~cp2 -A.2
and

cp = 0.5[ 1+0.49 (~eff - 0.2) +~;ff] (4. 53)

4 . 16
 The design of an eccentrically loaded column to Eurocode 3 is illustrated in Example E4.8.

Note that when single bolts are used for end connection, or when the end connection has poor
stiffness, the Eurocode stipulates that the end eccentricity should be taken into account and the
interaction between axial compression and bending checked in accordance with Clause 5.5.4 of the
Code.

4.4.2 Design of built-up compression members

A built-up or compound column is made from a combination of rolled sections. Lacing or batten plates
are commonly used to tie the main longitudinal compression elements together, and this gives the
column an advantage of carrying larger loads. The key to designing compound compression elements
is to provide adequate strength in the connections joining the components, and to prevent local
instability. The design rules for built-up members in compression are given in Clause 19.1 of the Code.
Some of the clauses are re-stated here as follows:

Clause 19.1.4

Compression members composed of two or more sections in contact or separated from one another
shall be interconnected such that the slenderness ratio of any component, based on its least radius of
gyration and the distance between interconnections, shall not exceed that of the built-up member.

Clause 19. 1.9

Lacings shall be proportioned to resist a shear normal to the longitudinal axis of the member of not
less than 0.025 times the total axial load on the member plus the shear from transverse loads, if
any.

Clause 19.1.11

Lacing members shall preferably be inclined to the longitudinal axis of the built-up member at an
angle of not less than 45°.

Clause 19. 1. 17

I Battens and their connections shall be proportioned to resist, simultaneously, a longitudinal shear
force

(4.54)

and a moment,

4 . 17
 M = 0.025Cud
(4.55)
u 2n

where
d longitudinal centre-to-centre distance between battens, mm

a = distance between lines of bolts or welds, connecting the batten to each main
component, mm

n = number ofparallel planes of battens.

Examples E4. 9 and E4.10 illustrate the design of built-up columns using lacings and battens
respectively.

4.18
SANS 10162 Example E4.1 : Effective lengths of columns Output
Reference

Determine the effective lengths of columns 1, 2 and 3,

shown in Figure E4. 1.
Beams: 533 X 210 X 82 kg/m I-sections
Columns: 305 X 165 X 41 kg/m I-sections

'..-- .,._..Pinned
support
E
0 @
c.j

'..--
E
(Fixed
0
M CD support

'~

E @
0 ,_Concrete
C"i
structure
,
,, 6.0m t"
6.0m t "
6.0 m l
"

Figure E4.1

Solution

SA SCH Section properties

Beam : 533 X 210 X 82 kg/m I-section
6 4
lg = Ix =475xl0 mm

lg= 475x106 =79.2x103mm3

Lg 6x10 3
Column : 305 X 165 X 41 kg/m I-section

6 4
l c =Ix =85.5xl0 mm

!s_ = 85.5xl06 = 28.5xl03mm3

Lc 3 x103

(i) Effective length of column 1

F4 (Annex F) G = "L(ic /Lc) = 2x28.5x103 =0.360 GI =0.360

L "L(ig /Lg) 2x 79.2 x103
Gu = Gr = 0.360 Gl =0.360

4.19
SANS 10162 Example E4. 1: Continued Output
Reference

From the nomograph (Figure 4.5)

Fig. F1 K = 0.645 K =0.645
(Annex F)
. . LE =KL= 0.645x3.0=1.94 m LE= 1.94111

Alternatively, using Equation 4.12

K=I- 1 ___l _ _ _ _I __
5+9Gu

=1 - 1 - 1 - 1
5+9x0.36 5+9x0.36 10 +0.36x0.36
· K=0.659 K-0.659
LE= KL= 0.659x3.0=1.98 m LE =l.98m

(ii) Effective length of column 2

FS (Annex F) GL = 10 (pinned support)

Gu = 0.36 ( = GL for column 1)

. . K = 0.785 (from nomograph) K-0.785

Fig. F1
(Annex F) LE= KL= 0.785 x 3.0 = 2.36 m LE= 2.36 m

From Equation 4.12

K=I- 1 _ 1 _ 1
5+9x0.36 5+9x10 10+0.36x10
· K =0.795 K =0.795
LE =KL= 0.795 x 3.0 = 2.39 m LE =2.39m

(iii) Effective length of column 3

Gu = 28.5x103 = 0.144
3
79.2x10 +l.5x79.2xl0 3

F6(a) Note that for the beam that is connected by a pin support

4.20
SANS 10162 Example E4. 1: Continued Output
Reference

(Annex F) the stiffness is multiplied by 1.5.

3
GL = 2x28.5x 10 = 0.240
3 3
79.2x10 + 2.0x79.2x10

F6(b) For the beam that is connected by a fixed support at the far
(Annex F) end, the stiffness is multiplied by 2.0.

Fig. F1 .. K = 0.585 (from nomograph) K = 0.585

(Annex F)
LE =KL= 0.585x3 .0=1.76 m LE =1.76m

Using Equation 4. 12

K=l- 1 _ 1 _ 1
5+9x0.144 5+9x0.24 10+0.144x0.24

K = 0.602 K =0.602
LE = KL= 0.602x3.0=1.81 m LE= 1.81 m

Table E4. 1: Comparison of the effective lengths

Effective length (m)

Column
Nomograph Equation 4.12
(fig. F1: Annex F)

1 1.94 1.98
2 2.36 2.39
3 1.76 1.81

4.21

·~
SANS 10162 Example E4. 2: Classification of sections Output
Reference

Classify the following sections if they are subjected to a

compressive axial load.
(a) 152 X 89 X 16 kg/m I-section
(b) Welded plate girder 704 X 200 (8W, 12F)
Both sections are steel Grade 300W.

Solution

(a) 152 X 89 X 16 kg/m I-section

SASCH h = 152.4 mm

hw =122mm
h
b=88.9mm

t
1 =7.7 mm
tw = 4.6 mm
Figure E4.2(a)

Outstand of compressio n flange

11.3.1(c) bl =!!_ = 88.9 = 44.5

2 2

ii =44.5 =5.8 h /t 58
ti 7.7

Maximum width-to-thi ckness ratio (Class 3) is

Table 11.2(a) 200 = 200 = 11.5 > 5.8

p; $00
.. Outstand of compression flange is not Class 4

Web in axial compressi on

11.3.2(c)

4 .22
SANS 10162 Example E4.2: Continued Output
Reference

Maximum width-to-thickness ratio (Class 3) is

670 = 670 = 38.7 > 26.5

Table 11.2(a)
p; J300
.. Web is not slender (Class 4)

JI · C. oss-section is not slender (Class 4) II Cross-section not

slender
(b) 704 X 200 (SW, 12F)
b
f t
-·
SAS CH b = 200mm
I

h=704mm b1 I.

hw = 680 mm hw - ~iw h

tw =8mm
'.-- , I I

t1 =12mm JIf

Figure E4.2(b)

Outstand of compression flange

_ b-tw _ 200-8 _
11.3.1 (a) b1 - - - 96 mm
2 2
96
!!J.. = = 8.0 < 11.5
ti 12

•. Outstand of compression flange is not slender (Class 4)

Web in axial compression

11.3.2(c)

Web is slender (Class 4)

JI :. Cross-section classification is Class 4 (Slender) Class 4 cross-

section

4.23
SANS 10162 Example E4.3: Compressive strength of an I-section Output
Reference

Determine the design compressive resistance of a 356 X 171

X 67 kg/m I-section, Grade 300W steel. Assume the column
is pinned at both ends and the total length of the column
between the pin supports is 6 000 mm.

SASCH Section properties

y
I !tt
c:= ! ~ --"~

x---
-!-tw 1~--- h~ -x

'

r---" i ~-' <

I

~ ib t
y

Figure E4.3

A= 8.55x10 3 mm 2 IY = 13.6x10 6 mm 4 tw = 9.1 mm

Cw=4l3xl09 mm6 rx=l51mm h=364mm

J=560xl0 3 mm 4 ry=39.9mm hw=3l2mm

Ix =195xl06 mm 4
1 =15.7 mm
t b=l73.2mm

Section classification

Outstand of compression flange

11.3.1(c) !!J._= b/ 2=173.2/ 2 =5.5

t1 t1 15.7

Table 11.2(a) Limiting width-to-thickness ratio

= 200 = 200 = 11.5 > 5.5

p; J300

4 .24
SANS 10162 Example E4.3: Continued Output
Reference

.. Outstand of compression flange is not slender (Class 4)

Web in axial compression :

11 . 3.2(c) !i = hw = 312 = 34.3

fw tw 9.1

Table 11.2(a) Limiting width-to-thickness ratio

= 670 = 670 = 38.7 > 34.3

p; J300
.. Web is not slender (Class 4)

I:. Cross-section is not Class 41 Cross-section not

slender

Check slenderness ratio

Since (KL t =(KL )Y = 6 000 mm and

ry = 39.9 mm< r,-c = 151 mm

Flexural buckling about the y-axis governs

10.4-2.1 KL) = 1.0x6000 = l 50.4< 200 OK

( r Y 39.9

Calculate (fe)

(i)
f, rr-2 E n2 x 200x103 = I 251 MPa / , =1 251 HPa
ex = (KL/r)~ = (l.Ox6 000) 2

151

4.25
SANS 10162 Example E4.3: Continued Output
Reference

n2 E = n2x200x1 03 = 87.3 MPa f;, = 87.3 .\/Pa

f ey = (KL/r)~.
(ii)
150.42

13.3.2 Check for torsional-flexural buckling

13.3.2
1 -[n ECw +GJ] ·Ar/
Jez -
2

(KL)~
-1_

x 0 =y0 =0

.• F;;2 =151 2 +39.9 2 =24393m m 2

13.3.2 Kz = 1.0 (conservative)

Lz = 6000 mm

fez =[n2 x200x103 x413xl09 +77xl03 x560xl03 ]

2
(1x6 000)

1
8.55x10 3 x 24 393

.. fez= 315 MPa ./, 7 =315 \/Pa

fe = min{fex, f ey' fez}= min{l 251, 87.3, 315}MPa

.. fe = 87.3 MPa I = 87.3 \!Pa

'

Note:
For I -sections torsional-flexural buckling is not usually
critical.

4 .26
SANS 10162 Example E4. 3: Continued Output
Reference

Determine compressive resistance

13.3. 1 A= ft =
fe
)300 = 1.854
87.3

n =1.34

13.3.1 Cr = <)>Afy (1+')..,2n )-1/n

=0.9x8.55x103 x300x10-3 (1+1.8542·68 rl/1.34

.. Cr = 589kN C, = 589 k.\'

!I compressive resistance C,. = 589 kNll

4.27
SANS 10162 Example E4.4: Singly symmetric T-section Output
Reference

A 203 X 140 X 19. 3 kg Im structural T-section cut from a

406 X 140 X 39 kg/m I-section of Grade 300W steel is used
as a column of length 5 000 mm, and is assumed to be pin-
connected at each end. The column is braced at mid-height
to prevent movement in the x-direction . The bracing does
not provide torsional restraint. Determine the factored
compressive resistance of the section.

'
-1-t
' w

....I
I
y

Figure E4.4

Solution

SAS CH Section properties

h = 198.6 mm A = 2.46x 103 mm 2 rx =62.6mm

b=l41.8mm Ix =9.64xl0 6 mm 4 ry =28.9 mm

t1 =8.6 mm IY = 2.05xl0 6 mm
4
ex =52.7 mm
tw = 6.3 mm

Section classification

Outstand of compression flange:

'!J_=_k_= 141.8 =8.2

t 2t1 2x8.6

4 .28
SANS 10162 Example E4.4: Continued Output
Reference

Limiting width-to-thickness ratio

Table 11.2(a) = 200 = 200 = 11.5 > 8.2

p; J3oO
Outstand of compression flange is not slender (Class 4)

Stem of T-section (web):

11 .3.1(a)

Limiting width-to-thickness ratio

Table 11.2(a) = 340 = 340 = 19.6< 31.5

p; J3oO
·· Web is Class 4

I:. Cross-section classification is Class 41 Cross-section is

Class 4

13.3.3 Calculation of effective area

The compressive resistance of Class 4 sections is determined

using an effective area calculated with reduced element
widths to satisfy the maximum width-to-thickness ratio of
a Class 3 section.

Since the outstand of the compression flange is not slender,

the effective area of the flange is therefore

bxt1 =141.8x8.6=1219 mm 2

The effective width of the web

=limiting width-to-t hickness ratio x tw

=19.6x6.3

= 123 mm 2

4 .29
SANS 10162 Example E4.4: Continued Output
Reference

The effective area of the cross-section is therefore

1219+123 =1342 mm 2 .l =I J4~ mm 2

10.4.2. 1 Check slenderness ratio

For buckling about the x-axis:

5
( KL)
r x
= OOO = 79.9 < 200
62.6
OK

( KL)
r Y
= 5 000/ 2 = 86.5 < 200
28.9
OK

13.3.2(b) Calculation of (fe)

The section is symmetrica l about the y-axis

J; rr.2 E = 7t2 x 200x103 = 309 MPa

I t = 309 A/Pa
ex = (KL/r)~ (79.9)
2

J; 7t2 E = 7t2 x 200x103 = 264 MPa

2 t =264 MPa
ey = (KL/r): (86.5)
I

For a T-section: Cw= 0

(Note: For a section with elements meeting at one point

Cw = 0)

The shear centre is at the intersection of the flange and the

web .
•• X0 =0

t1 8.6
Yo = Cx - - = 52.7- - = 48.4 mm (Figure E4.4)
2 2

4 .30
SANS 10162 Example E4.4: Continued Output
Reference

-2
ro = xo2 +Ya+rx
2 2 + ry2 = 0 + 48 .4 2 + 62.62 +2 8.92

. . ~ = 7 097 mm
2 2

3 3
f. = GJ = 77x10 x78.2x10 = 345 MPa
fez = 345 .\/Pa
ez A~2 2.46X103 X7 097

(Note: In the equation above, A is the gross area as per

Clause 13.3.3)
2
13.3.2 Q = 1- y;~ = 1- 748097
2
.4 = 0.670

13.3.2(b) {' =fey + hz

Jeyz 2Q
[l- '1_ (
4feyf ezQ ]
)2
\ fey+ fez

= (264+345) [ - ' _ (4x264x345x0.67) ]

1 1
~
2
2x0.67 (264+345)

feyz = 189 MPa fnz = I X9 \/Pa

13.3.2(b) fe =min {fex, h yz} =min {309, 189} MPa

.. fe =189 MPa !, = 189 ,\/Pa

Determine compressive resistance ( C,. )

{T, = ) 300 = 1.260

13.3. 1 A. =
v7: 189
13. 3.1 Factored compressive resistance ( C,.) is t hen

- 1/1.34
= 0.9x1342 x 300 ( 1+1.2602·68 ) x 10- 3

. . C,. = 165 kN c, = 165 k\

!!Factored compressive resistance C,. = 165 k V II
0
4 .31
SANS 10162 Example E4.5: Singly symmetric parallel flange Output
Reference section

Determine the compressive design capacity of a PFC 180 X 70

SA parallel flange sect ion, Grade 300W st eel.
Assume (KL) . . = (KL)Y = 2 000 mm.

SASCH Sectional properties

a Y
~Pt I --'I'
- :-t....
I
x----:® >--r---x
n_
h
Shear/i
centre
....._ __, ___,.._
l I!b l
,, >i
y

Figure E4.5

A= 2.68X103 mm 3 r.r = 71.0 mm hw = 136mm

Cw = 6.52x10 9 mm 6 ry = 21.8 mm b =70mm

J = 82.3X10 3 mm 4 tw = 7.0 mm ac =43.5 mm

Ix = 13.5X106 mm 4 = 21.5 mm
t
1 =10.9 mm ay

l y = l.27xl06 mm 4 h = 180 mm

Section classification

Outstand of compression flange:

11.3.1(b)

Table 11.2(a) Limit ing width-to-thi ckness ratio

= p;
200 200
= J300 = 11.5 > 6.4

4 .32
SANS 10162 Example E4.5: Continued Output
Reference

·· Outstand of compression flange is not Class 4

Web in compression:

11.3.2(c)

Limiting width-to-thick ness ratio

= 670 = 670 =38.7>19.4

Table 11.2(a)
p; J300

.. Web is not Class 4

I:. Cross-section is not Class 41 Cross-section is

not slender
Check slenderness ratio

10.4.2.1 KL) = 2 000 = 28.2 < 200 OK

( r x 71.0

10.4.2.1 KL) = 2 000 = 9 1. 7 < 200 OK

( r Y 21.8

Determine (le)
13.3.2(b) le = min {hy, I exz}

f, = n2 E
= n2 x 200x103 = 2 482 MPa .f,, = 2 482 .\!Pa
(KL/r)~
2
ex (28.2)

f, n2 E = rt2 x 200x103 = 235 MPa t;, = 235 \!Pa

ey = (KL/r)~ (91.7)
2

Yo =0

x0 = ac = 43.5 mm (Figure E4.5)

4.33
SANS 10162 Example E4.5: Continued Output
Reference

~2 = x; + y; +r} +r} = 43.52 +0+71.02 +21.82

. . ~ = 7 408 mm 2
2

2
13.3.2 r =[n(KLECw)2 +GJ]·-l-
Jez A-2
z
r0

13.3.2 K2 = 1.0 (conservative)

fez = [ 7t2 X 200X103 X 6.52X109 + 77X103 X 82.3X103]

2
(1.0 x 2 000 )

1
x-------
(2.68xl03 x7 408)

. . fez= 481 MPa l~

. <. =481 .\!Pu

13.3.2 Q =1- Xo2 +Yo2 ] Xo2

= 1- -2
[ -2
ro ro

43 52
Q = 1- · = 0.745
7 408
Flexural-torsional buckling stress (fexz) is then obtained
from

13.3.2(b) r
Jexz
= fex +fez
2Q
[l- l'\
1
(
4fexfezQ ]
fex +fez )2

= 2482+481[ - _ 4x2482x48 lx0.745]

1 1 2
2x0.745 \ (2482+481)

. . fexz = 455 MPa

13.3.2(b) fe =min {fey, fexz} =min {235, 455} MPa

.. fe =235 MPa I -= 235 <\!Pa

4.34
SANS 10162 Example E4.5 : Continued Output
Reference

Determine design capacity

13.3. 1 A. = Ji J¥ff
fe
=
235
= 1.130

n = 1.34

13.3.1 Cr= <j>Afy (1+A. 2n r l/n

=0.9x2.68x 103 x 300x10-3 ( 1+1.1302·68 r l/l.34

.. Cr =378kN C, = 378 k \

I! Design capacity of section C,. = 378 k.V II

0

4.35
SANS10162 Example E4.6: Compressive resistance of an Output
Reference H-section column in an office block

A part plan of an office floor and elevation of an internal

column A are shown i n Figures E4.6(a) and E4.6(b)
respectively. The column between the ground floor and first
floor is required to carry the following nominal loads:

Dead load (including self-weight) = 680 kN

Imposed load = 250 kN

Check the adequacy of a 203 X 203 X 46 kg/m H-section,

steel grade 300W, assuming that the column is subject to
axial load only. The connection at the foundation is not
designed to resist moment (i.e. the column is pinned to the
foundation).

