General Veterinary Macroscopic Anatomy: Osteology: Storage Cell Formation) of Fats

General Veterinary Macroscopic Anatomy: Osteology | 4
• OSTEOLOGY (G. Osteon, bone + logos, study) - is the study of bones.

• BONE (osseous tissue) - the hard, semi-rigid, calcified connective tissue forming the skeleton.
• SKELETON- the framework of hard structures which supports and protects the soft tissues of animals.
Functions of the Skeleton:
1. Support- it acts as an internal ‘scaffold’ upon which the body is built; for tissue and attachment for
skeletal muscles. 2. Locomotion- bones used as lever for skeletal muscles, e.g. the bones, to bring about
movement. Joints allow
movement. 3. Protection- it protects the underlying soft parts of the body, e.g. the brain is encased in the
protective bony cranium
of the skull, the spinal cord protected by the spinal cord, and the respiratory organs by the rib cage. 4.
Storage- it acts as a store for the essential minerals calcium and phosphorus. 5. Hematopoiesis (blood
cell formation)- hematopoietic tissue forming the bone marrow manufactures the blood cells. 6. Storage
of fats – energy reserve in the yellow marrow.
The skeleton maybe divided primarily into three parts:
1. AXIAL SKELETON→ skull, hyoid bone, vertebral column, ribs
and sternum. 2. APPENDICULAR SKELETON→ pectoral and pelvic limbs. 3. HETEROTOPIC
(Splanchnic/visceral)→ bone that develops in
the substance of some of the viscera or soft organs (os penis).
• STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF A BONE
• Classification of Bones o Bones are classified by anatomists according to shape:
Characteristics Functions LONG BONE Elongated cylindrical form with enlarged
extremities; have a shaft containing a medullary cavity filled with bone marrow. e.g. bones of forelimb &
hindlimb including bones of the metacarpus/metatarsus and phalanges
KHAN LAMANERO JUNATAS, DVM Department of Basic Veterinary Sciences, CVM-USM
DIVISION Total Average Number
AXIAL
Skull & hyoid bone Vertebral column Ribs & sternum
50 50 34
APPENDICULAR
Pectoral Pelvic
90 96
HETEROTOPIC
Os penis 1
TOTAL 321
Act as columns and levers (possessing great tensile strength) for support and locomotion
SHORT BONE Similar dimensions in length, breadth and
thickness; ranging from typical cube-shaped (6 surfaces) to compressed rods; have an outer layer of
compact bone with a core of spongy bone and NO medullary cavity. e.g. carpals & tarsals
Diffuse concussions; absorb cushions
FLAT BONE Large, expanded but thin area; have an outer
layer of compact bone with a layer of spongy bone inside with NO medullary cavity inside. e.g. skull
(DIPLOE), scapula, rib, pelvic bones
For muscular attachments and for protection of organs
IRREGULAR BONE Unpaired bones; ‘Jutting processes’
e.g. vertebral column, some bones of the skull
With varied functions; for support, for articulation, protection and ligamentous attachment SPECIALIZED
BONES
Sesamoid bones
Pneumatic bones
Ribs
Splanchnic bone
Sesame-seed shaped bones that develop within
To afford increased leverage; serve to a tendon (occasionally in a ligament) that runs
change the angle at which the tendon passes over an underlying bony prominence.
over the bone and thus reduce ‘wear and e.g. patella associated with the stifle joint;
tear’ (reducing friction) fabellae
Contain air-filled spaces known as paranasal
The effect of reducing the weight of the sinuses
bone e.g. maxillary and frontal bones
Aberrant long bones
e.g. os penis
• Development of Bone o Ossification- the process by which bone is formed and that there are two
types: INTRAMEMBRANOUS and
ENDOCHONDRAL ossification. o The cells responsible for laying down new bone are called
osteoblasts; the cells that destroy or remodel bone are
called osteoclasts. The osteoblasts later become the osteocytes of mature bone.
▪ Intramembranous ossification→ this is the process by the flat bones of the skull are formed. The
osteoblasts lay down bone between two layers of fibrous connective tissue. There is no cartilage
template.
▪ Endochondral ossification→ involves the replacement of a hyaline cartilage model within the embryo by
bone. The process starts in the developing embryo but is not completed fully until the animal has
reached maturity and growth has ceased. Long bones of limb develop by this method.
• External and Internal Structure of bone o DIAPHYSIS-

the long shaft (body) of a long bone. Compact
bone around the cavity. o EPIPHYSIS- the two
enlarged ends (proximal and distal
extremities) of a long bone; compact bone on the
outside, spongy bone on the inside. o EPIPHYSEAL
PLATE (Growth plate, physis) – a line of
hyaline cartilage serving as the joining point of diaphysis
and the epiphysis in a growing bone. o METAPHYSIS
(Epiphyseal line)- the part of the epiphyseal
cartilage being replaced by a bone. o
PERIOSTEUM- the fibrous connective tissue
covering
around the bone (fresh state) that is not covered by
articular cartilage. It is necessary for bone growth,
repair, nutrition and attachment for ligaments and
tendon.
▪ Perichondrium- the connective tissue covering of
cartilage. o ARTICULAR SURFACE- the smooth
layer of hyaline
cartilage covering the epiphysis where one bone forms a
joint with another bone. o MEDULLARY CAVITY- The
space in diaphysis containing
the marrow. o MARROW- In the interstices of
medullary cavity of long
bone
s.
several types of cells and is a
▪ Red marrow→
blood- forming substance.
▪ Yellow marrow→ replaces the red marrow and becomes
an ordinary adipose tissue. o ENDOSTEUM- The fibrous
and cel lular tissue lining the
medullary cavity of the bone; similar in structure
to periosteum but is thinner. It aids in repair of
injury by providing cells (osteoblasts).
▪ Over-repaired with bone of poor quality results in
osseous bulges at the site of injury (exostoses) . o
MUCOPERIOSTEUM- covering of bones which
participate in forming boundaries of the respiratory or
digestive system; it lines all the paranasal sinuses and
contain mucous cells. o COMPACT BONE- gross term for
the part of the bone that
looks solid. o CORTEX- compact bone surrounding the medullary cavity. o CANCELLOUS BONE
(SPONGY) - consists of delicate bony plates and spicules running in different direction and
intercros
s.
• Physical Properties of Bone o One-third organic; two-thirds

inorganic o Calcium phosphate- principal constituent of the inorganic
matrix of bone. o Hydroxyapatite with adsorbed carbonate o Tricalcium
phosphate hydrate
compact substance (via

• Vessels and Nerves of Bone o Nutrient (medullary) artery and vein→
nutrient foramen and canal of bone)→marrow
cavity→ subdivide→ supply the bone marrow & adjacent cortical bone.
extremities of long bones and compact
o Periosteal arteries and veins→
bone. o Lymph vessels→ in the periosteum as perivascular sheaths. o
Nerves→ principally sensory.
• Surface Contours of Bone (Bone Markings) o The

bumps/eminences/projections, holes and depressions on a bone’s surface. o
These markings can be either ARTICULAR or NONARTICULAR:
▪ PROJECTIONS Articular Characteristic Examples Head A rounded articular process Head of the
humerus or femur Condyle (G. knuckle) A large articular prominence Occipital condyles of the skull;
condyles
of humerus, femur and
tibia
KHAN LAMANERO JUNATAS, DVM

Department of Basic Veterinary Sciences,
CVM-USM
Nonarticular Characteristic Examples Process Any prominent, roughened projection from a bone
Crest, spine, trochanter, tubercle, tuberosity Tuberosity/tuber A large, usually roughened process
Ischiatic tuberosity, deltoid tuberosity Tubercle A small, rounded process Greater and lesser tubercles of
the humerus Trochanter A large, blunt process Greater and lesser trochanter of the femur Spine (L.
spina t horn) A sharp, slender process Spine of a vertebra, spine of scapula Crest A prominent border or
ridge Crest of the hipbone, nuchal crest of the
skull Neck Cylindrical part where head is attached Neck of the humerus and ribs Line A ridge less
prominent than a crest Tricipital line of humerus Epicondyle (G. upon) A prominence just proximal to a
condyle Lateral epicondyle of the humerus or
femur
▪ DEPRESSIONS Articular Characteristic Examples Glenoid cavity Shallow articular depression or
concavity
Glenoid cavity of the scapula Caudal articular surface of atlas Cotyloid cavity A deep articular depression
Acetabulum of the hip joint
Cranial articular surface of atlas Notch A depression at the edge of a bone Semilunar notch and radial
notch of ulna,
popliteal notch* of the tibia Trochlea A pulley-shaped structure Trochlea of the femur Facet (F. little
faces) A smooth, flat surface covered with
hyaline cartilage
Articular facet of a thoracic vertebra for the attachment to a rib Fossa (L. pit) A small hollow Mandibular
fossa of the temporal bone,
olecranon* and radial* fossae of the humerus, masseteric fossa* of the mandible Nonarticular
Characteristic Examples Fovea (L. pit) A shallow, non-articular depression Fovea capitis of the head of
the femur;
costal fovea and transverse fovea of the thoracic vertebra** Foramen (L. aperture) An opening (hole)
through a bone Infraorbital foramen, obturator foramen,
foramen magnum Canal A tunnel through one or more bones Vertebral canal Groove (L. sulcus, furrow)
A long, narrow furrow accommodating a
Brachial groove, grooves on the distal end vessel, nerve or tendon
of the radius Meatus (L. a passage) A tube-like canal through a bone External auditory meatus Fissure A
narrow, cleft-like opening between
adjacent bones.
Tympano-occipital fissure, palatine fissure
*Non-articular; articular
• THE AXIAL SKELETON o The bones and cartilages protecting the soft structures of the head, neck
and trunk; consisting of:
▪ SKULL- the bones of the face and the cranium.
▪ HYOID APPARATUS- the bones holding the larynx in place and serving as a major attachment for the
tongue.
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▪ VERTEBRAL COLUMN- or the backbone; composed of variable number of irregular bones that
help in maintaining posture and participate in body movements; they also house and protect the
spinal cord.
▪ RIBS & STERNUM- thoracic bones protecting the thoracic
organs.
o THE SKULL
▪ The most complex and specialized part of the
skeleton.
▪ It lodges the brain and houses the sense organs for hearing, equilibrium, sight, smell and taste while
providing attachment for the teeth, tongue, larynx, and a host of muscles.
▪ Divided into: Facial (plus palatal region) and Braincase ( neural region)
portions.
▪ The facial and palatal region (36 bones) is the part enclosing the nasal and oral
cavities.
▪ Three terms used to designate head shapes: 1.
Dolicocephalic→ meaning long, narrow-headed. 2.
Mesaticephalic→ meaning a head of medium proportions.
3. Brachycephalic→ meaning short, wide-headed.
o Individual Bones of the
Skull
Bones of the
Braincase
Paired Exoccipital, parietal, frontal, temporal Unpaired Supraoccipital, basioccipital, interparietal,
basisphenoid, presphenoid,
ethmoid
Bones of the Face and Palate
Paired Premaxilla, nasal, maxilla, dorsal concha, ventral concha, zygomatic,
palatine, lacrimal, pterygoid, mandible
Unpaired Vomer
o Braincase (cranium, neural region) - the bones surrounding the brain forming the cranial
cavity.
▪ Separated from the nasal cavity by a perforated plate of bone, the cribriform
plate.
▪ Orbital cavities, at the junction of the facial and cranial parts, contain the globes of the eyes and
accessory structures.
▪ Regions of the braincase: 1. Roof of the cranium→ the dorsum (or calvaria) formed by the paired frontal
and parietal bones; formed in
membrane. 2. Occipital region→ the caudal aspect of the skull formed by the occipital bone; contains the
foramen magnum
allowing for the passage of the spinal cord and its associated vessels. 3. Temporal region→ the lateral
walls of the cranium formed by the temporal bone. 4. Floor of the cranium→ the ventral aspect
(basocranial axis) of the cranium formed primarily by the unpaired sphenoid bone; has a number of
foramina for the passage of nerves and blood vessels; preformed in cartilage. 5. Rostral wall of the
cranium→ the rostral aspect of the cranium formed by the unpaired ethmoid bone.
▪ Bones of the braincase:
1. Occipital bone- the caudal aspect of both the cranial cavity and the skull as a whole; it forms a ring,
the
foramen magnum that develops from four centers—a squamos part (dorsal), two condylar parts (lateral)
and a basilar part ( ventral).
Occipital bone Landmarks Supraoccipital (Squamos part) → The largest division KHAN LAMANERO
JUNATAS, DVM Department of Basic Veterinary Sciences, CVM-USM
• Interparietal process Represents the unpaired interparietal
bone which fuses prenatally with the
supraoccipital; rostral end is narrower and thinner than the caudal part
• External sagittal crest Arises from the interparietal process,
mid-dorsally.
• Nuchal crest
• External occipital protuberance
Unpaired transverse sharp-edged crest that marks the division between the dorsal and caudal surfaces
of the skull. The median, triangular projection forming the most dorsocaudal portion of the skull; the
caudal process of the occipital bone.
• External occipital crest A smooth median ridge extending from
the external occipital protuberance to the foramen magnum.
• Transverse canal
• Internal occipital protuberance
• Internal sagittal crest
• Vermiform impression Forms the thinniest part of the caudal
wall of the skull; an irregular excavation that houses a part of the vermis of the cerebellum.
• Internal occipital crest
Exoccipital condyles (2 Lateral parts) → Bear the occipital condyles
• Occipital condyles Paired convex structures lateral to the
foramen magnum that articulate with the atlas to form the atlanto-occipital joint.
• Jugular (paracondylar) process Lateral to the condyle and projects
ventrally.
• Ventral condyloid fossa Between the jugular process and the
occipital condyle.
• Hypoglossal foramen Located rostral to ventral condyloid
fossa; the external opening of the hypoglossal canal.
• Dorsal condyloid fossa Dorsal to the occipital condyle.
• Condyloid canal Runs through the medial part of the
Unpaired and forms the posterior third of the
lateral occipital condyle. Basioccipital (Basilar part) →
cranial base
• Intercondyloid notch
• Pontine impression In the central area of the basioccipital.
• Foramen magnum Is a large, transversely oval opening in the posteroventral portion of the skull,
through which pass the spinal cord and its associated structures (meninges, vertebral venous sinuses,
spinal portion of the accessory nerve, and arteries).
• Nuchal tubercles Paired projections that are caudal
extensions of the ventral part of supraoccipital bone.
• Muscular tubercles Rough sagittally elongated areas,
located medial to the smooth, rounded tympanic bullae.
• Pharyngeal tubercle
•
Single triangular rough area rostral to the Intercondyloid incisure.
• Petro-occipital canal
2. Parietal Bone (L. paries, wall) - is paired and together with the frontal bone forms the roof of the
cranial
cavity (dorsolateral). It articulates dorsally with its fellow and with the interparietal process of the occipital
bone; forms the medial boundary of the temporal fossa.
3. Frontal bone (L. frons, forehead) - the rostral part of the roof of the cranial cavity; it is irregular in
shape,
being broad caudally and somewhat narrower rostrally; flares laterally to form the part of the temporal
fossa. o Frontal sinus- an air cavity located between the inner and the outer tables of the rostral end of
the frontal bone
(divided into two or three compartments). o The frontal bone is divided into 4 parts:
egment of a cone with the apex
Orbital part S
located at the optic canal and the base forming the medial border of the infraorbital margin.
• Ethmoidal foramina
• Supraorbital or zygomatic process
• Fossa for the small lacrimal gland
Temporal part Forms the part of the frontal bone
caudal to the orbital part. Frontal part Roughly triangular, with its base facing
medially, and articulating with that of the opposite bone. Nasal part T he rostral extension of the frontal
• Nasal process
bone.
• Septum of the frontal sinus
4. Sphenoid bones (G. sphen, wedge) - the unpaired bone forming the floor of the cranial cavity (rostral
two-
thirds of the base of the neurocranium, between the occipital caudally and ethmoid rostrally). o Consists
of a pair of wings and a median body.
▪ Presphenoid→ the more rostral bone with orbital wings.
▪ Basisphenoid→ the caudal bone with the larger wings. 5 . Temporal bone- Forms the caudolateral
wall of the cranial cavity
▪ Petrosal (pyramid/petrosum) - hardest bone; houses the inner ear (cochlea, vestibule, semicircular
canal); mastoid process*
▪ Tympanic (tympanicum)- tympanic bulla-> houses the middle ear (tympanic cavity)
▪ Squamos- expanded plate, zygomatic process, mandibular fossa, retroarticular process 6. Ethmoid
bone- the unpaired bone forming the rostral wall of the cranial cavity; located between the cranial and
facial parts of the skull; situated between the walls of the orbits, it is bounded by the frontal bone
(dorsally), maxillary (laterally) and vomer and palatine bones (ventrally). o It consists of four parts: a
median perpendicular plate or lamina, two lateral masses covered by the external
lamina and a cribriform plate.
• FACIAL PART OF THE SKULL o The part enclosing the nasal and oral cavities. o Regions:
▪ Oral region→ the incisive, maxillary and palatine bones and the mandible surrounding the oral cavity.
▪ Nasal region→ the nasal, maxillary, palatine and incisive bones surrounding the nasal cavity.
▪ Orbital region→ the bony socket holding the eye formed by portions of the frontal, lacrimal, palatine,
sphenoid and zygomatic bones. o Bones of the face and palate
▪ Incisive
▪ Nasal bone
▪ Maxillary bone
▪ Dorsal nasal concha
▪ Ventral nasal concha
▪ Zygomatic bone
▪ Palatine bone
▪ Lacrimal bone
▪ Pterygoid bone
▪ Vomer
▪ Mandible o Incisive (Premaxilla) Bone
▪ The rostral bone holding the upper incisors (front teeth); has body and sockets o Nasal Bone
▪ Forms the osseous roof of the nasal cavity along with the cranial part of the frontal bone.
▪ It is long, slender, and narrow caudally. o Maxillary Bone (Maxilla)
▪ The lateral part of the face and the part of the hard palate holding the upper cheek teeth.
▪ The largest facial bone; divided into a body and 4 processes: 1. Frontal 2. Zygomatic 3. Palatine 4.
Pterygoid
▪ Infraorbital foramen→ for the passageway of infraorbital nerve and artery.
▪ Alveolar process, Interalveolar septa, Interradicular septa o Dorsal Nasal Concha
▪ Formerly the Nasal