E
0
Lei

A
'~I--40_6_x_1_7_8_x_5_4_I_-s_ec.:..:t;..:.
io'- n - - I 356 x 171 x 45 I -section I

><

-~I.1<- -~7.5m'---------J<-J __6.0_m -----JI

Floor plan (1st floor)

Figure E4.6(a): Plan of an office floor

4.36
 SANS 10162 Example E4. 6: Continued Output
Reference

z z
t Roof t
+ +

E
0
<ti

2nd floo r
~=~
+ +

E
0
<ti
406 x 178 x 54 406 x 140 x 39
I -section I -sectio n

I===
1st floo r
+
7""!.. +
356 x 171x45
E I -sectio n
0
..:.

....... ---+-Y
Section I Section II
Figure E4. 6(b): Elevation of internal column A

Solution

Section properties

SASCH h = 203 .2 mm

hw = 161 mm

b = 203.2 mm

t
1 =11.0 mm h

tw =7.3 mm

A= 5.88x10 3 mm 2

f".-c = 88.1 mm Figure E4.6(c)

ry = 51 .2 mm

4.37

II
 SANS10162 Example E4.6: Continu ed Output
Referen ce

Section classific ation

Outstand of compression flange:

Table 11.2(a) ~ = 203.2/ 2 = 9.2 < 200 = 11.5

ti 11.0 J300
.. Outstand of compression flange is not Class 4

Web in axial compression :

Table 11 .2(a) ~ = hw = 161=22 .l < 670 =38.7

fw lw 7.3 J30Q

Web is not slender

I Cross-section is not Class 41 Cross-section not

slender
Ultimat e design loads

Nominal dead load Dn = 680 kN

Nominal imposed load Ln = 250 kN

SANS 10160 Design load

= 1.2x68 0+1.6 x 250

. . C11 =1216 kN c, =1 216k\

Determ ine the effectiv e length

(i) X - Z plane (i.e. buckling about the y-axis)

The foundati on is pinned

F5 (Annex F) . . Gr= 10.0

First floor joint:

The second moment of area for a 406 X 178 X 54 kg/m I -section
girder is:

4 .38
SANS 10162 Example E4.6: Continued Output
Reference

The second moment of area for a 356 X 171X45 kg/m I-section

girder is:

Ix =121x10 6 mm 4

II /L =187x106 +12lxl06 =45100mm3

.• g g 7 500 6 000

The column buckles about the y-axis. The second moment

of area for a 203 X 203 X 46 kg/m H-section is:

IY = 15.4x106 mm 4

2,1 /L = 15.4xl06+15.4 x106 =6930mm3

c c 4 000 5 000

Fig F1 The effective length factor (KY) is obtained from the

(Annex F) nomograph, or alternatively from

K = l- 1 _ __I_ _ _ _l __
y 5+9Gu

= l- ___1___ ___1______l _ _
5+9 x0.154 5+9xl0 10+0.154xl0
.. Ky = 0.75

10.4.2.1 .. (KL) = 0.75x4000 = 58 ·6 < 200 OK

r Y 51.2

(ii) Y - Z plane (i.e. buckling about the x-axis)

F 5 (Annex F) GL = 10.0 (pin foundation)

First floor joint:

The second moment of area for a 406 X 140 X 39 kg/m I -section
is:

Ix= 124X106 mm 4

4.39
SANS 10162 Example E4.6: Continued Output
Reference

'LI /L =124 x 106 +124x106 =52356mm3

.. g g 4 500 5 000

The column buckles about the x-axis. The second moment

of area for a 203 X 203 X 46 kg/m H-section is:

Ix= 45.6X10 6 mm 4

'LI /L = 45.6x106 + 45.6x106 =20520mm3

c c 4 000 5 000

. . G = Lic / Lc = 20 520 = 0. 392

u "Ilg / Lg 52356
Effective length factor ( K x)

K =l- 1 _ 1 1
x 5+9x0.392 5+9x10 10+0.392x10

.. Kx=0.80 K , =0.80

10.4.2.1 .. (KL) = 0.80x4000 = 363 < 200 OK

r x 88.1

Thus

(KL/r) y = 58.3 >(KL/rt= 36.3

governs the design for flexural buckling.

f, n2 E = rt2 x 200x103 = 581 MPa

f.. =581 \fPa
ey = (KL/r)~
I
2
(58.3)

13.3.2(a) Check for torsional-flex ural buckling

x 0 =Yo =0 (symmetrical sect ion)

~2 = 88.1 2 +51.2 2 =10 383 mm 2

4.40
 SANS 10162 Example E4.6: Continued Output
Reference

2
f, -[ rr ECw + GJ J-1-
13.3.2 ez - (KL)~ Ar/

13.3.2 Kz = 1.0 (conservative)

SASCH Cw = 142x109 mm 6

J = 225 x 103 mm 4

2 3 9
fa= [ rr x 200x10 x 142x10 +nx 10, x 225 x 10,]
2
(1.0x4 000)

I
3
(5.88x10 x10383)

.. fez = 571 MPa .t:z - 571 MP

fe = min {fey, fez} = min {5 81, 571} MPa
.. f e = 571 MPa (torsional buckling governs) I<=571 MPa

Calculate the factored compressive resistance

13.3.1 A =ft=~
fe 571
=0.725
n = 1.34

Cr= <j>Afy (1+'A 2n rl/n

I
13.3.1

= 0.9x5.88x103 x 300 x I 0-3 ( I+ 0. 725 2·68 rl/l.34

.. Cr = I 220 kN > Cu = I 216 kN OK ( r - I 220 kV

II Section 203 x 203 x 46 kg 1 m H-section is adequate II

4.41

--
SANS 10162 Example E4. 7: Concentrically Loaded angle section Output
Reference

Determine the design capacity of a concentrically loaded

pinned-end column of 2.0 m length consisting of an equal leg
angle 100 X 100 X 12 kg/m, Grade 300W steel.

SASCH Section properties

A = 2.27x10 3 mm 2 r;, = 38 mm

J = 118x103 mm 4 rv = 19.4 mm

Ix= 2.07xl0 6 mm 4 h=b =lOOmm

IY = 2.07x106 mm 4 t =12 mm
Ju =3.28x10 6 mm 4 a.= 45°

Iv= 0.857X10 6 mm 4 y0 = v1 = 41 . l mm

Section classification

11.3.1(b) !2 = !?_ = 100 = 8.3

t t 12

Limiting width-to-thickness ratio

4.42
SANS 10162 Example E4. 7: Continued Output
Reference

= 200 = 200 = 11.5 > 8.3

Table 11.2(a)
p; J300
I:. Cross-section is not slender (Class 4) I Cross-section is
not slender

13.3.1 Determine (fe)

(a) Buckling about the v-axis:

fev = n2 E = 1t2x200x103 = 185.7 MPa l ., = 185.7 \!Pa

2
(L/rv) 2 (2 000/ 19.4)

(b) Buckling about the u-axis:

feu = 1t2 E? = 1t2X200X103 = 712.6 MPa .fcu = 712.6 .\/Pa

(L/ru t (2 000/ 38)2

(c) Torsional buckling:

Cw = 0 (elements meet at one point)

13.3.2

x0 = 0

Yo = 41.1 mm

~2 = 0+41.1 2 +38 2 +19.42 =3510mm 2

.f~'Z = 1140.4 A/Pa

4.43
SANS 10162 Example E4. 7: Continued Output
Reference

The elastic torsional-flexural buckling stress (fe) is the

smallest root of

13.3.2(c) (!, - f ," )(J;- /,,)(!, - !~)- f,' (J; - /,,)( ~ )'

- J,' (f,-J;"i(~ )' =0

2
i.e. (fe - 712.6)(/e - 185.7) (fe - 1140.4)- fe (fe -712.6)
x 0.481=0

.. fe = 171.2 MPa .t; = 171.2 MPa

Note:

le = 171.2 = 0.92
f ev 185.9

.. If we use fev in design there is an error of only

approximately 8% (unconservative) .

Determine the compressive resistance

13.3.1 A= ff=~
fe
300 = 1.323
171.2

n = 1.34

13.3.1
Cr= <j>Afy (1+A 2 nrl/n
(
= 0.9x2.27x10 3 x 300 1+1.323 2·68 t /1.34 x I0- 3

.. Cr= 262 kN C, =26'2k\'

II Design capacity C,. = 262 kvJj

4.44
SANS 10162 Example E4. 7: Continued Output
Reference

Note:
If we had used fev = 185.9 MPa

A= Ji ~
fev
= 300 = 1.270
185.9

c,. = 0.9x2.27x103 x 300 (1+1.2702·68 r l/1.34 x 10- 3

.. C,. =277 kN c I
277 kV

The compressive resistance would have been overdesigned

by

15
-xl00=5.7%
262
0

4.45
Eurocode 3 Example E4.8: Eccentrica lly loaded angle section Output
Reference

If the angle section in Example E4. 7 is eccentrically loaded,

determine the design capacity of the section using Eurocode
3. Assume the member is connected through one leg with 2
bolts. The section is 100 X 100 X 12 kg/mangle and is 2.0 m
long . Use Grade 300W steel.

Solution

Section classification - Not slender (see Example E4. 7 ).

Determine the reduction factor(X)

(a) For buckling about the v-axis

5.5.1.4(3) Av = KL= l.Ox2000 =l03 .l

rv l 9.4

5.5.1 .2(1)

~A = 1(Class 3 sections)

5. 5.1.2(1)
~ ="-v fA =
103 1
· xl.0=1.27 1
v A1 '\j!JA 81.1
- -
5.8.3 Aejf.v = 0.35 + 0.7Av = 0.35+0.7X 1.271

. . Aeif .v = 1.240

5.5.1.2(1) <j> = 0.5 [ 1+0.49 (~eff.v - 0.2) + ~;if.v ]

= o.5[ 1+0.49(1 .240-0.2) + 12402 J
. . <I>= 1.524

4.46
Eurocode 3 Example E4.8: Continued Output
Reference

5.5.1.2 x=
¢+ [ ¢ 2 -Aejf.v
-2
1
rs
1
=
1.524 + [1 .524 2 -1 .240 2 rs
.. x=0.415 x = 0.415
(b) For buckling about the y-axis (or x-axis)

5.5.1.4(3) A =KL= 1.0x2000 =66.2

Y r 30.2
y

5.5.1.2(1) ~ = A,Y .}f; = 66 ·2 x1.0 = 0.817

y A1 A 81.1
- -
5.8.3
'Aeff.y = 0.50 + 0. 7'Ay = 0.50 + 0. 70 x 0.817
.. 'Aeff.y = 1.072

5.5.1.2(1) ¢ = 0.5 [ 1+0.49 (~eff. y -0.2) + ~~.y ]

= o.5[ 1+0.49(1.01 2-02) + 1.0122 J

.. <1> = 1.288

5.5.1.2 x=
¢ + [ <1> 2
1
-2
- 'Aeff.y
rs
1
=
1.288 + [ 1.2882 -1.072 2 rs
... x = 0.50 X = 0.'iO
Thus the reduction factor (X) is

X = min{0.415, 0.50} =0.415 x = 0.415

4.47
Eurocode 3 Example E4.8: Continued Output
Reference

Determine compressive resistance

5.5.1.1(1) C,. = 0.9x~ AAfy

= 0.9x0.415x1.0x2 .27x10 3 x300x10-3

... Cr =254kN C =254kV

Note: The design capacity in this case has been reduced by

8
-xl00=3%
262

II Design capacity C,. = 254 k.V JI

4.48
SANS 10162 Example E4.9: Design of lacings Output
Reference

Two channel sections 300 X 100 X 46 kg/m are connected

by lacing bars in such a way that they act as a compound
unit, as shown in Figure E4. 9(a). The spacing between the
channels is such that rx = ry- The column has an effective
length of 8. 0 m about both the x- and y-axes, and is required
to carry a factored compressive load of 2 000 kN. Check the
adequacy of the channel sections and design the lacings
using Grade 300W steel. Assume all connections will be
welded.

Figure E4. 9(a)

Solution

SASCH By virtue of non-symmetry, each channel section is not

slender. All hot-rolled channel sections are not slender.

Compressive resistance

SA SCH Ix = 2X81.7X106 =163.4X10 6 mm 4

IY = Ix = 163 .4 x 106 mm 4

~=
6
r =r = 163
.4xl0 = 119 mm
x y VA 2 x s. 16 x 103

4.49
SANS 10162 Example E4. 9: Continued Output
Reference

(KLt =(KL)y =8.0m

19.1.4(a) .. (KL) =(KL)

r x r Y
= 8 000 =67.2
119

f, = n2E = rt2x200x103 = 437.1 MPa 11 ( =437.1 MPa

(KL/r)~ 2
e 67.2

fT, =~JOO
13.3.1 A=
v1e 437.1
=0.828

n = 1.34

13.3.1 Cr =<PAfr (1+A.2nrlfn

-1/ 1.34
=0.9x(2x5.7 6)x300x ( l+0.828 2·68 )

. . Cr= 2187 kN(> C11 =2 000 kN) OK C, = 2187 kN

(i) Check portion of single channel between

intersections of lacings

SASCH c = 85 + 2 x 73 = 231 mm

L 1 :::: 2 x 231 tan (90-a) = 462 tan(90-a)

where a is the inclination of the lacing to the longitudinal

axis of the member (see Figure E4.9(a)).

19.1.10 Take L 1 as the effective length

. . Slenderness ratio of portion between lacings ( ry of

single channel= 29 mm).

= 462 tan (90 - a) = 462 tan (90 - a) =15.93tan (90-a )

~ 29

4.50
SANS 10162 Example E4.9: Continued Output
Reference

19.1.11 Clause 19.1.11 suggests that lacings shall be inclined to the

longitudinal axis of the built-up member at an angle of at
least 45° .

Adopt a= 45°

. . Slenderness ratio of portion between lacings

19.1.4 = 15.93tan(90-a) = 15.93tan45°=15.93 < 67.2 OK

(ii) Design the lacing bars

19.1.10 Length of bar between inner welds

L = 85/cos(90-a) =85/cos45°=120 mm

19.1.9 Lacings shall be proportioned to resist a shear (V) normal

to the longitudinal axis of the member of not less than 0.025
times the total axial load on the member.

shear V = 0.025 x 2 000 = 50 kN

v -

Figure E4. 9(b)

The axial force in the lacing bar is therefore obtained from

Figure E4. 9(b) as

Cu= V/cosa = 50/ cos45 =70.7 kN Cu= 70.7 kV

19.1.10 The slenderness ratio of a lacing member shall not exceed

140.

i .e. L ::; 140

r

4 .51
SANs10162 Example E4.9: Continued Output
Reference

Radius of gyration (r) of the lacing bar is

r= /I =~bt3 /!2 = - t -
~A bt JU

I
l
1
b
IJ
,l
Figure E4. 9(c)

19.1.10 L::;:; 140

r

.. t?:. LJU
140
L=l20mm

12
t?:. oJU = 3.0 mm
140

Adopt t = 6 mm t=6mm
12
L = oJU =69<140 OK
r 6

Least radius of gyration

t 6
r= JU= JU =l.73mm

fe= n2E = n2x200x103 =411.6MPa

2 2 f._ = 411.6 \!Pa
(KL/ r) x (1.0x120/1. 73)

19.1.10 Note: K = 1.0

4 .52
SANS 10162 Example E4. 9: Continued Output
Reference

13.3.1 Cr = <j>Afy (1+A. 2 n rl/n

A= ft =)
fe
3
00 = 0.854
411.6

Cr= 0.9xAx300x10-3 1+0.8542·68 ( r l/1.34

.. Cr=0.185A

Cr =Cu =70.7 kN

.. 0.185A = 70.7
A= 70.7/0.185 = 381 mm2 ')
A =381 mm-
i.e. bxt=38l

b = 3 81/ 6 = 64 mm say 65 mm h=65mm

~
,... Use 65 x 6 mm lacing bars
I
~--...

I'
I!

4 .53

--
SANS 10162 Example E4. 10: Design of a battened strut Output
Reference

A battened double-angle channel strut in Grade 300W steel

has an effective length of 8.0 m about bot h the x- and
y-axes as shown in Figure E4.10. The channel sections are
300 X 100 X 46 kg/m and the battens are spaced as shown in
the figure. Check the adequacy of the strut and the battens
if the strut is required to carry a factored compressive load
of 2 000 kN .

------r------------ --r- --
o_ r~- l--~-+-::::----0--f-'-+o- ~ ~
f--- - + - I-

~[ -~ I N ~ I .~
f - -- - > - 0- J;- 0 ~-.,r--------,t..-
t-, =t-Q I Q t--

- - - - - r~T----------- -. -~r--
I 1501 I I 150 1200 1501 l 150
i ~- 1500

x
i

8t-~j-~
End I Edge distance = 35 mm
Battens 370 x 340 x 10 mm
- y
"<!" I M20 bolts Grade 8.8S
fLU
I
x

Figure E4.10

Solution

The sections used are the same as those of Example E4.9.