turbinate o Ventral Nasal Concha
▪ Formerly the Maxilloturbinate; a scroll of bone located on the nasal
cavity.
o Zygomatic Bone (Malar or Jugal bone; L. mala,
cheek)
▪ Forms the cranial part of the zygomatic
arch
▪ Divided into 2 surfaces, 4 borders and 2
processes.
▪ Surfaces: 1. Lateral→ convex 2.
Medial/Orbital→ concave
▪ Borders: 1.
Maxillary 2.
Temporal 3.
Infraorbital 4.
Masseteric
▪ Processes 1. Temporal 2. Frontal ✍ Orbital ligament→ it completes the orbit of the dog, caudally. It begins
from the zygomatic process of the
frontal bone (supraorbital process) and ends at the frontal process of the
zygomatic bone. o Palatine Bone
▪ Forms the caudal part of the hard palate; caudomedial to the
maxilla.
▪ Divided into: 1. Horizontal lamina→ forms the posterior third of hard palate; palatine and nasal surfaces;
major and minor
palatine foramina 2. Perpendicular lamina→
sphenopalatine foramen o Lacrimal Bone
▪ In the rostral margin of the orbit; triangular in outline and pyramidal in
shape. o Pterygoid Bone
▪ Small, thin, slightly curved, nearly four-sided plate of bone in the caudal part of the
nasopharynx. o Vomer Bone (Plowshare)
▪ Unpaired bone forming the caudoventral part of the nasal
septum.
▪ It contributes to the roof of the choanae having sagittal and horizontal
parts. o Mandible (L. Mandere, to masticate; Lower jaw bone)
▪ The large bone articulating with the skull that supports all the lower
teeth.
▪ Largest bone of the skull; the only
mobile.
▪ The two halves united by
symphysis.
▪ Each half is divided into: 1. Body→ the horizontal part bearing all the lower teeth; alveolar border; mental
foramina—rostral, middle (the
largest) and caudal—on the rostro-lateral aspect. 2. Ramus→ the vertical caudal part bearing no
tooth; it has the mandibular foramen on its medial aspect.
▪ Three processes a. Coronoid b. Condyloid (articular)→ smooth and articulates with the mandibular fossa of the
temporal bone to form
the temporomandibular joint. c. Angular
• IMPORTANT FORAMINA IN THE SKULL OF DOGS
OPENINGS STRUCTURES PASSING THROUGH Infraorbital foramen Infraorbital nerve

Maxillary foramen Infraorbital nerve Cribriform foramina Olfactory nerve Optic canal Optic
nerve Orbital fissure Cranial nerve III, IV and ophthalmic division of Cranial nerve V and VI
Round foramen Maxillary division of Cranial nerve V Foramen lacerum Internal carotid artery
Internal acoustic meatus Cranial nerve VIII Jugular foramen Cranial nerves IX, X & XI
Tympano-occipital fissure Cranial nerves IX, X & XI Stylomastoid foramen Cranial nerve VII
Mandibular foramen Mandibular alveolar nerve

CVM-USM
Dorsal Concha
nasal Ventral
Concha nasal
Middle meatus
nasal Ventral
meatus nasal
Ventral meatus
Nasal Ventral
Concha nasal
Ventral meatus
Nasal
Mental foramen Mandibular alveolar nerve
• Paranasal sinuses o Maxillary sinus (recess) - in the maxillary bone which forms a large
diverticulum of the nasal cavity.
▪ Boundaries: 1. Medial limit→ lateral lamina of the ethmoid bone
2. Lateral limit→ maxillary, palatine and lacrimal bones o Frontal
sinus- between the outer and inner tables of the frontal bone.
▪ Parts: 1. Lateral→ forms the whole enlargement of the frontal bone. 2.
Rostral→ unites the two tables of the frontal bone. 3. Medial→ more
irregular. o Sphenoidal sinus- lies within the presphenoid bone occupied
by endoturbinate.
• Bones of the Hyoid Apparatus o Hyoid Apparatus (G. hyoedes, u-shaped) – a number of connected
(through synchondroses) bones acting as a suspensory mechanism for the tongue and larynx; attaches to the
mastoid process of the skull dorsally (via the tympanohyoid cartilage) and to the larynx and base of the tongue
ventrally, suspending these structures in the caudal part of the mandibular space.
▪ Consists of: thyrohyoid, basihyoid, ceratohyoid, epihyoid, stylohyoid and
tympanohyoid
▪ Thyrohyoid→ (the cornus maju of man), is laterally bowed, sagitally compressed, slender element
which extends dorsocaudally from the basihyoid to articulate with the cranial cornu of the thyroid cartilage
of the larynx.
▪ Basihyoid→ transverse unpaired element lying in the musculature of the base of the tongue as
ventrally bowed, dorsoventrally compressed rod.
▪ Ceratohyoid→ is a small, short, tapered rod having a distal extremity which is about as large as its
proximal extremity; articulates with the basihyoid and the thyrohyoid; the proximal extremity articulates
with the epihyoid.
▪ Epihyoid→ parallel to the thyrohyoid bone; articulates with the ceratohyoid distally and with stylohyoid
proximally.
▪ Stylohyoid→ slightly longer than the epihyoid, with which it
articulates.
▪ Tympanohyoid cartilage→ is a small cartilaginous bar which continues the proximal end of the
stylohyoid to the mastoid process of the skull.
• The Vertebral Column (Spine/Backbone) o Consists of approx. 50 irregular bones (vertebrae) which
protects the spinal cords, supports the head and serves as
attachment for the muscles effecting body movements. o It extends from the skull through the tail; the
joints formed by the vertebrae allow a great amount of movement. o Vertebrae- the irregularly-shaped
bones making up the spinal column. They are arranged in five groups:
▪ Cervical (neck), Thoracic (cranial back), Lumbar (loin) and Caudal/Coccygeal (tail)
vertebrae.
▪ Each group is represented by its first letter followed by the number representing how many are in
each section.
▪ C7 T13 L7 S3 Cd20-23→ vertebral formula of the
dog
▪ All the vertebrae except the sacral vertebrae remain separated and articulate with contiguous vertebrae
forming movable joints.
▪ Sacrum→ a single bone formed by the fused three sacral vertebrae. o
Structure of a typical vertebra: body, arch, vertebral foramen and
processes.
▪ Body- thick, constricted centrally; has slightly convex cranial articular surface and a centrally,
depressed concave caudal articular surface. o Intervertebral fibrocartilage (disc)→ connects the bodies
of adjacent vertebrae. o Pulpy nucleus (nucleus pulposus)→ at the center of the disc. o Fibrous ring
(annulus fibrosus)→ at the outer portion of the disc; attaches firmly to adjacent vertebrae.
▪ Vertebral arch (neural arch) - the dorsal part of a vertebra arising from the body; consists of two upright
pedicles f orming the walls of the vertebral foramen and two laminae projecting to the midline and forming
the roof of the vertebral foramen; together with the body, forms the vertebral foramen. o Vertebral
foramina→ forms the vertebral canal; the space formed by the vertebral arch and the body. o Vertebral
canal→ formed in the live animal by all the vertebral foramina housing the spinal cord. o Cranial
vertebral notch o Caudal vertebral notch o Intervertebral foramina→ the opening between vertebrae
formed by the caudal and cranial notches of adjacent
vertebra; allow passage of the spinal
nerves.
▪ Processes (7) - provide sites for muscle attachment; the others form synovial joints with adjacent
vertebrae. 1. Spine (Spinous process) - the dorsal projection of the vertebral arch; formed at the midline
by the right and left
lamina of the dorsal part of vertebral arch. 2. Transverse process- lateral extension of the vertebral arch;
irregularly shaped lateral projection from the region where the pedicle joins the vertebral body; divides
the muscles of the back into dorsal (epaxial) and ventral (hypaxial) groups.
▪ Transverse foramen- at the root of the transverse processes in the cervical region, dividing the
process into dorsal and ventral parts.

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3. Articular processes (4) - paired; present at both the articular cranial and the caudal surface of a
vertebra, at the
junction of the root and lamina.
▪ Cranial process (prezygaphosis) - faces craniodorsally or medially.
▪ Caudal process (postzygaphosis) - faces caudoventrally or laterally. o CERVICAL VERTEBRAE
(Cervix, neck) - seven in number in most mammals, characterized by a transverse foramen ( except for
C7); the first two (Atypical), differing greatly from each other and also from all other vertebrae, can be
readily recognized.
▪ Atlas o The first cervical vertebra, named for its support of the head; atypical in both structure and
function (reduction
of a body and absence of spinous process). o It articulates with the skull cranially and with the axis
caudally. o Chief peculiarities:
1. Modified articular processes which cup the exoccipital condyles 2. Winglike lateral expansions 3. Lack
of spinous process 4. Reduction of its body (formed by the ventral arch). o Massae laterales→ the thick
lateral portions of the atlas. o Ventral arch→ the portion of the atlas replacing the body of other
vertebrae. o Wings (alae)→ the large, shelflike modified transverse processes projecting from the lateral
masses. o Dorsal and ventral tubercles→ bifid and conical structures, respectively, found on the
vertebral arch and body. o Cranial articular surface→ two condyloid cavities articulating with the
occipital condyles of the skull forming
the atlanto-occipital joint (yes joint). o Caudal articular surface→ two shallow glenoid cavities articulating
with the axis forming the atlanto-axial
joint (no joint). o Fovea of the dens→ at the dorsal surface of the body of atlas articulating with the dens
of the axis. o Transverse foramen→ a short canal passing obliquely through the transverse process or
wing. o Lateral vertebral foramen→ perforates the craniodorsal part of the vertebral arch. o Cranial and
caudal notches o Atlantal fossae→ depressions ventral to the wings; traversed by the vertebral vein and
artery.
Presents an elongated, dorsal spinous
▪ Axis o Second cervical vertebra/Epistropheus o
process—bladelike cranially and expanded caudally; overhangs the
cranial and caudal articular surfaces of the vertebral body. o Characterized by the DENS (odontoid
process)→ a cranioventral peglike eminence. o Cranial and caudal articular surfaces o Cranial and
caudal vertebral notches
▪ Third, Fourth and Fifth Cervical Vertebrae o o Spinous Strong laminae process on increase the C3,
in but length
gradually from
become C
3-C5.
Tubercles on the caudal articular processes—decreasing