Compressive resistance

SASCH Ix= 2x8 1.7x10 6 =163.4x 106 mm 4

1, ~ 2[5.67x 10 +5.76x10 x( 2 ~ 0 +69.4)' ]

6 3

= 341.9x106 mm 4

A = 2x5.76x10 3 =11.52xl0 3 mm 2

r = {I:= 163.4x106 =I19mm r, = I 19 mm

x VA" ~ 1i.s2x103

4 .54
SANS 10162 Example E4. 10: Continued Output
Reference

r = [!; = /341.9x106 =172mm = 172mm

y VA \ 1i.52x103
1

rmin = rx = 119 mm

(KL)
r
= 8 000 = 67 .2
119
x

J; = n2E = n2x200xl03 =437.lMPa f. = 437.1 MPa

2
e (KL/r)~ (67.2)

{7; =~ 300 =0.828

13.3. 1 A=
v1e 437.1

13.3.1 C,. =<j>Afy ( 1+ A. 2n )-1/n

- 1/1.34
= o.9x11.52x1o3 x300x10-3 ( 1+ o.828 2 ·68 )

. . C,. = 2187 kN > 2 000 kN OK Cr= 2187 kN

Check adequacy of battens

Minimum length (d) of battens = 2 70 mm

270
19. 1.17 .. Minimum thickness of batten = -
60
=4.5 mm

. . 10 mm plate is adequate t = IOmm

Check shear resistance

19.1.17 Longitudinal shear per batten

19.1.17
V = 0.025Cud
u
na
d = 1 500 mm (Figure E4. 10)

n =2 a=270 mm

4 .55
SANS10162 Example E4. 10: Continued Output
Reference

V = 0.025x20 00xl500 =l 39 kN i :, = 139 k v

II 2X270
Shear resistance of batten

13.4. 1. 1 (a) V,. = 0.66Q>Afy

= 0.66 x 0.9x(370x 10) x 300x10-3

. . V,. = 659 kN > 139 kN OK I ~= 659 kV

Check moment resistance

19.1.17 Moment per batten

19.1. 17

0.025x20 00x1500
=- - - - ---
2x2 A/11 ==

. . M 11 =18.75x103 kNmm 18.75x 103 kVmm

Section modulus of batten

2
370
ze= lOx-- = 228.2xl03 mm 3
6

Moment resistance of batten

13.5 Mr = Q>Zefy = 0.9X 228.2 X103 X300X10- 6

. . Mr= 61.6kNm> 18.75 kNm OK \/ =6 1.6kVm

Check adequacy of connection

Consider the 3-bolt group:

Maximum shear force i n bolt due to moment can be

calculated from

4 .56
SANS 10162 Example E4.10: Continued Output
Reference

where

r1 =l50mm

L,xI2 = 2x150 2 = 45x10 3 mm 2

Mu =18.75x103 kNmm
3
. . V =18.75x10 x150 = 62 .5 kN
m
3
45xl0
~~n = 62.5 kN

Maximum she ar force in bolt due to the longitudinal shear

on batten is

~h = Vu = 139 = 46.3 kN i 1,, = 46.3 kN

No. of bolts 3

.. Load per bolt = ~v; + ~t

= .J62.52 + 46.32
= 77.8 kN

HSFG bolt resistances are rated at serviceability load. Thus,

assuming a load factor of 1.5 per bolt,
Load per bott
77 8
Load per bolt = · = 51.9 kN =51.9k V
1.5

Shear resistance:

For 3·M20 Gr 8. 85 HSFG bolts Class B (sandblasted) contact

surface, the shear resistance (~) is calculated from

13.12.2.2

4 .57
SANS101 62 Example E4. 1O: Continued Output
Reference

Table c1 =0.90
13.12.2.2
ks = 0.50

202 2
Ab =nX-=3l4 .3mm
4
~ = 0.53 x 0.9 x 0.5 x 314.3x830x1 0- 3

= 62.2 kN > 51.9 kN OK V, =62.2 kN

The reader is referred to Chapter 7 for more details on

connection design.

--------oOo- -------

4.58
 Chapter 5
DESIGN OF BEAMS AND PLATE GIRDERS

5.1 Introduction

A beam is a bending member that transfers load applied normal to its longitudinal axis to its support
points. The behaviour of a beam of the same span and loading is very similar to that of a lattice truss .
The basic difference is that the beam's elements are composed of plates, as opposed to the discrete
elements of a lattice truss. The two principal internal actions, flexure and shear, generated in a beam
by the application of external loads, are analogous to axial tension and compression forces in an
equivalent lattice truss . This is illustrated in Figure 5. 1.

Loads
Compression chord

Flexure

Tension chord

Figure 5.1: Load transfer in lattice truss

The most common steel sections used as beams are I-sections or channels. The distribution of material
within these sections provides the most efficient transfer of load by flexure and shear. Failure of a
beam may conveniently be visualised as a failure of either the compression or tension component of
the beam (flanges), or the shear component of the beam (web) .

In beam sections, flexure is resisted primarily by the compression and tension flanges, while shear is
transmitted primarily by the web. The flanges may therefore be seen as the compression and tension
chords, and the web as the verticals and diagonals of an equivalent truss. Figure 5.2 shows a beam
subjected to a loading normal to the longitudinal axis. The distribution of bending and shear stresses
at mid-span is shown in Figure 5.2(c) and (d) respectively.

5.2 Classification of sections

The design of a beam involves analysis to determine the maximum factored applied moment and
compare it with the factored moment resistance (Mr) of the section . However, the moment
resistance depends on a number of controlling limit states of the particular section, i.e. local buckling
or lateral torsional buckling. The issue of lateral torsional buckling is described in more detail in
Section 5.4.

Local buckling is a failure of the cross-section such that the section shape is altered to the point that
it can no longer carry load. For an I-shaped section, local buckling can be failure of the compression
flange or web. This failure occurs when the flange or web is slender. SANS 10162-1 treats the flange as
5. 1

~ I/
 l
Beam and loading

v
I l D
Compression

Tension~
(a) Section (b) Strain (c) Elastic stress (d) Elastic stress
distribution (bending) distribution
in web (shear)
Figure 5.2: Strain and stress distribution in I-beam at mid-span

an unstiffened element since only one e nd of the projecting flange is supported by the web. The web,
however, is treated as a stiffened element because it is connected at both ends to a flange. In the
Code, shapes are classified into four classes, depending on the width -to-thickness ratio which dictates
the level of flexural resistance attainable prior to the onset of local buckling, in either the flange or
the web. This classification is shown graphically in Figure 5.3.

Moment
Class 1 (plastic)

----- Class 2 (compact)

~ Class 3 (non-compact)

~Cl"' 4 (' loodec)

Rotation

Figure 5.3: Classification of sections

Using the analogy with trusses, Class 1 and 2 sections may be compared to trusses comprising very
stocky members, while Class 3 and 4 sections may be compared to very slender members . Section
classification is given in Clause 11 and Table 11 .2(b) of the Code.

5.3 Laterally restrained beams

The simplest form of flexural failure is the case where the section is sufficiently compact (i.e. Class
1 and 2 sections) and adequately restrained against lateral buckling to allow the ultimate flexural
resistance to be governed by the material strength only. The moment resistance is then determined
by a fully plastic distribution of stresses in the beam, as shown in Figure 5.4(e). Since horizontal
equi librium should be maintained at all times, the plastic neutral axis divides t he cross-section into

5.2
equal parts. It is emphasised that the transition from the elastic distribution of stresses to the fully
plastic state is only possible if buckling of both the cross·section and t he member as a whole is
prevented and this only happens for Class 1 and 2 sections.

(a) Section (b) Elastic (c) Elastic distribution (d) Plastic strain (e) Plastic distribution
strain of stresses of stresses
(bending) (bending)

Figure 5.4: Flexural strength of a beam limited by full plasticity

To prevent lateral buckling of the beam, a lateral support should be placed on the compression flange
of the beam. Examples of lateral support may be found in the form of roof cladding, floor boards and
concrete decks. Provided that lateral buckling is prevented, the moment resistance (Mr) of a steel
beam may be quantified as follows (Clause 13.5, SANS 10162):

Mr= <)>Z ptfy for Class 1 (plastic) and Class 2 sections (compact); and (5.1)

Mr = <l>Zefy for Class 3 sections (non-compact) (5.2

where

Z pl =the plastic section modulus

ze =the elastic section modulus

<)> =the resistance factor = 0.9

For Class 4 sections, the moment resistance should be determined in accordance with Clause 13.5(c)
of the Code.

In order to achieve a level of flexural resistance in excess of the action caused by the factored
nominal loads, the moment resistance (Mr) should be greater than the applied moment ( M11 ). The
principal properties of a cross-section are the cross-sectional area, moment of inertia, and the plastic
and elastic moduli. The Southern African Steel Construction Handbook (SASCH) has standard sections
with properties for different profiles. A study of the section tables in the handbook will show that,
when comparing beams of nearly equal section modulus, it is always the deepest one that has the
lowest mass. This therefore, affords a simple guide to the selection of a minimum-mass section. If a
beam section greater than the largest available standard rolled section is required, a plated rolled
section or plate girder can be considered. Details of the design of plate girders are given in Section
5.8. An illustrative example of a laterally restrained beam is given in Example E5.1.

5.3
 5.4 Laterally unrestrained beams

5.4.1 Elastic buckling of beams

Lateral torsional instability is similar in many ways to the buckling behaviour of compression members.
The fundamental difference is found in the fact that a beam consists of both an unstable compression
zone and a stable tension zone. During buckling, the stable tension zone resists the lateral movement
of the unstable compression zone, and compatibility of the two zones can be achieved only through a
twisting of the beam, as shown in Figure 5.5. In contrast to the case of a simple strut, the resistance
of a beam to lateral torsional buckling is therefore controlled by both the lateral buckling resistance
of the strut and the resistance of the section to twisting.

Figure 5.5: Displacement at the onset of lateral torsional buckling

The approach to quantifying the lateral torsional resistance is very similar to the one in strut buckling,
in that a critical elastic moment is first derived by considering a condition of neutral equilibrium
(i.e. the lowest value of load at which the beam can maintain a bent position). The critical elastic
bending moment (Mc,·) is the upper limit of the buckling resistance. The critical elastic moment is,
however, not the actual value of the bending moment at which lateral torsional buckling will occur,
but it provides an upper limit of resistance to lateral torsional buckling. As in the case of the flexural
buckling of struts - and for that matter any form of buckling of real structural elements - geometric
imperfections and inelastic behaviour caused by such imperfections, as well as eccentricity of loading,
will decrease the actual magnitude of the buckling moment.

The formula for basic elastic buckling of beams may be derived using the same principles as for simple
strut buckling. Consider a beam that is loaded by equal and opposite end moments and supported
such that lateral deflection and twist are prevented at the ends, as shown in Figure 5.6.

Figure 5.6: Beam and loading for lateral buckling

5.4
Since beam buckling involves both lateral deflection (u) and twist (<P) as shown in Figure 5.5, both
actions must be considered . The two equilibrium equations are

d 2u
M y =EIY- 2
{lateral bending) (5.3)
dx
3
M = GJdcp + EC d cp {twist) (5.4)
z dz w dz 3

The solution to the two differential equations provides an expression for the critical elastic buckling
moment (Mer) as

(5.5)

2
I h
The warping torsional constant (Cw) may be written as Cw= _Y_ for doubly symmetrical I-
beams.
4

If Cw is substituted into Equation 5. 5, the following expression is obtained for the critical elastic
buckling moment

2 2
- n EIy ·-GJL
2
h2 n EI h GJL2 1
M er --+--
- 2 n2 EI 4L2 = 2
y -
2 2
+-2 (5.6)
L y L 2 n EIy h L

In this form the similarity between beam buckling and strut buckling may be easily recognised . The
elastic critical buckling load for a pin-ended strut is given in Equation 4 .2 in Chapter 4.

The critical elastic buckling moment of a beam may be written as the critical buckling load of a strut,
multiplied by a factor containing the torsional stiffness of the beam. Beam buckling is therefore
similar to strut buckling multiplied by a torsional enhancement factor, which reflects the restraint
action of the stable tension flange.

5.4.2 Inelastic buckling of beams

As in the case of columns, the elastic buckling moment provides a value of the moment that only
approximates the buckling moment of slender beams. In beams of intermediate length, the actual
value of the bending moment at which failure due to lateral torsional instability occurs is influenced
by initial imperfections, eccentricity of loading and the fact that the section is subjected to internal
stresses prior to any external load being applied. The problems associated with adjusting the e lastic
buckling moment of beams to allow for inelastic behaviour have been approached in various ways.

Two schools of thought have provided the principal influence in the development of design criteria
for beams.

5.5
The British philosophy, based extensively on the work of Godfrey (1962), Robertson (1925) and
others, assumes that imperfections are the principal cause of the reduction in the elastic critical
buckling moment. The imperfection factors used in the various formulations are largely based on
experimental observations to provide what is termed a "curve fit". The "curve fit" is also based on a
theoretical formulation of the load at which a strut or beam with an initial curvature will achieve a
stress condition, where the maximum stress caused by the combination of axial load and bending will
exceed the yield stress.

Inelastic behaviour of beams, as in the ca se of columns, provides a transition curve between the two
limits of strength (i.e . flexural failure limited by the yield strength of the material and failure by
elastic instability) . This is illustrated in Figure 5. 7.

Flexural Material failure

capacity

Lateral slenderness

Figure 5. 7: Elastic, inelastic and plastic failure modes in beams

The principal philosophy concerning the inelastic behaviour of beams and columns held in North
America recognises that the member is not stress-free, even in the absence of any form of external
loading . The manufacturing process of the element produces internal stresses which are in equilibrium,
but will cause the yield stress to be exceeded at certain positions in the section when subjected
to external loadings less than the loading required to produce yielding of the full cross-section .
Improvements in technology have made it possible to measure the magnitude and distribution of yield
stresses in the cross-section. Some examples of residual stresses in rolled and welded sections are
shown in Figure 5.8.

(a) Rolled section (b) Welded section

Figure 5.8: Residual stress patterns in sections

5.6
Within the context of inelastic buckling the most important property of residual stresses is the fact
that high compressive stresses (as high as 0.3 fy)
can exist at the tip of the flanges. As the load on
the beam is increased, yielding of the material will occur at the flange tips if the sum of the residual
stresses and the stresses caused by bending exceed the yield stress of the material. Since the elastic
modulus of the yielded portions of the compression flange is very low, the effective lateral stiffness
of the compression flange (EIY) is reduced with a corresponding reduction in lateral buckling
resistance.

It has been found that the stress patterns in welded sections may be more severe than in rolled
sections, as shown in Figure 5.8, and most design codes consider t his. The elastic buckling moment
is adjusted to provide a transition between the fully plastic moment (which can be achieved only at
very low values of lateral slenderness) and the elastic buckling curve (which applies only to slender
beams).

SANS 10162 defines the moment resistance for the three zones (see Figure 5. 9) of slenderness for
doubly symmetrical Class 1 and Class 2 beams as

(a) Mr = <j>MP (limit on material strength - laterally restrained beams) (5.7)

(b) Mr = 1.15 <j>MP(1- 0.28 MP

Mer
J ,with a maximum value of <j>MP (5.8)

for Mer> 0.67 MP (transition zone)

(c) Mr = <J>Mer for Mer $ 0.67 MP (limit on elastic buckling) (5 . 9)

For Class 3 and 4 sections, and channels, the factored moment resistance equations are similar to
Equations 5.8 and 5. 9, except that MP is replaced by MY (Clause 13.6(b)).

Moment : / L i mit on material

capacity : strength
MP -----~-- ------ -- -----------

Limit on elastic
buckling

Lateral slenderness ratio

Figure 5. 9: Flexural resistance as a function of lateral slenderness

5.7
 5.4.3 Factors influencing the stability of beams

One of the factors that influences the stability of beams is the shape of the bending moment diagram.
The worst case occurs when a bending moment of a constant value is achieved, as shown in Figure
5.1 O(a). The other factor that influences the stability of beams is the unrestrained length of the
compression flange of the beam. The greater the length of the beam that is subjected to a moment,
the lower the resistance to lateral buckling.

~ M
_------"]) M~
S ,i;: iw
d/ln-~---------1>.
~
_ ;i:M
_ -J_") Loading
'l'r---------,7i!!if M condition

Bending

I~
(a) Most severe case (b) Less severe case (c) Least severe case
moment
diagram

Figure 5.10: Influence of the shape of the bending moment diagram

The position of the load relative to the netural axis is also of great importance. When the load is
applied to the top flange and can move sideways with the flange as shown in Figure 5.11, this is
referred to as a destabilising load. Destabilising loads are the most common . The design formulae of
SANS 10162 are based on the worst case (i.e. equal end moments as shown in Figure 5.10(a)). When
the load is applied in a different manner, adjustments are made. These adjustments allow for the type
of load as well as the position of the load relative to the neutral axis. The adjustments are made in
the form of an effective-length factor. The actual length is multiplied by an effective-length factor
(K), which is then used to obtain the effective length (KL) . The effective length thus obtained
can then be used directly in the Code formulae. No allowances have been made for the possibility of
stabilising loads.

i;/ f/ Destabilising

lood

•;' I Stabilising
/, f load

1
Figure 5.1 1: Stabilising and destabilising loads

The effective-length factors are given in Tables 10.2.1 and 10.2.2 in the Code and are given here in
Tables 5.1 and 5.2. The support conditions referred to in Table 5.1 are illustrated in Figure 5.1 2 on
page 5.10. The values of the effective-length factors in Table 5.2 for simply supported beams shall be
increased by 20% where the beam ends are not restrained against torsion (Clause 10.2.1 ).

The formulc. for a critical elastic buckling moment given in the Code is an adaptation of the basic
formula (EqLation 5.5) for equal end moments, in which the co2 factor is introduced to make provision
for the shape of the bending moment diagram between lateral supports.

5.8
Table 5.1: Effective-length factor ( K) for cantilever beams

Effective-length factor (K)

Restraint conditions
Condition of load

At support At tip Normal Destabilising

Free 0.8 1.4
Lateral support to the 0.7 1.4
Built in laterally and compression flange only
torsionally
Torsional support only 0.6 0.6
Lateral and torsional support 0.5 0.5
Free 1.0 2.5
Lateral support to the 0.9 2.5
Continuous, with
compression flange only
lateral and torsional
restraint Torsional support only 0.8 1.5
Lateral and torsional support 0.7 1.2
Free 3.0 7.5
Lateral support to the 2.7 7.5
Continuous, with compression flange only
lateral restraint only
Torsional support only 2.4 4.5
Lateral and torsional support 2.1 3.6

Table 5.2: Effective-length factor ( K) for simply supported beams

Effective-length factor (K)

Restraint against lateral
bending at the supports Type of l0ad

Normal Destabilising
Beam is free to rotate (in plan) 1.0 1.2
Partial restraint (flanges are
connected by flange clamps or 0.85 1.0
end-plates)
Fully fixed (no rotation possible
in plan) 0.7 0.85

5.9
 Plan Plan Plan
Web stiffener

Support prevents
displacement but
not rotation
Elevation Elevation Elevation

Continuous beam with restraint against Continuous beam where only

lateral and torsional movement lateral movement is prevented

Figure 5.12: Support and boundary conditions of beams

The equation for the critical elastic buckling moment is given in Clause 13 .6(a) as:

(5. 10)

where
KL = effective length of the unbraced portion of the beam (i.e. for each separate
segment/portion between the lateral supports)

co2 =1. 75+1.05K + 0.3K 2 ::; 2.5 for unbraced length subject to end moments (5 .11)

= 1.0 when the bending moment at any point within the unbraced length is
larger than the larger end moment of the unbraced length being considered

Cw = warping constant (zero for a hollow section)

K = ratio between the smaller and larger end moments of the unbraced length;
it is positive for double curvature and negative for single curvature
(see Figure 5.13)

Note that since K is always between -1 and +1, it follows from Equation 5.11 that co 2 is always
greater than unity. What this means is that the uniform moment loading case represents the most
severe loading condition of the beam .