shorter and narrower on the remaining ones. o
o The transverse processes of C5 are the shortest.
in prominence from C3-C7 segment.
▪ Sixth Cervical Vertebra o Possesses a higher spine than the C3, C4 and C5. o
Main peculiarity:
expanded platelike transverse processes.
**In contrast to all other vertebrae, the first six cervical vertebrae are characterized by TRANSVERSE
FORAMEN.
▪ Seventh or Last Cervical Vertebrae o Lacks transverse foramina. o Cervical ribs articulate with the
ends its single-pronged transverse processes. o The spine is the highest of all those on the cervical
vertebrae. o Rib foveae→ appear caudoventral to the caudal vertebral notches. o **Pleurapophyses→
fused ribs represented by the transverse processes of cervical vertebrae. o THORACIC VERTEBRAE
▪ The vertebrae of the thorax, characterized by articular facets (foveae) for the pair of ribs they bear.
▪ Thirteen in number; the first nine are similar, the last four present minor differences from the other.
▪ Bodies are shorter than those of the cervical or lumbar region; slightly less than a third longer than
lumbar region; the pedicles of the vertebral arches are short.
▪ The two costal foveae: o Costal Fovea or DEMIFACET→ two facets for articulation with a rib’s head.
**The heads of the first ribs articulate with the cranial part of the body of T1 and with the fibrocartilage
between C7 and T1.
o Transverse costal fovea→ the facet on the transverse process that articulates with the tubercle of the
same
numbered rib.
▪ Spinous process o The laminae give rise to a spinous process—the most conspicuous feature of the
first nine thoracic vertebrae. o The spine of T11 is nearly perpendicular to the long axis of the bone—the
ANTICLINAL vertebra→ the
transitional segment of the thoracolumbar region. o All the spines caudal to those of T12 and T13 are
directed cranially, whereas the spines of all vertebrae cranial
to T11 are directed caudally .
▪ Transverse processes o Are short, blunt and irregular; all contain foveae for articulation
with the tubercles of the ribs. o These foveae decrease in size and convexity from
T1-T13.
▪ Mamillary processes (Metapophyses) o Small knoblike eminences projecting dorsally from the transverse
processes. o Start at T2 or T3 and continues as paired projections through the remaining part of the
thoracic, lumbar, sacral
and coccygeal regions. o At T11 they become associated with the
cranial articular processes.
▪ Accessory processes (Anapophyses) o Appear first in the midthoracic region and are located on
succeeding segments as far caudally as the L5 or L6
vertebra
e.
▪ Articular processes o Located at the junctions of the
pedicles and the laminae. o LUMBAR VERTEBRAE (Fr.
Lumbus, loin)
▪ The vertebrae (seven in number) of the lumbar (lower back, loin) region, characterized by their large
size and long plate-like transverse process.
▪ Can be distinguished from the last thoracic vertebrae by their lack of costal
facets.
▪ Spinous processes- are highest and most massive in the midlumbar
region.
▪ Transverse processes- are directed cranially and slightly ventrally; longest in the midlumbar
region.
▪ Accessory processes- are well-developed on the first three or four lumbar vertebrae and absent on the
fifth or sixth.
▪ Articular processes- lie mainly in sagittal planes; all cranial articular processes bear mamillary
processes. o SACRAL VERTEBRAE
▪ The bodies and processes fused in the adult to form the SACRUM; the bulk lies between the ilia and
articulates with them.
▪ The body of the first segment is larger than the bodies of the other two segments
combined.
▪ Dorsal surface: o Median sacral crest→ in the dorsal surface representing the fusion of the
three spinous processes. o Dorsal sacral foramina→ transmit dorsal division of sacral
nerves and vessels. o Intermediate sacral crest o Lateral sacral crest o Caudal and cranial
articular processes.
▪ Pelvic surface: o Variable in its degree
of concavity
▪ Wing of the sacrum o The enlarged lateral part which has a large, rough semilunar facet, the auricular
surface which articulates with
the
ilium.
▪ Base of the sacrum o Sacral canal o Promontory→ a transverse ridge at the cranioventral part of the base;
along with the ilia, forms the dorsal boundary of the smallest part of the bony ring, or pelvic inlet, through
which the fetus passes during birth. o Sacrovertebral angle o CAUDAL VERTEBRAE (also coccygeal
vertebrae)
▪ Is usually 20—may vary from 6 to
23.
▪ Body
▪ Vertebral arch→ first develop in the first caudal segment; cranial articular processes have lost their
articular function; mamillary process; caudal articular processes.
▪ Hemal arches→ are present as separate bones which articulate with the ventral surface of the caudal
ends of the bodies of the Cd4-Cd6; slope caudally and are shaped like a V or Y, they protect the median
coccygeal artery; caudally are the paired hemal processes which are the last processes to disappear.
• THE THORAX o The bony cavity formed by the sternum, the ribs, the costal cartilages, and the bodies
of the thoracic vertebrae.
• The Ribs (Costae) o The long, curved bones forming the lateral wall of
the thorax; 13 pairs in dog. o Divided into:
▪ Bony part→ at the dorsal part, laterally and caudally
convex.
▪ Cartilaginous part→ at the ventral part. o True ribs (STERNAL)→ articulate directly by their
costal cartilage with the sternum. o False ribs (ASTERNAL)→ all ribs that are not true ribs; their
costal cartilages unite to form the costal arch.
▪ Floating ribs→ last false ribs (dog & man); end in costal cartilage not joining to sternum or other costal
cartilage. o Structure of a typical rib: vertebral and sternal extremities plus an intermediate body or shaft.
▪ Vertebral extremity 1. Head→ has a wedge-shaped articular surface articulating with adjacent costal foveae
of thoracic vertebrae and
intervening fibrocartilage. 2.
Neck

CVM-USM
3. Tubercle→ bears an articular facet for articulation with the transverse process of the vertebra of the
same number; Costotransverse foramen→ the space between the neck and tubercle of the rib and the
body of the vertebra.
▪ Body- is cylindrical and slightly enlarged at the costochondral junction. 1. Angle→an indistinct lateral
eminence distal to the tubercle. 2. Costal groove→ on the inner surface, for the intercostal vessels and
nerve.
▪ Costal cartilage- the cartilaginous cylindrical distad continuation of the bony rib; the costal cartilages of
the tenth, eleventh and twelfth are long, slender rods each joined to the one above by connective tissue
to form the costal arch. **The costal cartilages of the tenth, eleventh and twelfth ribs unite with the
cartilage of the rib above to form the c ostal arch. * *The ninth ribs are the longest, with the longest costal
cartilages. o Intercostal space→ the space between adjacent ribs; are two or three times as wide as the
adjacent ribs.
• The Sternum o An unpaired segmental series of eight bones (sternebrae; sternal segments) forming
the floor of the thorax. o Slightly turned up in front and turned down behind. o Intersternebral
cartilages→ short blocks of cartilage joining the consecutive sternebrae. o Manubrium sterni
(Presternum; L. handle)→ the first sternebra; is longer than the others. o Xiphoid process (G. xiphos,
sword)→ the last sternebra; is wide horizontally and thin vertically. o Xiphoid cartilage→ a thin
cartilaginous plate prolonging the xiphoid process caudally.
• THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON o Bones of the Thoracic/Pectoral Limb
▪ Pectoral girdle- clavicle and scapula
▪ Arm or brachium- humerus
▪ Forearm or antebrachium- radius and ulna
▪ Forepaw or manus- wrist/carpus, metacarpals, phalanges and palmar sesamoid bones.
THORACIC GIRDLE (Shoulder Girdle) 1. Two scapulae **The girdle connects the bones of the arm
to the axial skeleton by 2. Clavicle m uscular attachments (SYNSARCOSIS), and not by an
articulation. 3. Coracoid
o CLAVICLE
▪ Is not articulated with the skeleton.
▪ Located at the tendinous intersection of the brachiocephalicus muscle; over 1 cm long, thin and slightly
concave both longitudinally and transversely. o SCAPULA (Shoulder Blade)
▪ The large triangular, flat bone of the shoulder; the highest part lies just below the level of the free end of
the spine of T1 or T2.
Surfaces Borders Angles LATERAL
• Spine of the scapula
• Acromion
• Supraspinous fossa
• Infraspinous fossa
CRANIAL
MEDIAL
• Facies serrata
• Subscapular fossa
CRANIAL
• Scapular notch
DORSAL
CAUDAL
• Scapular cartilage
CAUDAL
• Infraglenoid tubercle
VENTRAL
• Glenoid Cavity
• Supraglenoid tuberosity
• Coracoid process
▪ Lateral Surface: o Spine of the scapula→ the long projection of a bone dividing the lateral surface into
two nearly equal fossae;
it’s the most prominent feature of the lateral surface of the bone. o Acromion (hamate process)→ the
expanded distal end of the spine of the scapula. o Supraspinous fossa→ the area cranial to the spine;
bounded by the cranial surface of the scapular spine and the
adjacent lateral surface of the scapula. o Infraspinous fossa→ the area caudal to the spine; triangular.
▪ Medial/Costal Surface: o Lies opposite the first five ribs and the adjacent four or five thoracic
vertebrae. o Facies serrata→ a small dorsocranial rectangular area. o Subscapular fossa→ the large
remaining part of the surface, nearly flat and presents three relatively straight
muscular lines which converge toward the distal end of the bone.
▪ Cranial Border:
o Thin except at extremities; distally, smoother and thicker; proximally, rougher ang thicker. o Scapular
notch→ a concavity at the distal part marking the position of the constricted part of the bone.
▪ Dorsal/Vertebral Border: o The Base; extends between the cranial and caudal angles. o Scapular
cartilage→ a narrow band capping this border and represents the unossified part of the bone.
▪ Caudal Border: o The thickest of the three borders and bears the infraglenoid tubercle. o Infraglenoid
tubercle→ a projection just dorsal to the ventral angle; located largely on the costal surface of the
bone and is thicker than the border.
▪ Caudal Angle: o Is obtuse as it unites the adjacent thick and caudal border with the thinner, rougher,
gently convex vertebral
border (origin of the teres major muscle).
▪ Cranial Angle: o Unites the cranial border to the dorsal (vertebral) border; no muscles attach directly
to the cranial angle.
▪ Ventral Angle: o Formerly called the articular, glenoid, or lateral angle o Forms the expanded distal
end of the scapula. o It’s the most important part of the bone, since it contains the glenoid cavity. o
Glenoid cavity→ receives the head of the humerus in forming the shoulder joint; it’s very shallow. o
Supraglenoid tuberosity→the largest tuberosity of the scapula (origin of the tendon of biceps brachii
muscle)
near the cranial aspect of the concavity. o Coracoid process (G. crowlike)→ a remnant of the coracoid
bone, it’s a beaklike process on the medial side of
the supraglenoid tubercle.
o HUMERUS (Arm or Brachial Bone)
▪ The largest bone of the thoracic limb.
▪ The bone of the arm or brachium; proximally it articulates with scapula (shoulder joint) and distally with
the radius and ulna (elbow joint).
▪ Divided into a shaft and two extremities.
Proximal Extremity Shaft/Body Distal Extremity
• Head
LATERAL SURFACE
• Humeral condyles (Articular
• Greater tubercle
• Deltoid tuberosity
areas)
• Lesser tubercle
• Tricipital line
• Lateral epicondyle
• Neck
• Brachial (Musculospiral)
• Medial epicondyle
• Intertubercular (Bicipital)
groove
• Lateral epicondylar crest groove
• Radial fossa
• Crest of greater tubercle
MEDIAL SURFACE
• Olecranon fossa
• Tuberosity for teres minor
• Tuberosity for teres major
• Supratrochlear foramen
▪ Proximal Extremity o Head→ oval, being elongated in a sagittal plane, it is the rounded process
articulating with the glenoid cavity
of the scapula. o Lesser (Medial, Minor) tubercle→ the flattened process on the medial side of the head.
o Greater (Lateral, Major) tubercle→ the large process craniolateral to the head; a smooth convex
summit higher
than the head. o Intertubercular groove (Bicipital groove)→ distal to the head; a sulcus between