The commentary to the Code suggests that the following simple method be used for cantilever beams:

(5. 12)

where the effective length factor ( K) is obtained from Table 5. 1.

5.10
 Qc~x------ --- --- - -- : :::::::::::::::::::r~]D
-------- -- ---- --
(a) Beam in double curvature (K is positive)

Unbraced length
f f
~Kx)--- -- ---- - ---- ------ ---------------- --(xl~
------- ---- ------ --------------- ------ -
(b) Beam in single curvature (Kis negative)

@ = Lateral support

Figure 5. 13: Calculation of w2 factor to allow fo r moment gradie nt

--;,..__ _ __,___,___ _....__ __._......__ _--1 Lateral

Lateral support
support

.l L/4

Figure 5.14: Moment diagram between lateral supports

A more general approach in the calculation of co 2 is given in detail by Chen and Lui (1997) . For any
moment diagram between lateral supports, as in Figure 5.14, w 2 is calculated as:

12
(5.13)

where

M 1, M 2 M 3 and M max are absolute values and are calculated at the positions shown in
Figure 5. 14. M max is the maximum bending moment between the lateral supports.

Table 5.3 overleaf illustrates the calculation of w 2 for different loading conditions using Equation 5.13.

5.5 Shear strength (Clause 13.4)

An acceptable design should achieve a shear resistance that exceeds the applied shear force. In a
flanged profile such as an I-beam, H-section or a channel, by far the greater proportion of the shear
resistance is generated by the web of the section (see Figure 5.2(d)). The contribut ion of t he flanges
is commonly neglected for the purposes of design. The principal parameters determining the shea r

5 . 11
Table 5. 3: Calculation of m2
Loading condition Moments

M1 = Mo

M2 = Mo
1.0
M3 = Mo

M1 = 0.75 M0

=
C:-M-0----------------------~
M2 0.50 M 0
1.71
M3 = 0.25 M0

M1 = 0 .5 M 0

M2 = 0
2.40
;_)M0 M3 = 0.5 M 0

= 0
(
§'!------'----§ = Plts

"
l L/2 l
}l
Lt2
"
l = 0
2.0

= Plts
( = PL/4
A 1.33
= Plts
l
,. ,. l PL14

3wl2
32
wL2/8
3wl2 1.14

"
l L l
h
32
wl2/8

5wl 2
192
= wl2/24
5wl2 1.23
=
192

5 . 12
resistance are therefore the overall depth (h), the thickness of the web (tw) and the yield strength
(fy) of the section .
Four equations are given in the Code. These depend on the hw/twratio of the web and the shear
buckling coefficient ( kv). The shear resistance (Vr) is given in Clause 13.4.1 .1 by the following
equation :

(5.13)

where

Is= 0.66/y
(for rolled sections)

(for welded sections)

<J>=0.90
This criterion of strength is known as the Von Mises, which considers shear failure due to the material
strength being exceeded analogous to failure of the diagonals in tension in an equivalent truss. The
shear resistance for plate girders is given in more detail in Section 5.8.2. The parameters defined in
Equation 5.13 are shown in Figure 5.15.

_,_ _______-

Figure 5.15: Shear resistance of beams

5. 6 Resistance of webs to transverse forces

The beam supports can be considered as positions where point loads are applied. At such positions,
the web is subjected to compressive loads. As the magnitude of the load is increased, the web fails
by yielding (failure governed by the strength of the material), by crippling, or by overall buckling of
the web (failure governed by local stability), as illustrated in Figure 5.16. The buckling failure mode

I
(a) Yielding of web
I
(b) Crippling of web
l
(c) Web buckling

Figure 5.16: Modes of failure in the webs of I -beams

5.13
 is similar to the failure of a vertical compression member i n a lattice truss under the action of a load
applied at a particular node.

Yielding, crippling or buckling of the web does not commonly occur under small point loads. These
modes of failure are possible under large point loads. A web stiffener is commonly used to increase
the resistance to failure under large point loads.

The resistance to yielding and crippling of a web (Figures 5.16(a) and (b)) is given in the Code in
Clause 14.3 .2 as follows :

(a) In the case where loads are applied within the span (i.e. load can spread in two directions), the
factored bearing resistance is the smaller of

(5 .14)

and

(5.15)

(b) In the case of an end reaction (i.e. where spread is possible in only one direction), the factored
bearing resistance is the smaller of

(5 .16)

and
(5.17)

where

N =length of bearing (see Figure 5.15)

<l>bi = 0.80

¢be= 0.75

5. 7 Deflection of beams

Deflection or sagging of a beam is a serviceability limit state that must be considered in the design
of beams. This serviceability limit state governs the deformation that may lead to damage of non-
structural elements. The deformation may detract from the appearance of the structure and influence
its use. The requirements for the deformation limits on all beams are found in Table D1 (Annexure D
of the Code) . Typical values are:

• members supporting inelastic roof cladding - Span/240

• members supporting elastic roof cladding - Span/180
• members supporting floors - Span/300

5. 14
Beams and girders may be provided with a camber to counteract the deflection caused by dead and
live loads. Cambering is only necessary when the member is exposed to viewers and where a visually
perceptible deflection would be aesthetically unacceptable.

5.8 Particular aspects relating to the design of plate girders

(Clause 14)

Plate girders offer total flexibility in the choice of section geometry for cases where the available
rolled sections are inadequate or uneconomical. It is sometimes desirable to use sections with unequal
flanges, especially in beams with flanges that are unrestrained over long lengths of span . A larger top
flange and a smaller bottom flange may provide a more economical use of materials, as shown in
Figure 5.17(a). It may also be desirable to use a smaller top flange and a larger bottom flange in the
case of composite beams (Figure 5. 17(b)). However, monosymmetric sections are not covered in SANS
10162.

. .. .. ·.

T
(a) Plate girder with suitable
properties for long spans,
(b) Plate girder suitable for
composite beam
with no intermediate or
lateral restraints

Figure 5. 17: Types of plate girder

The overall behaviour and types of failure in plate girders is similar to that of beams but, since plate
girders are fabricated in a wide variety of sizes and combination of plate thicknesses, certain aspects
require specific attention.

5.8.1 Moment resistance of plate girders

Plate girders are manufactured by welding the individual components. In a simple I-section, the
two flanges and the web are cut from a plate to the required size and then assembled by means of
welding. This process may consist of tack-welding the components and then applying a continuous
weld, or it may be fully automated in that the components are clamped together and welded by
means of sophisticated equipment capable of applying the four welding runs simultaneously, as
indicated in Figure 5.18.

Automatic welding

Figure 5. 18: Automatic welding of a plate girder on a beam line

5 . 15
The sequence of welding can have a significant influence on the distribution and magnitude of the
internal stresses in the sections, which may be more severe than in the case of rolled sections. By the
same token, the welding sequence and process can distort the cross-section and cause the member
to twist or to bend.

As residual stresses and imperfections are largely responsible for the reduction in elastic buckling
resistance of the member, the greater variation in these parameters should be considered in the
design of such members.

Since the thin web of the girder does not permit the attainment of the plastic moment of the section,
Clause 14.3.4 of the Code requires that a reduced moment resistance ( M;) be calculated when the
web slenderness ratio hw / tw exceeds 1 900j ~Mu / <l>Ze as:

M'
r
=M
r
[l-0.0005 Aw (hw -
Af tw
1900
~Mu /"'Z
'Y e
J] (5.14)

where

A1 = compression flange area

hw = web depth

tw = web thickness
Mr= factored moment resistance:::; <j>MY

If there is no depth restriction, the initial sizing of the depth of the plate girder can be considered
to be between 1/8 and 1/15 of the span of the girders. The area of the flange can be approximated
from

(5.15)

where Mu is the maximum ultimate applied moment. It can be shown that for a given web depth-to-
thickness ratio, the miminum-mass cross-section is that in which the area of the two flanges combined
equals that of the web, i.e. 2A =Aw.
1

5. 8. 2 Resistance to shear and web buckling (Clause 13.4)

Plate girders or welded sections offer a great deal of flexibility and economy in t he choice and
combination of suitable plate sizes including proportions for the compression and tension flanges
(which need not be the same size). The web may be proportioned to reflect more accurately the

5. 16
 variation in the shear resistance required along the length of the span. The web thickness of welded
sections is generally less than the thickness of rolled sections of similar depth. While shear panel
buckling is not commonly a problem in rolled sections, plate girders are largely susceptible to this
mode of failure because the web plates commonly employed in plate girders are too slender. It is
common practice to reinforce the webs with stiffeners, so as to increase the member resistance to
shear. These stiffeners may be used as single or double vertical stiffeners (Figure 5.19(a)) . Additional
horizontal stiffeners, as shown in Figure 5.19(b)), may be used, but these are not covered in SANS
10162.

(a) Girder with vertical (b) Girder with vertical and

stiffeners horizontal stiffeners

Figure 5. 19: Arrangement of web stiffeners on plate girders

The layout and spacing of stiffeners is chosen to limit the size of the panel bounded by stiffeners to
such an extent as to prevent shear buckling of the web plate. In the case where the web slenderness
hw / tw is greater than 440 ( kv / fy), transverse stiffening of the web may be required and the
spacing chosen to achieve the required shear resistance.

The shear resistance of webs may therefore be considered on the basis of criteria related to pure
strength of material in the web, or on the basis of criteria related to inelastic instability of the web .
Buckling of the web when subjected to high shear loads is a complex topic, as buckling theory cannot
accurately reflect the ultimate resistance of the web. A large portion of the ultimate resistance of
a slender web may be formed by the tension-field action, which resists the full development of a
web buckle. This behaviour is best considered by viewing the girder as a truss comprising discrete
members, as shown in Figure 5.20 . The tension-field action is not considered for girder end panels or
internal panels with large openings.

Tension

Compression

Figure 5. 20: Compression and tension-field action in a welded girder

The requirements of SANS 10162 may now be reviewed in light of the behavioural aspects listed
above. Clause 13.4 stipulates that the shear resistance (Vr) be determined using Equation 5.13, where
(fs) is assessed using the following criteria:

5.17

I
(a) Failure of the material due to pure shear

Is= 0.66/y (5.16)

(b) Failure due to buckling with no post-buckling strength

(5.17)

(c) Webs of intermediate slenderness with post-buckling strength

(5.18)

290p;k:
f cri = (hw / tw)

ft = k 0 ( 0.50fy - 0.866fcri)

ft =the tension field post buckling stress

(d) Slender webs with post-buckling strength

(5.19)

r = 180 OOOkv
Jere (
hw/ tw
)2

where

kv = the shear buckling coefficient

kv =4 + 5.34 2 when
(s/ hw)

5.18
 when s/h'.\. 2".1 and

s/ hw= aspect ratio (i.e. the ratio of the distance between stiffeners (s)

to web depth ( hw))

5.8.3 Design of stiffeners

The Code defines two categories of stiffeners .

(a) Load-bearing stiffeners

These are required under heavy point loads to the top flange, in order not to place the web
under high local stresses, and at the points of support to carry heavy reactions. The bearing
stiffeners may also function as intermediate stiffeners. Clause 14.4.1 of the Code requires that,
for web-to-thickness ratios greater than 1100/ jl;, bearing stiffeners should be placed at the
ends of the single-web girders where the tension field is not adequately anchored .

The buckling resistance of a load-bearing stiffener is calculated on a section which includes

part of the web. In practice, part of the web acts together with the stiffener to resist the
effects of stiffener buckling. The Code, in Clause 14.4.2, thus allows a section of web equal to
25 times its thickness at interior stiffeners , or 12 times its thickness when the stiffeners are
located at the end of the web, to be taken into account when calculating the section properties
of the stiffener. The geometry of the stiffener is therefore a cruciform section .

The effective length of the stiffener shall be taken as 0. 75 times the stiffener length (Clause
14.4.2).

(b) Intermediate stiffeners

These are required to stiffen the web and control its buckling and, where the web has been
designed using tension -field theory, it must be strong enough to supply the reaction to the
tension force exerted in the web. There are thus two design criteria that must be considered,
namely minimum stiffness and strength .

Clause 14.5.4 of the Code requires that the moment of inertia of an intermediate stiffener or
pair of stiffeners should be not less than ( hw /50 )4 , taken about an axis in the plane of the
web . The gross area (As) is calculated from
5 . 19
 (5.16)

where

s =centre-to-centre distance of adjacent stiffeners

tw =web thickness

hw =web depth

Y =ratio of specified minimum yield point of web steel to specified minimum yield

point of stiffener steel

D = stiffener factor

= 1.0 for stiffeners furnished in pairs

= 1.8 for stiffeners composed of angles placed on one side of the web only
= 2.4 for stiffeners composed of plates placed on one side of the web only

kv =shear buckling coefficient

Clause 14.5.4 requires that the force in the stiffener must be transferred into and out of the
web from top to bottom. The shear transfer per pair of st iffeners (or per single stiffener when
so furnished) shall be not less than 1x10-4 hwf;~ · newtons per millimetre of web depth
5

( hw). Fasteners, usually fillet welds, would be provided to meet this shear flow requirement.
If intermittent welds are used, the clear distance between welds shall not exceed 16 times the
web thickness or four times the weld length.

The Code in Clause 14.5.2 also places limits on maximum stiffener spacing, i.e.

(5 .1 7)

(5.18)

5.20
 Intermediate stiffeners and load-bearing stiffeners loaded through the girder top flange may
have their lower ends cut short of the top of the bottom flange. This will simplify both the
cutting of the stiffeners and their attachment to the girder. To prevent a local buckle in the
girder web in the region of high strain, the amount of the cut-back should not exceed six times
the web thickness. However, it should be greater than four times the web thickness in order
to provide a reasonable strain gradient (see Figure 5.21 ). If the stiffener is present on both
sides of the web, no weld is required between the flange and stiffener, and when a stiffener is
placed on one side of the web only, a nominal weld should be placed between the flange and
stiffener.

fflCompression
ange

" "'

- -lw

T
Figure 5. 21

5.8.4 Combined shear and moment

Clause 14.6 gives interaction equations for girders that are subject to combined shear and moment.
This usually occurs at the interior supports of continuous beams. As such, transversely stiffened
girders shall be proportioned so that

0.727 Mu +0.455 Vu :::; 1.0 (5.19)

Mr V,.

and

and (5.20)

An illustrative example of the design of a plate girder is given in Example E5 .6.

5 .21

IJ
SANS 10162 Example E5.1 : Laterally restrained beam Output
Reference

The beam shown in Figure E5 .1(a) is fully restrained along

its length and is required to carry the following nominal
loadings:

Permanent loads:
UDL, including self-weight = 12 kN/m
Point load = 45 kN

Variable (imposed) loads:

UDL = 25 kN/m
Point load = 60 kN

If the beam has a stiff bearing length of 50 mm at the supports

and 75 mm under the point load, design the beam using Grade
300W steel.

.A
l 3500 mm l
)I
3500 mm l
)\

Figure E5.1 (a)

Solution

Ultimate design loads

Uniformly distributed loads

SANS 10160

= I.2 x 12 + 1.6x 25
. . QD = 54 .4 kN / m {}0 = 54.4 k \ / m

5.22
SANS 10162 Example E5.1: Continued Output
Reference

Point loads

PD = 1.2x 45 +1.6 x 60
.. P0 =150kN ~) = 150k.V

1150 kN
T 0 0 = 54.4 kN/m

~
l 3500 mm l 3500 mm l
~~, =265.4kN
+75L_______

+265.4
Shear force diagram (kN)

Alu =596kNm

596

Bending moment diagram (kNm)

Figure E5.1(b)

Try 457 X 191 X 98 kg/m I-section

Section properties

SA SCH A= 12.5x103 mm 2

Cw= 1180x109 mm 6

J = I 220x10 3 mm 4
Ix = 458x10 6 mm 4

IY =23.5x106 mm 4

5 .23
SANS 10162 Example E5.1: Continued Output
Reference

3 3
zplx =2230xl 0 mm

tw = 11.4 mm

t
1 =19.6 mm
hw =408mm

h =467.6mm

b = 192.8 mm

~-I

- i--tw
~l;------

.__
1 ____....,J_,..
~-~ I

Figure E5.1 (c)

11.1 Section classification

Outstand flange in compression

11.3.1(c) !2 = b/2 = 192.8/2 = 4.9

t1 t1 19.6

Limiting width-to-thickn ess ratio for Class 1 section

Table 11.2(b) = 145 =~=8.4>4.9

p; J300
Compression flange is Class 1

5.24
SANS 10162 Example E5.1: Continued Output
Reference

Web is flexural compression

11.3.2(c) !!J..= h w = 408 = 35 .8

tw tw 11.4

Since the member is not subjected to an axial load Cu = 0

Limiting width-to-thickness ratio for a Class 1 section is

Table 11.2(b) hw,; 1100(1 - 0.39 c" J= 1100

tw p; <j>Cy p;
.. h w :=:;; 1100 = 1100 = 63 .5 > 35 .8
fw p; J300

.. Web is Class 1

I. . Cross-section classification is Class 1 j Class 1 section

Shear resistance of cross-section

13.4 The design value of the shear force at each cross-section must
not exceed the factored shear resistance (V,. ) developed by
the web i.e.

13.4.1.1 vr =<1>~.fs
For rolled sections

13.4.1.1 Av = twh = 11.4 X 467.6 = 5 331 mm 2 A, = 5331 rnm 2

For an unstiffened web kv = 5.34

13.4.1.1 (a) hw
fw
=35.8 < 440 Jf =
/v
44ol ·
34
300
=58.7

5.25

~I
-
SANS 10162 Example ES.1: Continued Output
Reference

13.4.1.1 (a) .. fs = 0.66/y =0.66x300=198N/mm 2 t: = 198 .VI mm2

' I

13.4.1.1

. • V,. = 950 kN V, = 950 k.\'

From Figure E5.1 (b), the maximum design shear force

V,, = 265.4 kN < V,. =950 kN OK

I :. Section has sufficient shear resistance I

Moment resistance of section

13.5 For a member that is subjected to uniaxial bending moment

about the principal axis and where continuous support
is provided to the compression flange, the design moment
resistance for a Class 1 section is

13.S(a) Mr= <J>Zptxfy

Mr= 0.9 x 2 230x103 x300x10- 6

.. Mr =602kNm

From Figure E5 .1 (b), the design moment

M 11 = 596 kNm <Mr = 602 kNm . . OK

I .. Section has sufficient moment resistance I

5.26
SANS 10162 Example ES.1: Continued Output
Reference

14.3.2 Check web buckling and crippling

(i) At mid-span

Beari ng length N = 75 mm

14.3.2(a) For i nterior loads, the factored bearing resistance is the

smaller of

14.3.2(a)(i)

14.3.2(a)(ii) (b) Br= 1.45%/~)fyE

%i =0.80
where

14.3.2(a)(i) Bra =<l>b/w(N+lOtf )fy

= 0.80x11.4(75+10x19.6) x 300x10-3

. . Bra = 741 kN B,.11 = 74 I klv

14.3.2(a)(11) Brb = 1.45%/~)fyE

= 1.45x0.80x11.4 2 x )300x200x10 3 x 10- 3

B,.b =1168kN B.1 =I168kV

=min {741, 1168} kN

Br= 741kN>150 kN (at mid -span) :. OK B, = 741 k N

I:. Web has sufficient bearing resistance at mid-span I

5.27
SANS 10162 Example E5.1: Continued Output
Reference

(ii) At the supports

Bearing length N = 50 mm

14.3.2(b) For end reactions, the factored bearing resistance is the

smaller of

14.3.2(b)(i)

14.3.2(b){ii) (b) Br= 0.60%i~)fyE

%e = 0.75

where

14.3.2(b)(i) Bra= %etw(N +4tf )Jy

= 0.75x11.4 (50+4x19 .6) x 300x 10- 3
· Bra= 329 kN B,." = 329 k.'V

14.3.2(b)(ii) B,.b = 0.60%i~)fyE

= 0.60x0.75 xl 1.42 x~300x200x103 xl0- 3

. . Brb = 453 kN B,.h = 453 kV

= min{329, 453} kN

B,. = 329 kN >Vu = 265.4 kN (at supports) :. OK B . = 329 k \

I:. Bearing resistance is adequate I

5 .28
SANS10162 ExampleE5.1 : Continued Output
Reference

Serviceablility limit checks

Annex D Check for deflection

Deflection is checked using serviceability loads.

Uniformly distributed loads (QD)

SANS 10160 QD = ''fDDn +y1Qn1

= 1.1x12 + 1. 0 x 25

.. QD =38 .2kN/m Qn = 38.2 kV/m

Point loads (PD)

PD =1. lx45+1.0x60

. . PD = 109.5 kN ~) = 109.5 k\

The mid-span deflection (8) is calculated as:

4 3
Q +-1 PDL
b = _5_ ---12!:_
384 EI 48 EI

= - I [ --x38.2x7
EI 384
5 0004 +-x109.5x10
1
48
3
x7 0003 J
15
b= 1.9767x10
200x103 x 458x106

.. O= 2l.6mm 8 = 21.6 mm

Maximum allowable deflection at serviceability is

Table D1 span= 7 OOO = 23.3 mm> 8 = 21.6 mm : . OK

(Annex D) 300 300

5.29
SANS 10162 Example E5. 1: Continued Output
Reference

I... Deflection limit is satisfied I

Since all the criteria have been satisfied

( Adopt 457x191 x98kg/m I-section 'I

5.30
 SANS 10162 Example ES. 2: Beam unrestrained between supports Output
Reference

The beam shown in Figure E5 .2(a) is laterally and torsionally

restrained at the ends only and is required to carry t he
following nominal loadings:

Permanent (dead) load = 20 kN/m (including self-weight)

Imposed load Qn1 = 8 kN/m
Imposed load Qn2 = 6 kN/m

Check the adequacy of a 533 X 210 X 109 kg/m I-section,

Grade 300W steel.

Figure ES. 2(a)

Solution

Ultimate design loads

(i) Live load Qt is domi nant

SANS 10160

cp 2 is a load combinat ion factor = 0.3

QDI = l .2Dn + l .6Qnl + 0.5Qn2

! QDI
= 1.2x20+1.6 x 8 + 0.5 x 6
=39.8kN jm Qn =39.8kN/m

(ii) Live load Q1 i s dominant

QD2 = 1.2 X 20+0.5X8 + 1.6 X6

. . QD 2 =37.6kN jm

5.31
SANS 10162 Example E5.2: Continued Output
Reference

I .. Design ultimate load QD = 39.8 kN/m I Qn = 39.8 k\'f m

=39.8 x~
2
Design moment M = QDL
11
8 8
. . M 11 =318.4 kNm M , =318k\m

Design shear force V = QDL = 39.8x~

u 2 2
V11 =159.2 kN 1u=1 59 kV

rI
1tr
b

1I
---'-

-- I
SASCH
hw h

- i---lw
~ -

I
I ----'<-
Figure E5.2(b)

Section properties

Cw= 1990x109 mm6 h = 539.5 mm 1 =18.8 mm

t

J = 1 280 x 103 mm 4 tw = 11. 6 mm b = 210.7 mm

Ix =668xl06 mm 4 Zplx =2830xl0 mm

3 3

5.32
SANS 10162 Example E5.2: Continued Output
Reference

11 . 1 Selection classification

Outstand flange in compression

bi 2 10.7/ 2
11.3.1(c) - = = 5.6 < 8.37
tf 18.8
Table 11.2(b)

... Compression flange is Class 1

Web in flexural compression

11.3. 2(C) !2 = hw = 476 = 4 1.0 < 63.5

Table 11.2(b) fw tw 11.6

.. Web is Class 1

I ... Cross-section classification is Class 1 I Class 1 section

13.4 Shear resistance of cross-section

')

13.4.1.1 Av= twh = 11.6 X 539.5 = 6 258 mm 2 A,. = 6 258 mm-

kV= 5.34 (unstiffened web)

hw = 41.0 < 440

~
ft~
= 440)5·
300
34
= 58. 7

13.4.1.1(a) .. fs = 0.66/y = 0.66x300=198 N / mm 2 .1; = 198 N /mm 2

Vr = <l>Avfs = 0.9x6 258x198x10-3

... Vr =l 115 kN> Vu = 159 kN .. OK v,. = l 115 k.\

I... Section has sufficient shear resistance I

5.33

~ 'I
 SANS 10162 Example ES.2: Continued Output
Reference

13.6 Moment resistance of section

Determine co 2 (Chen and Lui, 1987)

IDZM
M- -3
1 - 32 wL
2
M-~
2
3
3 - 32 wL
2

2- 8

Figure E5.2(c): Bending moment diagram

Chen and Lui

12
3x(_!!.i_J+4x(~J +3x(~J+2
2
(1987)
co =
M max M max Mmax

M 1, M 2 and M 3 are as shown in Figure E5 .2(c)

12
C02 = = 1.14
3
(3x x8 )x 2+4x 1+ 2
32

13.6(a) The Code takes a conservative value of ro2 as

1.0 when the
bending moment at any point is larger than the larger-end
moment.

. . C02=1.0

10. 2.1 Determine effective-length factor(K)

Assume that the beam is restrained at the ends by connections

which provide torsional and lateral restraint, but is free to
rotate in plan.

Table 10.2.1 K = 1. 0 (normal loading) A: 1.0

5.34
SANS 10162 Example E5.2: Continued Output
Reference

13.6(a) Critical elastic moment

2
m2n ( nE )
Mer= KL' EIYGJ + L lyCw

= I.On {(200x10 3 x 29.4x10 6

(1.0x8 000)
2
200 103
3 3
x77x10 x 1 280x10 ) +(nx x )
8 000

1/2
x29.4x106 xl 990x10 9 }

. . Mer= 381 kNm \f., = 381 kNm

MP= Zp1xfy = 2830X103 X300x10-6

.. MP =849kNm M 1, =849 lirlm
0.67MP =0.67x849=569kNm>Mer =381kNm

Moment resistance of section is therefore

13.6(a)(ii) Mr= <J>Mer = 0.9 X 381

.. Mr =343 kNm >Mu =318 kNm :. OK H, = 343 k 'vm

I:. Moment resistance of section is adequate I

Annex D Check deflection at serviceability

Design load at serviceablility

(i) Live load Qt dominant

SANS 10160

= l.lDn +l.OQnl +(0.3)x(1.0)Qn 2

5 .35
SANS 10162 Example E5.2: Continued Output
Reference

. . Qo 1 = 1. lDn + l .OQnl + 0.3Qn2

Q01 =l.lx20+ 1.0x8 + 0.3x6

•. QD I = 31.8 kN/m Q/ll =31.8 kN/ m
(ii) Live load Q2 dominant

Q02 =l.lx20+ 0.3x8+1. 0x6

.. Q02 = 30.4 kN/m Qm. = 30.4 kV /m

.. Design load for serviceabili ty Q0 = 31.8 kN / m Q1, = 31.8 kV/m

Mid-span deflection o is
o=-5_Qo L4
384 EI
4
5 [ 30.4x8 000 ]
= 384 200x10 3 x668x10 6

Table 01
(Annex D)
.. o= 12.1 mm< span = 8 OOO = 26.6 mm :. OK o=l2.lmm
300 300

I:. Deflection limit is satisfied I

· Section 533x.210x1 09 kg/m I-section is adequate

5.36
SANS 10162 Example ES.3: Beam with loading applied at Output
Reference restraints

The beam shown in Figure E5 . 3(a) has lateral and torsional

restraints at A, B, C and D and is required to carry the nominal
loadings as shown in the figure. Check the adequacy of 406 X
178 X 75 kg/m I-section, Grade 300W steel. Assume that the
stiff bearing lengths under the point loads and the supports
are adequate. The beam is used as part of an i ndustrial
structure.

®!
30 kN dead

60 kN impr 25 rp0>od
15 kN dead

l@
J 3.5 m J 2.5 m J 3.0 m J
Figure E5 .3(a)

Solution

Ultimate design loads

At point B

P8 =1.2 x30+ l.6x 60=132 kN PB= 132 kN

At point C

Pc = 1.2x15+1.6 x 25 = 58 kN Pr:=58kV

The shear force and bending moment diagrams are shown in

Figure E5 .3(b). The self-weight of the beam has been ignored
although it should be taken into account.

132 kN 58 kN
®
.,;;,; t t @
® © ifE
J 3.5m } 2.5m l
)\
3.0 m l
)\

Figure E5 .3(b)

Figure E5. 3(b) continues on next page.

5 .37
SANS 10 162 Example ES.3: Continued Output
Reference

-100

+32 r32
+90 ...___ _____. +90

Shear force diagram (kN)

~ 350
Bending moment diagram (kNm)

Figure E5.3(b): Continued

11.1 Section classification

Outstand flange in compression

11.3.1 (C)
Table 11.2(b) !2= 179.7/ 2 =5.6<8.4
ti 16
. . Compression flange is Class 1

Web in flexural compression

11.3.2(c)
Table 11 .2(b)
!2 = hw = 360 = 37.1<63.5
tw t", 9.7
Web is Class 1

I :. Cross-section classification is Class 1 I Class 1 section

13.4 Shear resistance of secti on

Check shear resistance at support A

Vu =100 kN (see Figure E5. 3(b))

13.4.1 .1 Av =twh=9.7x412.8=4004mm 2 A 1 =4 004mm'2

5.38
SANS 10162 Example E5.3: Continued Output
Reference

13.4.1.1 (a) hw = 37.1<440 ~ = 440) 5·34 = 58.7

lw Vfy 300
2
13.4.1 . 1(a) .. fs =0.66/y =0.66x300=l98N/mm J; = 198N/ mm7.
Vr =~Avfs =0.9x4004x198x10-
3

.. Vr = 714 kN > Vu = 100 kN :. OK Vr = 714k V

I :. Section has sufficient shear resistance I

13.6 Moment resistance

(a) Segment A - B

The loads a re not destabilising since they are applied on the

top flange and at points of lateral torsional restraint.

Table 10.2.1 .. K = 1.0

KL = 1. 0 x 3 500 = 3 500 mm

K = 0/350 = 0

13.6(a) C02 = 1.75 + l.05K + 0.3K 2 ~ 2.5

= 1.75+1.05 x 0 + 0.3 x 0

co., = 1.75

13.6(a) M" ~ i: ~·EI,GJ +(":)' J,C.,

= L 75 n{2oox103 x15.5x10 6 x77x10 3 x642x
3 500
2
103
2
103 +(n x 00x
3 500
J xl5.5x10 6
x610x109 }1/
2

5 .39
SANS 10162 Example E5.3: Continued Output
Reference

.. Mer = 1 064 kNm A( ,= I 064 kNm

MP = Z ptxf~ =
6
1 510x103 x 300x10- = 453 kNm MP = 453 k:\'m

0.67 MP = 0.67 X 453 = 304 kNm <Mer= 1064 kNm

Moment resistance of section is therefore

13.6(a)(i) M,. =1.15<\>MP ( 1- 0.28MP J~<!>MP

Mer

M,. ~ l.15x0.9x 453(1 - 0.2Bx

1064
453
J
.. Mr= 413 kNm

<!>MP =0.9x453=408kNm<Mr =413kNm

.. Mr = 408 kNm > Mu = 350 kNm :. OK \l,. = 408 kVm

I. . Moment resistance for segment A - B is sufficient I

(b) Segment B - C

KL=2500mm

270
K = - - =-0.771
350
13.6(a) Wz = 1. 75 + l.05K + 0.3K 2 ~ 2.5
2
= 1.75+1 .05 (-0.771) + 0.3 (-0.771)

.. W2 = 1.12 (t), = l.1 2

-

Mc,. =l.127t{
- - 200x10 3 x15.5x10 6 x77x103 x642x
2500

200 103
103 + (" x x Jxl5.5x106 x610x109 j1f'
2500

5.40
SANS 10162 Example E5.3: Continued Output
Reference

.. Mer =1220kNm A/er= l 220 kVm

0.67 MP = 304 kNm <Mer= 1220 kNm

13.6(a)(i) Mr= l.15<j>MP ( 1-

0.28MP J~ <j>MP
Mer

0 28 453
= 1.15 x 0.9 x 453(1 - · x ]
1220

Mr= 420 kNm > <j>MP = 408 kNm

.. Mr = 408kNm>Mu =350kNm :. OK Al, = 408 kVm

I:. Moment resistance for segment B - C is adequate I

(c) Segment C - D

By inspection (and comparison with segment A - B), moment

resistance for segment C - D is adequate .

Annex D
Check deflection at serviceability

At point B

PB = 1.1x30+1.0 x 60 = 93 kN PB= 93 kf\

At point C

Pc= 1.1 x15 +I.Ox 25 = 41.5 kN Pc·= 41.5 k.V

The mid·span deflection due to poi nt load at B can be

approximated from

{3(~J-4(~J
L }
3 3

0 = PsL
I 48EI L

where

5.41
SANS 10162 Example E5 .3: Continued Output
Reference

L 1 = least distance from either support

L 1 =3.5 m

L =span of beam
L=9.0m

(~)- 4 x (~) }
3 3 3
8 = 93 x 10 x 9 000 {3 x
I 48EI 9.0 9.0

_ 1.3156x10 15
81 - EI

Similarly, deflection at mid-spa n resulting from point load at

C is

3 3 3
82 = 41.5x10 x9 000 { 3 x(3.0)_ 4 x(3 .0) }
48EI 9.0 9.0

5.369x10 14
82=----
EI

Total mid-span deflection is therefore

8 = 81 +82

(1.3156x10 15 +5.369x10 14 )
=~~~~~~~~~~

200x10 3 x274x10 6

Table 01 .. 8=33.8mm< span= 9 000 =37.5mm .. OK D=33.8mm

(Annex 0) 240 240

I:. Deflection limit is satisfied I

The beam 406 X 178 X 75 kg/m I-section is t herefore adeq uate
with respect to moment, shear and deflection.

5.42
SANS 10162 Example E5.4: Laterally unrestrained beam with Output
Reference cantilevers

A beam has lateral and torsional restraints at the supports,

and the top flange is restrained laterally at the ends of the
cantilevers . The beam is required to carry a nominal uniformly
distributed live load of 15 kN/m and a nominal dead load of
14.4 kN/m, as shown in Figure E5.4(a) . The beam spans 8 m,
with cantilever sections of 2 m each, as shown in t he sketch .
Check the adequacy of a 533 X 210 X 101 kg/m I -section ,
Grade 300W steel, with respect to bending and shear.

15 kN/m (live load)

f ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! y
14.4 kN/m (dead load)
f ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! y

I lb@
I
® ijf© @

~
L 2.0 m ,,l 8.0m J 2.0m l
/I

Figure E5.4(a)

Solution

Ultimate design loads

Consider the influence of the different load combinations,

bearing in mind that the most severe one should be considered
in the design.

The following load combinations are applicable:

Case (a)
Dead load over the full length and uniformly distributed live
load over the cantilever sections only. This case represents
minimum positive moment.

SANS 1060 0.9Dn + 1.6Qn = 0.9x 14.4 + 1.6 X15 =12.96+ 24 kN /m

Case (b)
Dead load over the full length and uniformly distributed
live load over the internal span only. This case represents
maximum positive moment.

5.43
 SANS10162 Example ES.4: Continued Output
Reference

SANS 10160 l.2Dn + l.6Qn = l.2X 14.4+ 1.6X15=17.28 + 24 kN/m

Case (c)
Dead load and a uniformly distributed live load over the full
length. This case represents the maximum reaction at B.

SANS 10160 l.2Dn + l.6Qn = l.2x 14.4+1.6X15=17.28 + 24 kN/m

The three factored load cases are shown in Figure E5.4(b).

Load case (a) Load case (c)

24 kN/m 24 kN/m
CJ 12.96 kN/m CJ 24 kN/m
I I I I

" " I

J2m"k ~
I I
Sm k A
17.28 kN/m
A
"2m"
73.9 kNm
A /\. A 82.3 kNm /\.
-=:::::=:::;:;>
29.8 kNm
~
247.7 kNm

/) 82.6
C/7
.c==---1
L7
Load case (b) 165.1
Shear force diagram
24 kN/m
I
'
17.28 kN/m
6
I

t
247.68 kN
t
34.6 kNm
Reactions
<"~C--

295.7 kNm
Bending moment diagrams

Figure E5.4(b): Load cases for beam with overhanging ends

11 1 Cross-section classification

Beam is a 533 X 210 X 107 kg/m I-section.