tubercles. o Neck of the humerus→ distinct only caudally and laterally, it indicates the line of fusion of
the head and the
tubercles with shaft.
▪ Body of the humerus→ or the shaft, is the long, slightly sigmoid-shaped part of the humerus which
unites the two extremities; posseses lateral and medial surfaces. o Lateral surface:
1. Tricipital line→ formerly the anconeal line; begins at the head caudal to the greater tubercle and
extends
caudally to the deltoid tuberosity. 2. Deltoid tuberosity→ the most prominent feature of the lateral surface
of the humerus, it is the large
tuberosity on the cranio-LATERAL side. 3. Brachial (musculospiral) groove→ forms the smooth, flat to
convex, lateral surface of humerus. o Medial surface:
1. Crest of lesser tubercle (insertion for coracobrachialis muscle). 2. Tuberosity for the teres major
(insertion for teres major and latissimus dorsi muscles) . o Cranial surface:
1. Crest of greater tubercle (insertion for superficial pectoral muscle). ✍ Cranial surface begins
proximally at the crest of the greater tubercle → medial to deltoid tuberosity→
cranial end of brachial groove. o Caudal surface:
1. Neck of the humerus ✍ Caudal surface begins at the neck of the humerus→ lateral epicondyloid
crest.
▪ Distal Extremity
o Humeral condyle- the distal end of the humerus including its articular areas, the adjacent fossae and
the two
epicondyles. 1. Capitulum humeri→ a small, lateral a rticular area for articulation with the head of the
radius. 2. Trochlea humeri→ a much larger, medially located pulley-shaped part extending proximally
into the
adjacent fossae; articulates with the trochlear notch of the ulna. o Lateral epicondyle (extensor
epicondyle)→ the enlarged part in the lateral side of the humeral condyle.
▪ Lateral epicondylar crest→ extends proximally from the lateral epicondyle. o Medial epicondyle (flexor
epicondyle)→ larger than the lateral epicondyle, it is the medial-most point of the
humerus. o Olecranon fossa→ a deep excavation of the caudal part of the distal extremity of the
humerus; it receives the
anconeal process of the ulna; it is covered by the anconeus muscle. o Radial fossa (coronoid fossa)→
opposite the olecranon fossa. o Supratrochlear foramen→ the means by which the olecranon and radial
fossae communicate with each other;
nothing passes through it.
o RADIUS ((L. spoke of a wheel)
▪ The main weight-supporting bone of the forearm; shorter than the ulna and serves primarily for muscle
attachment.
▪ It articulates with the humerus and ulna (elbow joint) proximally and the carpal bones and ulna
(antebrachiocarpal joint) distally.
▪ It is divided into: proximal and distal extremities with a shaft or body.
• Head (articular fovea, articular circumference)
• Neck
• Carpal articular surface
• Ulnar notch
• Styloid process
• Three grooves (cranial aspect; dorsal surface)
▪ Proximal Extremity o Head→ irregularly oval in outline as it extends transversely across the proximal
end of the bone.
1. Articular fovea→ concave and articulates with the capitulum of the humerus; bears practically all the
weight transmitted from the arm to the forearm. 2. Articular circumference→ is a caudal, smooth,
osseous band on the head for articulation with the radial
notch of the ulna. o Neck→ the constricted segment of the radius which joins the head to the body.
▪ Body or shaft presents two surfaces (cranial/caudal) and two borders (lateral/medial). o Radial
tuberosity→ a small projection distal to the neck on the medial border and adjacent caudal surface.
▪ Distal Extremity is the most massive part of the bone. o Carpal articular surface→ the trochlea at the
distal surface articulates with the carpal bones. o Ulnar notch→ at the lateral surface articulates with
articular circumference of the ulna. o Styloid process→ medially, it extends distal to the main carpal
articular surface in the form of a sharp, wedge-
shaped projection. o Cranial Aspect presents three grooves:
1. Medial groove→ the most medial, short and distinct (for the tendon of abductor pollicis longus) 2.
Middle groove→ the largest (for the tendon of the extensor carpi radialis) 3. Lateral groove→ the most
lateral groove (for the tendon extensor digitorum communis)
o ULNA (L. elbow)
▪ The long, thin bone; the longest bone in the body.
▪ For muscle attachment and articulation.
▪ Proximally i t articulates with humerus and radius; distally with the radius and carpal bones.
▪ Two extremities plus a body.
• Olecranon
• Anconeal process
• Trochlear (Semilunar) notch
• Coronoid (Medial/Lateral) process
• Radial notch
Two surfaces (cranial & caudal) Two borders (lateral & medial)
• Radial tuberosity
Cranial surface
• Articular circumference
• Interosseous border
• Styloid process Caudal border Caudal surface
• Ulnar tuberosity Medial Border Lateral Border
▪ Proximal Extremity o Olecranon→ provides lever arm (tension process) for the extensor muscles of
the elbow; it forms the POINT
OF THE ELBOW. o Anconeal process → the proximal e nd of the trochlear notch which fits in the
olecranon fossa of the humerus
during elbow extension. o Trochlear (Semilunar) notch → smooth, vertical, half-moon shaped concavity
facing cranially and ends in the
anconeal process; articulates with humerus.
o Coronoid process → the large distal end of the trochlear notch, divided into medial and lateral
projections
(articular). o Radial notch → articulates with the articular circumference of
the radius.
▪ Body/Shaft is compressed laterally in its proximal third, three-sided throughout its middle third, and
cylindrical in its distal end. o Cranial surface→ rough and convex for the attachment of the interosseous
ligament.
1. Interosseous border→ o Caudal
border→ smooth and concave. o
Caudal surface
1. Ulnar tuberosity→ roughened part located near the proximal end of the caudal surface just distal
to the
trochlear notch. o Medial
and lateral borders
▪ Distal Extremity is separated from the body of the bone by a notch in its cranial border. o Articular
circumference → distal to the notch and articulates with the ulnar notch of the radius. o Styloid process
→ the pointed, distal end of the ulna; has two facets for articulation– with ulnar carpal bone
and accessory carpal bone. o Interosseous space → the space
between the ulna and the radius.
Always remember these important landmarks in the radius and ulna