Outstand of compression flange

11.3.1 (C)
Table 11.2(b) !2 = b/ 2 = 210.1/ 2 = 6.0 < 8.4
ti t1 17.4

5.44
SANS 10162 Example E5.4: Conti nued Output
Reference

.. Compression flange is Class 1

Web in flexu ral compression

11.3.2(c) !!J_ = hw = 476 = 43 .7 < 63.5

Table 11 .2(b) tw tw 10.9

.. Web is Class 1

I:. Cross-section classification is Class 1 I Class 1 section

13.6 Moment resistance of section

(a) Segment B - C (see Figure E5.4(b) - load case (b))

Mu = 295.7 kNm \1 1 = 295.7 kVm

Table 10.2. 1 Since the beam is torsionally and laterally restrained at both
supports, the effective length factor K = 1.0 /\. = l .O
KL = 1. 0 x 8 000 = 8 000 mm

Determine co 2

34.6~ ./134.6

~ 295.7

2.0 m 2.0 ml. 2.0 m 2.0 m

Fi gure E5.4(c): Bending moment di agram for span BC (kNm)

5.45
SANS 10162 Example E5.4: Continued Output
Reference

From Figure E5 .4(c):

M 1 =213.1 kNm

M 2 = 295.7 kNm

M 3 = 213.1 kNm

Mmax = 295.7 kNm

=~~~~~~~~~~~
12
~~~~~~-

3 ( 213.1/ 295.7) + 4 (295 .7/ 295.7) + 3 (213.1/295.7) + 2

. . co 2 = 1.16

13.6(a) The above calculation illustrates how w2 can be calculated.

However, the Code conservatively takes w2 = 1.0 when the
bending moment at any point within the unbraced length is
larger than the larger end moment.

(J)., = 1.0

13.6(a)

= 1.0xn{200x10 3 x 27 x I0 6 x 77x10 3 x 1 030 x

8000
2
103
103 + ( 7t x 2 00x
8 000
J x27x10 6
x I 820x109 }1/
2

. . Mer = 336 kNm \! I -336 k \m

MP= Zptxfy = 2 620xl0 3 x300x10- 6 = 786 kNm ,\/ =786 k\m

0.67 MP = 0.67 X 786 = 527 kNm >Mer = 336 kNm

5.46
SANS 10162 Example E5.4: Continued Output
Reference

13.6(a)(ii) .. Mr = <!>Mer= 0.9X336

M,. = 302 kNm > M 11 = 295.7 kNm :. OK M, =302 k Vm

.. Moment resistance for seg ment B - C is adequate

(b) Segment A - B (see Figure 5.4(b) - load case (c))

Mu =82.3kNm M11 =82.3 kVm

The cantilever is continuous over the support with lateral and

torsional restraint and has top flange restraint at the free end.
The loading is also not destabilising.

Table 10.2.2 :. K = 0.9 (lateral support to the compression K =0.9

flange only)

KL= 0.9x2000=1800 mm

The critical elastic moment for a cantilever is calculated

from

l/2
=(~)~EI
2
M GJ I+ 1t ECW
er KL y ( (KL) 2 GJ
J
= _n_~200x10 3 x 27 x10 6 x 77 x103 xl 030x10 3
1800

J
~
2 3 9
x l+ n x200x10 xl 820x10 xl0_6
( 2 3
(1800) x77x10 xl 030x10 3

. . Mer = 4 421 kNm .\1,, = 4 421 k \m

0.67MP =527 kNm<Mer =4421kNm

5.47
SANS 10162 Example E5.4: Continued Output
Reference

13.6(a)(1) Mr = 1. l 5<j>MP ( 1- 0.28MP) ~ <j>MP

Mer

=l.15 x0.9x786 ( 1-0.28x--

786)
4 421

.. Mr = 773 kNm > Mu = 82.3 kNm :. OK \fr= 773 k\m

.. Moment resistance for segment A - Bis adequate .

IMoment resistance of section is adequate I

13.4 Shear resistance of cross-section

Load case (c) governs the shear resistance

~' =165.lkN f 11=165.1 kN

13.4.1.1 Av= twh = 10.9 X 536.7 = 5 850 mm 2

hw = 43.7 < 440

~
ft=
h
34
440)5· = 58.7
300

13.4.1.1 (a) ... fs = 0.66 f y = 0.66 x 300 = 198 N / mm 2 f = 198 N/mm 2

13.4.1.1 V,. = <PAvfs = 0.9x5850x198xl0- 3

.. Vr = 1042 kN > Vu = 165 .1 kN OK I' =I 042 kN

I ... Section has sufficient shear resistance I

0

5.48
SANS 10162 Example E5.5: Beam in a multistorey building Output
Reference

A two-bay, three-storey building shown in Figure E5. 5(a) is

subjected to the gravity loads shown. If the section sizes of
the members a re

All columns : 305 X 305 X 97 kg/m H-section

Levels 2 and 3 floor beams: 457 X 191 X 67 kg/m I-section
Roof (level 4) beams : 406 X 178 X 75 kg/ m I -section

check the adequacy with respect to moment and shear of

beam 6-10. Assume the beams are supported laterally along
the top flange by a floor deck. All loads are ultimate design
loads. Use Grade 300W steel.

@ 30 kN/m @
ttttttl'ttttt t
Level 4
®

([) 60 kN/m
Level3
E
I.()
("')
@ @ 60kN/m @
Level2 tttttt~ttttt t

CD ®
m'rT
®
m7T-
Level 1"' 'TT
I, 6.o m k 8.0m ~
Figure ES.S(a)

Solution

8.7 Stability effects

Since the structure is subject to gravity loads only, Clause

8. 7 of the Code requires that the structure should also be
subject to notional lateral loads at each storey. The notional
lateral load is equal to 0.005 times the factored gravity loads
contributed by that storey. The effects of the lateral loads are
added to the effects of the gravity loads.

5.49
SANS 10162 Example E5.5: Continued Output
Reference

The notional horizontal loads are therefore calculated as:

Level 2: H 2 =0.005x6 0x14=4.2 kN

Level 3: H 3 = 0.005x60x 14 = 4.2 kN

Level 4: H 4 =0.005x3 0xl4 =2.lkN

(i) Analysis for gravity loads

A linear first-order analysis performed using com puter

software for gravity loads acting alone gives the bending
moment diagram as shown in Figure E5.5(b) for beam 6-10.
The bending moments obtained are denoted by ( M
11
g).

333.9~ 251.3

~ i/
/
- 187.4

Figure E5.5(b): Bending moments (Mug) due to gravity

loads in kNm

Another linear first-order analysis is performed with the

structure subjected t o lateral loads acting alone. The lateral
loads (H2 , H3 and H 4 ) are applied at levels 2, 3 and 4
respectively. The lateral displacement of point 10 relative to
point 9 = 2. 64 mm.

. . !:iu = 2.64 mm i =2 64mm

The bending moment diagram for beam 6-10 due to lateral

loads (Mut)is shown in Figure E5.5(c).

5.50
SANS 10162 Example E5.5: Continued Output
Reference

9.6

Figure E5.5(c): Bending moments ( Mut) due to lateral loads

acting alone in kNm

The sum of the factored gravity loads for the columns

supporting the two floors and the roof is

L,C11 =14(30+60+ 60) = 2100 kN IC -2 IOOkV

Total shear (I Vu) in columns is

I.Vu= 2.1+4.2+4.2 =10.5 kN Ir = to.5 k \:

Amplification factor (U2 ) is then

8.7

where h =storey height= 3.5 m

U2 = _2100x2.64 =l.l 8
1
10.5 x3 500
The second-order bending moment ( M11 ) is then obtained
from

8.7

The final bending moment diagram is therefore obtained

using the above equation and Figures E5.5(b) and (c) with
U 2 = 1.18. This is illustrated in Figure E5 .5(d).

5.51
SANS 10162 Example E5.5: Continued Output
Reference

186

Figure E5.5(d): Second-order bending moment (Mu) in kNm

Maximum shear force can be calculated from Figure E5.5(d)

as:
1
~1 =-[323 +60x8x4-264] =247 kN l = 247" \
8
Mu =323kNm !If = 323 k\m

11.1 Cross-section classification

Beam 6-10 is a 457 X 191 X 67 kg/m I-section

Outstand of compression flange

11.3.1 (c) ~ = b/ 2 = 189.9/ 2 =7.5 < 8.4

Table 11.2(b) ti ti 12.7

.. Compression flange is Class 1

Web in flexural compression

11.3.2(c) ~ = hw = 408 = 48 < 63 .5

Table11.2(b) tw tw 8.5

.. Web is Class 1

I:. Cross-section classification is Class 1 j Class 1 section

5.52
SANS 10162 Example E5.5: Continued Output
Reference

Moment resistance of secti on

Section 6' - 10':

For a Class 1 section, the factored moment resistance for a

laterally supported beam is

13.5(a) Mr =<PZptxfy =0.9xl 470xl03 x300x10- 6

.. Mr = 397 kNm >Mu = 323 kNm : . OK .\f, = 397 k \'m

Section 6- 6 1
:

The compression flanges of segments 6- 6' and 10' -10

are laterally unrestrained . Since segment 6 -6' has a
larger maximum moment and unbraced length than segment
1O' - 10, segment 6 - 6 1 is therefore more critical than
segment 10' -10.

K = 0/323 = 0

13.6(a) C02 =I. 75 + I.OSK + 0.3K 2 $ 2.5

. . C02=1. 75 ro.., =1. 75

2
co 2 7t ( nE )
13.6(a) Mer = KL 'EIYGJ + L I yCw

75
= I. n{2oox10 3 x 14.5x106 x77x103 x376x
1630
2
103 2
103 + ( 7t x 200 x ) xl 4.5x10 6 x 706x109 }1/
1630

·· Mer = 4 273 kNm t\J r =4273k\m

MP = Zptxf;, =1470xl0 3 x300x10-6 =44 1kNm Al" =441 k.\m

0.67 MP = 0.67 X 441=295 kNm <Mer= 4 273 kNm

5.53
SANS 10162 Example ES. 5: Continued Output
Reference

Moment resistance of section is therefore

13.6(a)(i)

Mr =1.15x0.9x441 ( 1-0.28x -441

-
4273
J
Mr =443kNm

cj>MP =0.9x441=397 kNm<Mr =443kNm

.. Mr =397 kNm>Mu =323kNm • OK J1, = 397 kNm

.. No additional bracing in the compression zone is

required.

IMoment resistance of section is adequate I

13.4 Shear resistance of section

Check shear resistance at left-hand support

Vu =247 kN V/I = 247 k V

13.4.1.1 Av= twh = 8.5 X 453.6 = 3 856 mm 2

13.4. 1.1 (a) hw = 48 < 440 & = 440.J 5·34 = 58.7

~ ~~ 300

13.4.1.1(a) . . fs =0.66/y =0.66x300=198N/mm 2 l = 198 v/mm 2

13.4.1.1 V,. = <J>Avfs = 0.9x3856x198x10- 3

. . Vr=687kN>Vu=247kN .. OK 1· -687/.:\

j:. Section has sufficient shear resistance I

0

5.54
SANS 10162 Example E5.6: Design of a plate girder Output
Reference

Determine a suitable stiffened plate girder spanning 30 m as

shown in Figure E5.6(a). The girder is laterally restrained
throughout its length and the girder depth is unrestricted. Use
Grade 300W steel. The bearing lengths at the supports and
under the point loads are 200 mm and 300 mm respectively.

1 9000 mm ,,r 12000 mm 1 9000 mm ,,I'

It It

I Beam 1 I Beam 2

l l
Figure E5.6(a)

The girder is required to carry the following unfactored

loads:

Permanent loads:
UDL = 15 kN/m
Point load, beam 1 = 180 kN
Point load, beam 2 = 180 kN

Imposed loads:
UDL = 35 kN/m
Point load, beam 1 = 240 kN
Point load, beam 2 = 240 kN

Solution

Ultimate design loads

(i) Uniformly distributed load (UDL)

=l.2x15 + 1.6 x35

.. QD = 74kNjm Qn - 74A"'V/m

5.55

-
SANS 10162 Example ES.6: Continued Output
Reference

(ii) Point load (beam 1)

Pm =1.2x180+1.6 x 240
Pm =600kN Prn = 600 k \
(iii) Point load (beam 2)

PD2 = Pm =600 kN ~) ~ = 600 /.:. \ '

The shear force and bending moment diagrams are shown in

Figure E5.6(b).
600 kN 600 kN

t 74 kN/m t
~
19000 mm J 12000 mm J 9000 mm J
-1~

Shear force diagram (kN)

~ 1710

Bending moment diagram (kNm)

Figure E5.6(b): Shear force and bending moment diagrams

Proportioning of section

The height of the girder is assumed to be approximately

(1/12) of the span
1 1
h =-x span =- x30 000 = 2 500 mm h = 2 500 mm
12 12

5.56
 sans 10162 Example E5.6: Continued Output
Reference

Area of flange is approximated from

A = Mu = 13 725X106 = 18 300 mm2

f fyh 300x2 500

Try flanges 500 X 35 mm

Thickness of web is approximated as depth/150

fw = h/150=25 00/150=1 6.6 mm

Try web thickness fw = 16 mm fw- /6111111

The plate girder dimensions are as shown in Figure E5.6(c).

2500 - i--15

.,....-- '-------~ ~35

Figure E5.6(c): Dimensions of plate girder (mm)

11.1 Section classificati on

Outstand of compression flange must meet the limits of

Class 3.

11.3.1(c) !2 = 500/2 = 7.1

t1 35

Limiting width-to-thickness ratio for a Class 3 is

Table 11.2(b) 200 = 200 = 11.5 > 7.1

p; J300
OK

5.57
SANS 10162 Example E5.6: Continued Output
Reference

Web in flexural compression

11 . 3.2(c) !2= hw = (2500 -2x 35) =l 51.9

fw fw 16

Limiting width·to·thickness ratio for Class 3 is

1900 = 1900 =109.7<151.9

p; J300
:. Web fails Class 3 limit

IPlate girder section is Class 4 I Class 4 section

14.3.4 Moment resistance of section

Ze = 54 000 X103 mm 3
4
Ix =67 520x10 6 mm

1900 1900
14.3.4
)Mu / <PZe - )13725X106/ ( 0.9 X54000X10 3 )

= 113.l < 151.9

.. Use reduced moment resistance M;

A =bt1 = 500x35=17 500 mm 2

1
14.3.4 Mr= <t>Zefy = 0.9 x 54000x10 3 x300x10- 6

=14580kNm Mr = 14 580 k \m

14.3.4 M' = M [l - 0.0005 Aw (hw -

r r
1900
Af t w )Mu j tt.z
't' e
Jl
38 880
= 14 580[1 -0.0005 x (151 .9-113.1)]
17 500

5 .58
 SANS 10162 Example ES.6: Continued Output
Reference

. . M; = 13 952 kNm > M 11 =13 725 kNm OK A( =13 952 k Vm

Plate girder has sufficient moment resistance

13.4 Check shear of unstiffened web

If there are no web stiffeners kv = 5.34

13.4.1.1 (b) hw = 151.9 > 620 & = 620~ 5 · 34 = 82.7

fw Vf y 300

13.4.1.1 (d)

However, the tension field J; = 0 (unstiffened web)

13.4.1.1(d) .. += + = 180 OOOkv = 180 OOOx 5.34

Js J ere ( )2 15 1. 9 2
hw/tw
fs = 41.7 MPa t~ = 41.7 \!Pa

13.4.1. 1

vr =0.9x2430 xl6x41.7xl 0- 3
.. Vr =1459kN <Vu = l 710kN i = 1459 k \

. . Stiffeners are required

End panel design

Adopting s/hw > 1.0

4
:. kV = 5.34 + 2
(s/hw)

5.59

!I
SANS 10162 Example E5.6: Continued Output
Reference

For the end panel J; = O. Therefore the limiting value of

fs i s
13.4.1.1 (d)
J. = J; = 180 OOOkv = 180 OOOkv
s ere ( )2 15 1. 92
hw/ tw

The actual shear stress at the support is

3 3
1710x10 =1710x10 =44 MPa
Aw 38 880

Equating this shear stress to f~ gives the limiting value of

kV
180 OOOkv ;:::
i.e. 44
151.92
• • kV= 5.64

Use the expression of kv to obtain s/ hw

4
5.34 + 2 = 5.64
(s/ hw)
:. s/ hw = 3.65

Maximum spacing to first intermediate stiffener is

s = 3.65 X hw = 3.65 X 2 430 = 8 870 mm

.. say s = 8 000 mm =8 000 mm

14.5 Intermediate stiffeners .

;

The applied shear force at 8.0 m from end support is

~
Vu= 1710-74x8=1118 kN ~I= l 118 k\

Table14.5.2 Since hw/tw= 151.9>150, the maximum distance (s)

between stiffeners is

5.60
SANS 10162 Example E5.6: Continued Output
Reference

67 500
- -
hw -=
67 500 X2 430
=7ll0mm
(hw/tw)2 151.92

Use stiffener spacing of 7 000 mm. , = 7 000 mm

4
kV ::: 5.34+ 2 = 5.82
(7 000/ 2 430)

620 {E = 620~ 5 · 82 = 86.4<hw = 151.9

13.4.1.1 (d)
v1y 300 tw

13.4.1.1 (d)

r = 180 OOOkv = 180 000x5.82 = .4 MPa

45
Jere ( / )2 15 1. 9 2
hw tw

ft =k (0.50fy- 0.866fcre)
0

1 1
k0 = = = 0.328
~1 + (s/hw )2 ~1+(7000/2 430) 2

ft =0.328(0.50 x300-0.866x 45.4)

. . ft = 36.3 MPa

fs = f cre +ft= 45.4 +36.3 = 81.7 MPa t: = 81.7 MPa

13.4.1.1 V,. = ~(hiiw )fs = 0.9x 2430X16x 81.7x10- 3
. . V,. = 2 859 kN >Vu = 1118 kN r:. = 2 859 k.V
Intermediate stiffeners placed at 7.0 m will provide sufficient
shear-carrying capacity.

5.61
SANS 10162 Example E5.6: Continued Output
Reference

14.6 Check the effect of combi ned shear and moment

Under the point load

Vu =444kN

Mu =12393kNm

Vr =2 859kN

Mr= 13 952 kNm

M V 12 393 444
14. 6 0.727-u +0.455~=0.727x +0.455x - -
Mr Vr 13 952 2 859

= 0.72<1.0 :. OK

14.4 Design of bearing stiffeners

(i) Bearing stiffeners at the ends

14.3.2 Check web crippling and yielding

The bearing resistance for end reactions is the smaller of:

14.3.2(b)

i.e. Br(a) =0.75xl6(200+4x35)x300xl0- 3

=1224kN B,1 , 0 =I 224 k :V

Br (b ) =0.60x0.75x l 6 2 x~300x200x10 3 x10- 3

=892 kN B" ,1 =892 k\

5.62
SANS 10162 Example ES.6: Continued Output
Reference

Br= min{I 224, 892}kN = 892 kN

Br =892kN < Vu =1710kN NOT OK B, = 892 k'V

Also

14.4.1 1100 = 1100 = 63.S<hw =151.9

p; J300 t\V

.. Bearing stiff eners are required at t he ends .

Try 2 No. 220 X 20 mm plates (see Figure E5.6(d))

500
200 200
r 1~
I
t t tr I
,...
" 220

t t
A A
,
l

14.4.2
tw = 16 mm
tr
Web- I
121~]' mm
Stiffenersl
!
lzo
J 456 mm

Section A-A

Figure 5.6(d): End-bearing stiffener

The effective cross-section of the stiffener in Figure E5.6(d)

is in accordance with Clause 14.4.2. For an end-bearing
stiffener, the length of a strip of the web is taken as 12tw.
The stiffener (Section A-A) is designed as a column.

5. 63
SANS 10162 Example ES.6: Continued Output
Reference

Check section classification

Table 11.2(a) !:._ = 220 = 11.0 < 200 = 200 = 11.5

t 20 p; J300
OK

Area of cross-section

A = 2 x 220 x 20 + 192 x 16 = 11 872 mm 2 I= 11872 mm

I is the minor second moment of area of the cruciform.

I= 192x163 + 2x[20 x 2203 + 20x 220xl182 ]

12 12

.. 1=158xl06 mm 4

The radius of gyration of the cruciform is

_ {1 _ 158x106 _
115 r = 115 mm
r -VA - \ 11872 - mm

14.4.2 The effective length factor (K) for the stiffener is

K = 0.75

KL= 0.75x2430 =l 5.8

r 115

13.3.1 A=KL ~ f, = lS.B 300

r n 2E rt
2
x 200 x 103
. . A.= 0.195

13.3.1 Cr =<J>Afy (l+A2nt/n

-1/1.34
= 0.9x11872x300x10-3 ( I+ 0.195 2·68 )

:. OK

ICompressive resistance of column is adequate I

5 .64
 SANS 10162 Example ES.6: Continued Output
Reference

13.10 Bearing on contact area:

The stiffener is bearing on a contact area of 200 X 200 mm as

shown in Figure E5.6(d) .

.. A = 200 x 20 = 4 000 mm 2 I =4 OOOmm-

The bearing resistance is therefore

13.10(a) Br = l.50<j>Afy = (1.50 x 0.9 x 4 000x300x10- 3 ) x 2

.. Br= 3 240 kN >Vu= 1 712 kN OK R -1240kV

IBearing resistance i s adequate l

Welding to web (assume E70XX electrodes)

Use 10 pairs of 6 mm fillet welds and 80 mm long, per

stiffener

Vr =2[2x10x 80x0.91]=2912kN>l 710kN OK i =2912k\

The spacing of the intermittent fillet welds is given under the

design of intermediate stiffeners.

Note: Further details on connection design are given in

Chapter 7.

14.4 (ii) Bearing stiffeners under concentrated loads

Check web crippling and yielding.

14. 3.2(a) The bearing resistance for interior loads is the smaller of:

(a) Br= <j>6Jw(N +10t1 )fy and

(b) Br= 1.45<l>Ji/~~fyE

5.65
SANS 101 62 Example E5.6: Continued Output
Reference

i.e. Br( a) = 0.80X16X(300+10 X 35) X 300X10- 3

=2496kN B.,,, 1 =2496 kN

B,.(b) = 1.45x0.80x16 2 x ,/Joo x 200x10 3 x 10- 3

= 2300kN B,, ,1 = 2 300 A\

Br= min {2 496; 2 300}kN = 2 300 kN B =2 300 kV

.. Br =2300kN>600kN : . OK

:. Load bearing stiffeners under the point loads are

not required
I
I

14.5 Design of intermediate stiffeners

Since no stiffeners under the poi nt loads are required, the

spacing of the intermediate stiffeners can now be finalised .
The spacing of the stiffeners i s shown in Figure E5 .6(e) .

II II II

l 8000 7000 j, 7000 J 8000 l

/\

Figure E5. 6(e): Spacing of stiffeners

For intermediate stiffeners try 2-100 X 12 plates

Table 11.2(a) !2 = lOO =8.33 < 2~ =11.5 · OK

t 12 -vfy

14.5.3 Minimum moment of inertia required is

(r (2~~ = :~0 )' = 5.58x10 6

mm
4

Width of pair of stiffeners provided

= 2 x 100 + 16 = 216 mm

5.66
SANS 10162 Example ES.6: Continued Output
Reference

:. Actual moment of inertia provided

216 3
=12x- =10.lx10 6 mm4 >5.58xl06 mm 4 OK
12

Required area of stiffener is

14.5.3 A = stw
s 2
[1- s/ hw
2
lCYD
l+(s/ hw)

s/ hw = 7 000/2 430 = 2.88

4
kV= 5.34+-- = 6.73
2.88

14.5.3

=[l- 310000x6 .73]

300x151.9 2
. . C=0.70>0 .10 C=0.70

D = 1.0 (Pair of stiffeners provided) D= 1.0

Y = 1.0 (fy = 300 MPa for stiffener) } = 1.0

As= 7000x16 [1- ~

2.88 ]x0.70xl. Oxl.O
2 1+ 2.88 2

. . As = 2 169 mm 2 A - 2169 mm 2

Actual area provided

= 2 x 100x12 = 2 400 mm 2 > 2 169 mm 2 OK

5.67
 SANS 10162 Example E5.6: Continued Output
Reference

Welding to web:

14.5.4 Required shear to be transferred on web depth

= 1X10-4 hwf/ 5 N/mm

= 1x10-4 x 2 430 x 3001.5

=1263 N/mm

= 1.26 kN/mm

.. Shear transfer on full depth = 1.26 x 2 430 = 3 062 kN

Assume E?OXX electrodes.

Use 10 pairs of 8 mm fillet welds, 80 mm long, per stiffener.

[Note that the minimum fillet weld for a 12 mm thick plate is
6 mm .]

Vr = 2[2x10x80x1.22] = 3 904 kN > 3 062 kN OK Vr =3904kN

14.5.4 Check clear distances between intermittent fillet welds

l 6tw = 16 X12 = 192 mm

4Lw = 4x80 = 320 mm

.. Clear distance should not exceed 192 mm .

If each end of the stiffener is snipped off 25 mm, then the

1~
actual clear distance between fillet welds is

2 430 - (2 x 25) - lOx 80

= =176mm<l92mm OK
9

Welding of web to flange

Welds between the flange and the web will be necessary to

transfer the horizontal shear at this junction.

5 .68
SANS 10162 Example E5.6: Continued Output
Reference

VuAfy
Shear flow q = per mm .length of flange
Ix
Maximum factored shear, Vu =1 710 kN
y is the distance from the neutral axis to the centroid of the
flange

i.e. y = 1 232.5 mm

=I 710x17500x1232.5 = 0.55 kN/mm q =0.55 kN mm

·· q 67 520x10 6

Recommended minimum fillet weld size for 35 mm thick plate

is 8 mm.

.. Use 8 mm continuous fillet welds.

Factored resistance (V,.) per mm of weld length is

V,. = 2xl.22 = 2.44 kN/mm > 0.55 kN/ mm OK 1 2.44k mm

Check deflection under service loading

The mid-span deflection due to point load is

_!!]___{3(~J-4(~J
L }
3

01 = 48£/ L

L 1 =least distance from either support= 9.0 m

L =span of beam = 30 m

P =I .Ix I80+ Ix 240 = 438 kN

3
01 _
3
438x10 x30000 [3
3
(_2_)- 4 (_2_) ]
- 48x200x10 3 x67 520x10 6 27 27

= 15.5 mm

5.69
SANS 10162 Example E5.6: Continued Output
Reference

For the two point loads 8 1 = 2x 15.5 = 31 .0 mm

Mid-span deflection due to UDL

w = 1.1x15 + l.Ox35 = 51.5 kN/m

4
5 wL
o-
1 - -
- 384 El

5 51.5 x 30 0004
=-X
384 200x103 x 67 520x106

.. 8 2 =40.2 mm

Total mid-span deflection is

o= 81 +8 2 =31.0 + 40.2 = 71.2 mm 8 = 71.2 mm

Allowable maximum deflection at serviceability

span 30000
Table 01 = = = 100 mm> 71.2 mm OK
(Annex D) 300 300

I. . Deflection limit is satisfie d I

I Adopt 2 500 x 500 (l 6W. 35 F): plate girder II

--------oOo- -------

5.70
 Chapter 6
DESIGN OF BEAM-COLUMNS

6.1 Introduction

Sections that are designed for a combination of bending and compression or bending and tension
stresses are referred to as beam -columns. This stress combination can have a significant influence
on the strength of a member. The applied loading may be primarily bending, primarily axial, or
various combinations of the two. The bending moment, which may result from eccentric reactions or
moments produced from the analysis of a sway frame, may be about one or both axes.

This chapter covers only the design of I-shaped sections. It is important to read this chapter in
conjunction with the previous chapters covering axial compressive resistance (Chapter 4) and moment
resistance (Chapter 5).

6. 2 Eccentricity of reactions

Members connected to a column will usually have their reactions effectively acting at some eccentricity
to the axis of the column. The diagrams in Figures 6.1 to 6.4 show some typical column connections
and the eccentricity of the connection that should be considered in the design of beam-columns.

In a simple connection where the beam is connected to the flange or web of a column, as in Figure 6.1, the reaction
may be assumed to be applied at the greater of 100 mm from the face of the section or the centre of bearing. The
greater value of the two dimensions gives the required eccentricity ( e) from the axis of the column.

h 100 mm
1" 1" 1

H? e

I
~

~
Figure 6.1

In the case of a simply supported beam framing into the flange or web of a column and connected
directly to the web by means of cleats (Figure 6.2), the eccentricity may be determined by considering
that the reaction acts at the face of the support.

6. 1
 Figure 6.2

The eccentricity ( e) of the reaction in this case will be equal to half of the depth (h) of the column
section. When a beam is connected to the web of a column, the eccentricity of the reaction may be
assumed to be zero.

In the case of column cap connections (see Figure 6.3), the force shall be assumed to be applied at
the face of the column section or at the edge of the packing (if any).

e e
~ F-"
I' I'
I' -~ I' -;-

'
I' I'
I I
I
1 I
1

Figure 6.3

In the case of a roof truss bearing on a column cap as in Figure 6.4, the force should be taken as
applied at the intersection of the truss members meeting at the support.

Figure 6.4

6.2
 6.3 Section classification

In Chapter 5, the cross-sectional strength of beams was classified into four classes. The same
philosophy is applied to beam-columns, taking into account both the effect of axial force and bending
moment. The limiting width-to-thickness ratios for elements in flexural compression are given in the
Code in Table 11.2(b). Since the flange is under uniform compression in a beam-column, the limiting
width-to-thickness ratio for a Class 3 is the same as that for an element under axial compression
(Table 11.2(a) of the Code).

Web elements experience an interaction of axial force and bending moment. If the axial force is
zero, then the beam is subject to pure bending only. When the axial force is very high, then the web
behaves as a column subject to axial force. For a Class 1 section, the limiting width-to-thickness ratio
is given in Table 11.2(b) of the Code as

(6.1)

When the axial force (Cu) in Equation 6. 1 is zero, then

(6.2)

when Cu = cpCY, then

(6. 3)

Equation 6.2 is the limiting width-to-thickness ratio for a Class 1 section subject to bending only. The
limiting width-to-thickness ratio given by Equation 6.3 is rounded off in Table 11.2(a) of the Code as
670/ Jl; for an element in axial compression.
6.4 Second-order effects (Clause B.7)

Elastic methods of structural analysis normally assume that all deformations are small, i.e. they do
not account for additional deformation effects. This type of analysis is known as primary or first -
order analysis. However, in beam-columns, account is normally taken of structural deformations. This
requires an additional analysis, referred to as second-order analysis.

When a member is subjected to a moment, it deflects laterally in the plane of the moment. Consider,
for example, a member whose ends remain in their original position after the member has deflected
as shown in Figure 6.S(a). The presence of an axial compressive force (P) acting on this deformed
shape causes further (or secondary) moments and deflections. The magnitude of the additional,

6.3

~ I/
second-order moment is dependent on the properties of the column itself and is referred to as the
"member effect" or local second-order effect (i.e. P-C> effect) .

When a beam-column is permitted to sway by an amount ( Ll) as shown in Figure 6. 5(b), t here will be
an additional moment given by ( PLl). Since the lateral displacement of a given member depends on
the properties of all members in the storey height , the moment is referred to as the structure effect
(i.e. P- Ll effect) .

p ~p
M1 _ __ ./ , _ _ Pt.
M1
\ / H
\
I
I) \ I
H I
I I
I I
I
\
- - - Pt.
M2 tp
M2 H

(a) Member effects (P- 8) (b) Structure effects (P-~)

non-sway sway

Figure 6. 5: Second-order effects

Consider a column in a braced frame which is rigidly connected to a girder. Bending moments in the
column will result from the application of gravity loads on the frame. Bending moments can easily
be calculated using first -order analysis. Clause 13. 8.3 of the Code stipulates that the secondary
moments resulting from the displacement along the column be determined through the application
of an amplication factor.

A simple way of determining this amplification factor is to analyse an axially loaded column with
equal end moments as shown in Figure 6.6(a) . The resulting first-order moment is (M), and the
secondary moment is (Cu<>) ,
where Cu
is the ultimate axial load.
Cu
M
---+--o.1-
\
\

L 8 1

(a) Loading of the (b} Resultant bending

column moment diagram

Figure 6.6: Determination of amplification factor

6.4
 The maximum moment ( M 11 ) at mid-span is

(6.4)

The amplification factor (AF) is a measure of how much the first-order moment (M) can be
amplified by the deflection to give the maximum moment (Mu) .

. . AF = Mu = M + C)5 = 1 1
M M M
M+CJ>

(6. 5)

If 8 is assumed to be very small, then

8 8
(6.6)

and, from first-order analysis,

(6.7)

where Ce is the Euler buckling load.

Substituting Equations 6.6 and 6.7 into Equation 6. 5 results in

1
AF= - - (6.8)
1- cu
Ce
The reader is referred to Chen and Lui ( 1987) for more exact approaches.

Note that the amplification factor given by Equation 6. 8 refers to a column that is subjected to equal
and opposite moments. This is in fact the most severe loading case for a column. The displacement
(8) will be less severe for cases where the moment is not uniformly distributed, resulting in an
amplified moment that is less than the one for a uniform moment diagram . The Code, in Clause
13. 8.4, uses the case of uniform moment as a base. Other moment gradients are taken into account
by converting them into an equivalent uniform moment through the use of a factor m1 •

6.5

!
The factor w1 depends on the loading pattern and is defined in Clause 13.8.4 as :

(a) For members not subject to transverse loads between supports or segments (Figure 6. 7)

jw1 = 0.6-0.4K (~ 0.4) j (6.9)

where K is the ratio of the smaller to the larger ultimate moment at opposite ends of the
unbraced protion/segment, positive for double curvature and negative for single curvature.

( 1----------1)
Figure 6.7

(b) For members subject to distributed loads or series of point loads between supports or
segments (Figure 6.8)

Figure 6.8

(c) For members subject to a concentrated load or moment between supports or segments
(Figure 6. 9)

lw 1 =0.851

)
Figure 6.9

6.6
The combination of the amplification factor (AF) and the equivalent moment factor ( co 1) accounts
for the total member secondary effects. This combined factor is given in Clause 13.8.2 of the Code
as U 1 •

(6.10)

where
n 2 EI
Ce =Euler buckling strength = - -2
(KL)

The maximum amplified moment (Mu) is then

(6.11)

Where Mis the maximum moment on the beam-column or segment of the column.

6.5 Section resistance - combined bending and compression

6.5.1 Resistance of Class 1 and 2 I-sections (Clause 13.8.1)

All Class 1 and 2 I-shaped members required to resist both bending and compression shall be
proportioned so that the following interaction check is satisfied

(6.12)

where

Cu = ultimate axial load

M= =ultimate moment about the major axis

Muy = ultimate moment about the minor axis

~ = 0.6 +0.41..y ~ 0.85 (6.13)

A.Y is the non-dimensional slenderness ratio about the minor axis.

6.7
6.5.2 Resistance of all classes of sections except Class 1 and 2 I-shaped
sections

The interaction equation is similar to Equation 6.12 except that the effects of residual strength are
not taken into account . In Equation 6. 12, the residual strength effects are taken into account by the
factors 0.85 and ~ .

The interaction equation for all the other classes is therefore:

(6.14)

6.6 Modes of failure (Clause 13.B.1)

Because of the interaction between the axial and bending stresses, interaction expressions are used
to account for the following considerations:

• The maximum combined stress may be excessive, ignoring instability of the member.

• Lateral-torsional buckling, together with weak axis buckling, may cause failure.

• The compressive resistance of a member depends on the maximum slenderness ratio when axial
load only is considered.

• There is no out-of-plane instability when bending about the weak axis only is considered.

• The shape of the bending moment diagram over the unrestrained length of the column or beam
segment influences the member's strength (see Section 6.4).

• Moments are amplified due to the presence of axial load on a deflected member.

When calculating moment resistance, the plastic section modulus is used for Class 1 and 2
members and elastic modulus for Class 3 and 4.

Based on the above considerations, three modes of failure are envisaged and must be checked:

(a) Cross-sectional strength;

(b) Overall member strength; and
(c) Lateral-torsional buckling strength .

6.8
 6.6.1 Cross-sectional strength

This check is to ensure that there is no point in the member where the ultimate strength of the
member is exceeded. Buckling and lateral torsional instability are not considered in this check. The
check is appropriate for members in braced frames only.

~=0.6

Cr is the compressive resistance calculated with A = 0 .

(6.15)

For Class 4 sections, the effective area is calculated using the reduced element widths to satisfy the
maximum width-to-thickness ratio of a Class 3 section.

Mr = <j>Z pl f y = <j>MP (Class 1 and 2 sections) (6.16)

Mr = <J>Zefy = <j>MY (Class 3 sections) (6.17)

For Class 4 sections, Mr is calculated in accordance with Clause 13.S(c) of the Code.

U1x and U1y are calculated as follows (Clause 13.8.3) :

U Ix -- ffi1x
j
l-C11 Cex
-> 1·0 (6. 18)

(6.19)

6 .6. 2 Overall member strength

This check takes into account the effects of the axial compressive force acting on the member in its
deformed shape (i.e. second-order effects).

Cr is the factored compressive resistance based on the maximum slenderness ratio for biaxial bending
and for uniaxial strong-axis bending C,. = C,.x· The effective length factor K = 1.0.

Since lateral torsional buckling is not considered, the resistances about the x-( Mrx) and y- (M ry)
axes have their full yield values as given by Equations 6.16 and 6.17.

U1x and U1Y for members in braced frames are calculated as in Equations 6. 18 and 6.19 respectively,
but with no limitations. ulx = u ly = 1.0 for members in unbraced frames.

6 .9
 6.6. 3 Lateral-torsional buckling strength

This check covers the case in which lateral-torsional buckling may occur, i.e. where there is no
lateral restraint about the weak axis to the compression flange (as for laterally unrestrained beams) .
Second-order effects are also included in this case. When a beam fails in this mode, it first bends
about the strong axis, then suddenly deflects about the weak axis and twists - hence the description
"lateral-torsional buckling".

C,. i s the factored compressive resistance calculated based on the weak-axis buckling.

M,.x is the factored moment resistance for a laterally unsupported member, calculated in accordance
with Clause 13.6 of the Code.

M ry = cpZptyfy (Class 1 and 2 sections) (6.20)

Mry = <l>Zeyfy (Class 3 sections) (6.21)

For members in unbraced frames U1x = U1y =1.0.

For members in braced frames, U 1x and U 1y are calculated from

(6 .22)

(6.23)

Note: U 1y has no limitation and U 1x must not be less than 1.0.

6.6.4 Additional check for Class 1 and 2 I-shaped sections (Clause 13.8.1)

In addition the members of Class 1 and 2 I-shaped sections subject to biaxial moments shall meet the
following criterion

(6 .24)

6.10
 6. 7 Combined tension and bending (clause 13. 9)

6. 7. 1 Resistance of Class 1 and 2 sections

(a) Cross-sectional strength

The member shall be proportioned so that

(6.25)

Note:
This equation is conservative for Class 1 members since it does not take account of the higher
bending resistance of Class 1 sections.

(b) Lateral-torsional buckling strength

This check considers the case where the tension effects are small.

The member shall be proportioned so that

(6.26)

Mr in this equation is based on the overall member behaviour taking lateral-torsional buckling
into account (i.e . use Clause 13.5 or 13.6).

The second term in this equation is a ratio of tensile to bending stress and is better explained
by representing it in the following form :

6.7.2 Resistance of Class 3 and 4 sections

(a) Cross-sectional strength

The member shall be proportioned so that

(6.27)

6. 11
(b) Lateral-torsional buckling

The member shall be proportioned so that

(6.28)

M,. in this equation is based on the overall member behaviour taking lateral-torsional buckling
into account (i.e. use Clause 13. 5 or 13. 6).

The second term in this equation is a ratio of tensile to bending stress and is better explained
by representing it in the following form:

Illustrative examples on the design of beam-columns are given in Examples E6. 1 and E6 .2.

6.12
SANS 10162 Example E6.1: Beam-column subject to strong-axis Output
Reference bending

A segment of a braced column between two floors in a multi-

storey building is subject to the following ultimate design
loads (see Figure E6.1).

Axial compressive load = 2 200 kN

Bending moments
Top: about the major axis Mu.top = 180 kNm

Bottom: about the major axis Mu ,bot = 240 kNm

If the column is 3.2 m long, check the adequacy of a 305 X 305

X 118 kg/m H-section, Grade 300W steel.

t2200 kN

- cu . Mu.top = 180 kNm

180 kNm

E
~
(")
II
_J

Mu.bot =240 kNm

.---- ('/
240 kNm
t2200 kN

Figure E6. 1: Strong-axis bending

Solution

SASCH Section properties

A = 15 x 103 mm 2 tw = 11.9 mm
t1 =18.7 mm

4
IY =90.1xI06 mm rx = 136 mm
4
J = l 620x10 3 mm ry = 77.6 mm

Cw = 1970x10 9 mm 6 h = 314.5 mm

b = 306.8 mm h.,..,. = 247 mm

6 .13
SANS 10 162 Example E6. 1: Conti nued Output
Reference

11 . 1 Cross-section classification

Outstand of compression flange

11. 3.1(C) ~ = b/ 2 = 306.8/ 2 = 8.20

tf tf 18.7

Table 11.2(b) Limiting width-to-thickness ratio for a Class 1 section

= 145 =~ =8 .4>8.2
p; ./300
·· Compression flange is Class 1 Class 1 flange

Web in combined axial compression and bending

11. 3.2(c) ~= hw = 247 =20.8

tw tw 11.9

Table 11.2(b) Limiting width-to-thickness ratio for a Class 1 section

= 1100(1-0.39 cu )
p; <!>Cy

= l lOO(l-0.3 9 x 2200 )
J300 0.9x15x300

= 50.1>20.8

·· Web is Class 1 Class 1 web

ICross-section classification is Class 1 I Class 1 section

(i) Check cross-sectional strength

A section subject to major axis bending shall satisfy

13.8.1

6 . 14
SANS 10162 Example E6. 1: Continued Output
Reference

13.8. 1 (a) Determine compressive resistance ( crx) with A = 0

-1/n
13.3.1 Crx = <j>Afy (1+A zn ) = <j>Afy

.. Crx =0.9x 15xl03 x300x10-3 =4050kN c 11

= 4 050 k \

For a Class 1 section

13.5(a) Mrx = <j>Zplxfy = 0.9X1950X103 X300X10- 6

. . M,.x = 526.5 kNm \Ir:.r = 526.5 k \ 111

13.8. 1(a) ~ = 0.60 (braced frame)

Determine (u1J

13.6(a) K =+ Mu ,top
( Mu ,bot
J for double curvature
x

• Kx = +(180/240) = 0.75

13.8.4(a)

=0.6-0.4x0.75

= 0.30 < 0.40

•. (J)lx = 0.40
2 2 3 6 3
C = n Elx = n x200x10 x276x10 x10-
13.8.3
(KL)~
2
ex (1x3 200)

=53 203kN C,.l =53 203 k\

U - (J)lx - 0.40
13.8.3
Ix - (1- Cu / Cex ) - (1-2 200/ 53 203)
13.8.1 (a ) •• ulx = 0.417< 1.0
L. = 1.0

6 . 15
SANS 10162 Example E6. 1: Continued Output
Reference

Cu =2200kN

Mux =240kNm

Interaction equation :

13.8.1 2 200+0.85x1.0 x 240 = 0.543 + 0.387

4 050 526.5

= 0.930<1 .0 : . OK

I:. Section has sufficient cross-sectional strength I

(ii) Check overall member strength

Determine compressive resistance (Cr)

13.8.1(b) For uniaxial strong-axis bending Cr = Crx

13.8.1(b) Kx = 1.0 K = 1.0

KL) = 1.0x3 200 = 23 .53

( r x 136

f, 7t2E = 7t2x200x103 = 3 565 MPa j = 3 565 \-IPa

13.3.1
.. ex = (KL/r)~ 23.53 2

A= (T, = J 300 =0.290

13.3.1
v1e: 3 565

13.3.1 Cr = ¢Afy (I + A, 2n)-l/n , n = 1.34

-1/1.34
= 0.9 x l5x300 ( l+0.290 2·68 )

Cr =3944kN ( 3 944 k \T

6 . 16
 SANS 10162 Example E6. 1: Continued Output
Reference

M,x = 526.5 kNm (as in (i) above) Af - 526.5 kNm

13.8.1 (b) ulx = 0.417 (braced frame - see (i) above)

Interaction equation for overall member strength

Cu 0.85U1xMux 2200 0.85x0.417x240

13.8.1 -+ = - - + - - -- -- -
Cr Mrx 3 944 526.5

=0.558+0.162

= 0.72<1.0 :.OK

.• Section is adequate for overall buckling

(iii) Check for lateral-torsional buckling

Determine compressive resistance

(KL) x =(KL)y =3200mm

rmin = ry = 77.6 mm

= x 200x103 = 1162 MPa

13.3.2
..
/,
ey = (KL/r)~
rt2 E rt2
(3 200/ 77.6) 2
r. 1162 MPa

13.3.2

!
~

~
Shear centre coordinates x 0

:. ~2 = 136 2 +77.62 = 24 518 mm 2

=y =0
0

~ 13.3.2 Effective length for torsional buckling Kz = 1 (conservative)

13.3.2 f,
ez -
-[n(KL)~
2
ECw +GJ]·-1-
A~2

6 . 17
SANS 10162 Example E6. 1: Continued Output
Reference

2 9
= [ it x2oox10' x 1970x 10 + 77 xJO' xl 620 xJO' ]
2
3 200

1
x
15 x 103 x 24 518

.. fez= 1372 MPa J, 1372 MPa

13.8.1(b) fe = min{l 162, 1372}MPa = 1162 MPa t:. 1162 MPa

13.3.1 A= ft=~
fe
300 = 0.508
1162

13 3 1 Cr= <!>Afy (1+A 2 nr l/n , n = 1.34

= 0.9x15 x 300 (1+0.5082·68 rl/1.34

.. Cr=3619kN c 3 619 kN

13.8.1(C) ul x = 0.417<1.0 (braced frame)

13 8 1(c) ... U1x = 1.0 u I0

Determine M,x for a Class 1 section

Kx = +0.75 (see (ii) above)

13.6(a) 002 = 1. 75 + l.05K + 0.3K 2 ::; 2.5

.. 002 = 1.75+1.05 x 0.75 + 0.3 x 0.752

= 2.71>2.5

... 002 '=2.5 co 2.5

6 . 18
SANS 10162 Example E6. 1: Continued Output
Reference

The elastic critical moment (Mer) is

13.6(a)
C021t
Mer= KL\ EJYGJ +
(7tE)2
L fyCw
25
= · 7t {200x103 x 90.1 x10 6 x 77x10 3 x 1 620x103
3200

+(7t x
200 103
x
3 200
J2x 90.l x 10 x1970x10 }1/2
6 9

·· Mer =7 400kNm M 7 400k.Nm

M px = Z plxfy = 1950X103 X300 X 10- 6 = 585 kNm M 585 k.Nm

0.67 Mpx = 0.67 X 585 = 392 kNm <Mer= 7 400 kNm

13.6(a)(1)

0 23 535
=1.15x0.9x585 (1- · x
7 400
J
Mrx = 592 kNm > 0.9 X 585 = 527 kNm

. . M,x = 527 kNm M -527 m

Interaction equation for lateral-torsional buckling

C11 + 0.85U1xMux = 2 200+0.85x1.0 x 240

13.8.1
Cr Mrx 3 619 527

= 0.608 + 0.387

= 0.994<1 .0 :.OK

I:. Section is adequate for lateral-torsional buckling I

I Section 305 x 305 x I 18 kg/ m H-section is adequate II
0

6.19

~I
SANS 1016 2 Example E6. 2: Beam-column with intermediate Output
Reference restraint

A 5 m long, 305 X 165 X 54 kg/m I-section (parallel flange)

column, Grade 300W steel, is subjected to an ultimate axial
load of 282 kN. A beam connected to the web of the column
at mid-height provides lateral restraint about the weak axis
at that point. The column is subjected to ultimate moments
as shown in Figure E6.2(a). Check the suitability of the given
section . Assume the column forms part of a braced structure.

~-~ 140kNm
rkNm
E
l{)
1
------------ y---Hi---y
N

-------

~ I L
14kNm !
~- 112 kNm
L 20 kNm
Mxx Myy

Figure E6.2(a)

Solution

11.1 Section classification

Outstand of compression flange

11 3.1 (C)
~ = b/ 2 = 166.8/ 2 = 6.1
tf tf 13.7

Table 11.2(b) Limiting width-to-thickness ratio for Class 1 section

= 145 =~=8.4>6. l
p; J300
.. Compression flange is Class 1 Class 1 flange

Web in combined axial compression a nd bending

1 3. 2(c)

6.20
SANS 10162 Example E6.2: Continued Output
Reference

Limiting width-to-thickness ratio for Class 1 section

Table 11.2(b) =llOO(l-0.39 Cu J=1100 (l- 0.39x282x10 J 3

JI; $Cy J300 0.9x300x6820

= 59.7 > 34.5

.. Web is Class 1 Class 1 web

ICross-section classification is Class 1 I Class 1 section

(i) Check cross-sectional strength

Compressive resistance ( C,.)

A-=0

13.3.1 cr =$Afy (1+1.,2nr1/n =$Afy

. . C,. = 0.9 x 6 820x300x10- 3 = 1 841.4 kN C, 1841.4 kN

For a Class 1 section

13.5(a) Mrx = $Zptxfy = 0.9 X843X103 X300X10- 6

. . Mrx = 227.6 kNm M, -227.6kNm

Mry = $Zptyfy = 0.9x195x10 3 x300x10-6

. . Mry = 52.7 kNm M 52.7 k m

A Class 1 I-section subject to biaxial bending is required to

satisfy the following interaction equation

13.8.1

6 .21
SANS 10162 Example E6.2: Continued Output
Reference

13.8.1 (a) B= 0.60 (braced frame)

Determine (u1.J

Kx = 112/140 = 0.80 (double curvature)

13.8.4(a) Wix = 0.6 -0.4Kx but Wix ~ 0.4

=0.6-0.4 x 0.80
= 0.28 < 0.40
. . (Olx = 0.40 co 1:c - 0.40

c = n 2Eix = n 2 x200x103 x111x10 6 x 10_3

ex (KL)~ 5 000 2
. . Cex = 9 238 kN C \ =9238kN

U = Wix = 0.40
Ix (1-Cu / Cex) 1-282/ 9238

13.8.1 (a) ulx = 0.413<1.0

•• ulx = 1.0 U 1 = 1.0

Determine ( U 1v)

KY= 0/20 = 0 (lateral restraints provided at top ,

mid-height and bottom)

13.8.4(a) ro 1Y = 0.6-(0.4x0) = 0.6 > 0.4

•• ffi1y = 0.60 (l) - 0 60

2
C = rt EIY = n 2 x200x103 x10.6x10 6 xl0_3
ey (KL)~ 2 5002
. . Cey = 3 348 kN c =3348kN

6 .22
 SANS 10162 Example E6.2: Continued Output
Reference

13.8.3
U _ w,Y 0.60 _
ly - (1-Cu / Cey) - (1-282/ 3 348)

13.8. 1(a) . . U1y = 0.655<1.0

. . u y = i.o
1 10

Interaction equation

282 0.85xl.Ox140 0.60x l.Ox20

13.8.1 --+ + - -- - -
1841.4 227.6 52.7

= 0.1 53 + 0.523 + 0.228

= 0.904<1.0 :. OK

.. Section has sufficient cross-section strength

(ii) Check overall member strength

Determine compressive resistance (Cr)

13.8.1 (b) Kx =Ky = I.O

(KL)
r x
= 5000 = 38 . 17
131

(KL)
r Y
= 2 500 = 63 5
39.4
.4
The member is subjected to biaxial bending, therefore
consider the maximum slenderness ratio.

2 2 3
f, n E = 7t x200x10 = 4903 MPa I 490 3 MPa
ey = (KL/r)~ 63.45 2

13. 3.1 A=
~J:
=)
{J; 3
00 =0.782
490.3

6.23
SANS 10162 Example E6.2: Continued Output
Reference

-1/n
13.3.1 Cr =cpAfy (1+A. 2n ) , n =1.34

-1/ 1.34
= 0.9 x 6 820x300x10-3 ( 1+ 0.782 2·68 )
. . Cr= 1349 kN Cr= 1349 kN

Mrx = 227.6 kNm (as in (i) above) M -227.6kNm

M,Y = 52.7 kNm (as in (i) above) M 52.7 kNm

13.8.1 13 = 0.6 + 0.4/...y ::;; 0.85

= 0.6 + 0.4 x 0.782
= 0.913 > 0.85
.. 13 = 0.85 13 0 85

ulx = 0.413 (braced frame - see (i) above) u, -0.413

uly = 0.655 (braced frame - see (i) above) u 1

- 0.655

Interaction equation

282 0.85x0.413x140 0.60x0.655x20

--+ +
1349 227.6 52.7

= 0.209 +0.216 +0.149

= 0.574<1 .0 : . OK

ISection is adequate for overall buckling I

6.24
SANS 10162 Example E6.2: Continued Output
Reference

(iii) Check for lateral-tors ional buckling

Determine compressive resistance ( C,.)

f ey = 490.3 MPa (see (ii) above) (. 490.3 MPa

13.3.2(c) ~2 = r} +r} = 131 2 +39.4 2 =18 713 mm 2

13.3.2(c) Kz = 1.0 (conservative)

2
13.3.2 !. = [ 7t ECW + GJ ]-1-
ez (KL)~ A~2

2 3 9
= [ 7t x200x10 x234x10 + 7?xlO' x 345 xio']
2
(2 500)

1
x
6820x18 713

.. fez = 787.2 MPa fez 787.2 MPa

fe =min {490.3, 787.2} MPa = 490.3 MPa J 490.3 MPa

13.3.1 A= ft= J
fe
300 = 0.782 (as before)
490.3

.. C,. = l 349kN (see (ii) above) ( 1349 kV

13.6 Determine ( M,.x ) for a Class 1 section

The upper segment is critical for lateral-torsional buckling,

where the segment is in single curvature.

Kx = -(14/140) = - 0.10 I( -0.IO

6.25

--
SANS 10162 Example E6.2: Continued Output
Reference

13.6(a) C02 = 1.75 + l.05K + 0.3K2 ::::; 2.5

2
= 1. 7 5 + 1.05 x (- 0 .10) + 0 .3 x (- 0. 1)

.. C02 =1 .65 <02=1.65

The e lastic critical buckling moment (Mer) is

13.6(a)(n)
co 2n nE
Mer= KL ~EJYGJ+ L ( )' ·
fyCw

SASCH IY =10.6x106 mm 4

J=345x103 mm 4

Cw = 234x109 mm 6

65 2
.. Mcrx = 1. X1t {5.632X1022 + 1.567X1023}1/ X10- 6
2 500

=956kNm M -956k.Nm

Mpx = Zpixf y = 843x103 x300 x 10- 6 = 252.9 kNm M -252.9k.Nn:

0.67Mpx = 0.67 x252.9=169.4 kNm < M er= 956 kNm

13 6(a)(1) .. M ,, = l.15$M, (1 0.28M, J :s;~Mpx

Mer

0 28 252 9
= 1.15 x 0.9 x 252.9(1 - · x · )
956

= 242.4 kNm > ~Mpx = 0.9 X 252.9 = 227.6 kNm

.. Mrx = 227.6 kNm M -227.6k m

Mry = 52.7 kNm (see (ii) above)

6 .26
SANS 10162 Example E6.2: Continued Output
Reference

~=0. 85 (see(ii)above) ~ =0.85

13.8.1(c) ulx = 0.413<1.0 .. u,x= 1.0 u =1.0
U 1Y = 0.655 (braced frame) u, =0.655

Interaction equation

282 0.85x1.0x 140 0.85 x 0.655 x 20

- - + +
1349 227.6 52.7
= 0.209 + 0.523 + 0.211
= 0.943<1.0 :.OK

I:. Section is adequate for lateral-torsional buckling j

Addi tional check

Mux Muy _ 140 20

13.8.1 - - + - - - --+ - -
Mrx Mry 227.6 52.7

= 0.615 + 0.380
= 0.995 < 1.0 : .OK

If Section 305x 165 x 54 kg/m I-section 1s adequate II

--------oOo--------

6.27
6 .28