that connect them together!
Radius and Ulna Connection Radius Ulna
Proximal radioulnar joint A rticular circumference Radial notch Distal

lnar notch Articular circumference
radioulnar joint U
o THE FOREPAW (Manus)
▪ Carpus (wrist) → carpal
bones
▪ Metacarpus → metacarpal
bones
▪ Phalanges Sesamoid
bones o Carpus
nd the associated sesamoid
▪ Includes the carpal bones a
bones.
▪ The compound joint formed by these
bones.
▪ The region between the forearm and
metacarpus. o CARPAL BONES (7)
Proximal Row Distal Row

• Radial carpal (Scaphoid) (Trapezoideum)
• First carpal (Trapezium) • Accessory carpal (Pisiforme)
• Ulnar carpal (Triquetrum) • Third carpal (Capitatum)
• Second carpal
• Fourth carpal (Hamatum) **In dogs, the intermediate
carpal bone is fused with the radial carpal bone, thus the other name for the bone is intermedioradial
carpal bone.
▪ Radial Carpal (SCAPHOID) o The largest carpal bone located on the

medial side of the proximal row. o The proximal s urface articulates
with the distal end of the radius. o The distal s urface articulates with
all four carpal bones. o Laterally articulates with the ulnar carpal.
▪ Ulnar Carpal (TRIQUETRUM) o Lateral bone of the proximal
row; smaller than radial carpal. o Proximally a rticulates
rticulates with fourth
with ulna and radius. o Distally a
carpal and fifth metacarpal. o Medially a rticulates with
radial carpal. o On the palmar side, with accessory carpal.
▪ Accessory Carpal (PISIFORME) o A truncated bone
located behind (palmar) the carpus. o Articulates
with the ulnar carpal.
▪ First carpal bone (TRAPEZIUM) o The smallest carpal bone. o It articulates with the
palmaromedial surfaces of the second carpal and the base of metacarpal II. o Proximally
articulates with radial carpal and distally with metacarpal I.
▪ Second carpal bone (TRAPEZOIDEUM) o A small,
wedge-shaped, proximodistally compressed bone. o Proximally
articulates with the radial carpal. o Distally with metacarpal II. o
ith first carpal. KHAN
ith third carpal. o Medially w
Laterally w
LAMANERO JUNATAS, DVM Department of Basic
Veterinary Sciences, CVM-USM
▪ Third carpal bone (CAPITATUM) o Larger than the second carpal. o Its
large palmar projection articulates with three middle metacarpal bones.
o Medially articulates with second carpal. o Laterally articulates with
rticulates with radial carpal. o Distally
fourth carpal. o Proximally a
articulates with metacarpal III.
▪ Fourth carpal bone (HAMATUM) o The largest
rticulates with
bone of the distal row. o Distally a
metacarpals IV and V. o Medially w ith the third
carpal. o Proximomedially w ith radial carpal. o
Metacarpus
▪ The region of the manus located between the carpus and
digits.
▪ Has five metacarpal bones numbered I-V from medial to
lateral.
▪ Each bone is composed of a base (articulates with carpus), a head (articulates with proximal phalanx of
a digit) and a shaft.
▪ Two sesamoid bones with each
bone.
▪ First Metacarpal Bone o The shortest and most slender of the metacarpal bones. o It bears the first digit.
o Proximally articulates with first carpal. o Laterally articulates with second metacarpal. o Distally, its
trochlea articulates with the proximal phalanx of the first digit and a single palmar sesamoid bone.
▪ Metacarpal bones II-V o The main metacarpal bones; irregular rods
with a uniform diameter. o Digits
▪ The digital skeleton of the forepaw; five units (I-V) numbered from medial to lateral; four are fully
developed and one is rudimentary.
▪ Generally consist of three phalanges and sesamoid bones.
1. Proximal phalanx 2. Middle phalanx 3. Distal phalanx
▪ Proximal Phalanx o The first phalanx divided into the base,
body and head. o From II to V is a medium-length rod with
enlarged extremities.
▪ Middle Phalanx o The second phalanx with the same structure as the proximal
phalanx, but shorter. o It is not present in the first digit.
▪ Distal Phalanx o The third phalanx that is approx. of the same size in all
four main digits. o Carries the horny claw. o Flexor process → on the
palmar side o Extensor process → dorsal proximal part.
▪ The DEWCLAW o T he 1st digit (proximal and distal) and the first
metacarpal bone. o SESAMOID BONES
▪ Palmar sesamoid bones → on the palmar surface of each metacarpophalangeal joint of the
main digits.
▪ Distal sesamoid bones → represented by cartilages and rarely
ossify.
• BONES OF THE PELVIC LIMB o Pelvic girdle

(Os coxae) o Thigh (Femur) o Stifle (Patella,
Fabellae) o Leg or crus (Tibia and Fibula) o Pes
(Tarsal, Metatarsals, Digits, Sesamoid bones) o
The PELVIC GIRDLE (Bony Pelvis)
▪ Encloses the pelvic cavity—pelvic inlet (cranial opening) & pelvic outlet (caudal opening).
1. Two hip bones (ossa coxarum) 2. Sacrum 3. First few caudal vertebrae o OS COXAE
(Hip Bone)
▪ The fused (12th postnatal week) ilium, ischium, pubis and
acetabulum.
▪ The two hip bones (ossa coxarum) are joined at the pelvic
symphysis. o Ilium
▪ The largest and most cranial of the bones of the os
coxae.
▪ Consists of: Body and Wing
▪ Body (Cranial Border) o Iliac crest → forms a cranially protruding arc; ventral half is thin, the dorsal half
is increasing in thickness.
▪ Body (Dorsal border) KHAN
LAMANERO JUNATAS, DVM Department of
Basic Veterinary Sciences, CVM-USM
o Greater ischiatic notch → a concave in the caudal half of the dorsal border. o Ischiatic spine → a
convex that is continues with the dorsal border of the ilium with dorsal border of the
ischium; it separates the greater and lesser ischiatic
notches.
▪ Tuber Sacrale → the medial process of the wing next to the sacrum.
1. Caudal dorsal iliac spine 2. Cranial dorsal iliac spine
▪ Tuber Coxae → the palpable prominence on the lateral wing.
1. Cranial ventral iliac spine 2. Caudal ventral iliac spine
▪ Wing o Gluteal surface → faces laterally and slightly upward. o Sacropelvic surface → the auricular surface
articulating with the sacrum (sacroiliac joint). o Iliac tuberosity → rough, slightly protruding eminence of
the sacropelvic surface located dorsal to auricular
surface. o Iliac surface → nearly square, flat area cranial to the
auricular surface. o Arcuate line → from the auricular surface to the
iliopubic eminence. o Ischium
▪ The caudal most part of the os
coxae.
▪ It enters into the formation of the acetabulum, obturator foramen and symphysis
pelvis.
▪ Consists of: 1. BODY
2. RAMUS 3.
TUBEROSITY
▪ Body is lateral to the obturator foramen. o Ischiatic
spine o Lesser ischiatic notch→ caudal to the
ischiatic spine.
▪ Ramus joins the body at a right angle to form the following: o Ischiatic table →
facing dorsally. o Ischiatic arch → joined by the joining of the caudomedial
parts of the two ischii.
▪ Tuberosity o Ischiatic TUBEROSITY → the thick, caudal part (ventral surface in particular) of the ischium
giving rise to
the hamstring muscles of the
thigh. o Pubis
f the os coxae, extending from the ilium and ischium laterally to the symphysis
▪ The cranioventral part o
pubis medially.
▪ Consists of a central body and two branches
(rami).
▪ Body o The central part of the bone forming the cranial border of the obturator foramen; fuses side by side
to form the
symphysis
pubis.
▪ Ramus o Cranial ramus → forms a part of the acetabulum. o Iliopubic eminence → at the cranial end of the
ramus as it joins the ilium. o Caudal ramus → medial to the obturator foramen; it extends to the ischium,
where it fuses without
demarcation. o Iliopectineal eminence → on the cranial border of the bone as it
joins the ilium. o Pubic tubercle → on the ventral surface of the pubic symphysis.
o Pecten → the medial part of the arcuate line on the cranial border of the pubis.
o Acetabulum (L. vinegar cup)
▪ The deep concavity articulating with the femoral
head.
▪ Formed by the fusion of the ilium, ischium, pubis and acetabular bones. o Lunate surface → the smooth
articular circumference which is deficient over the medial portion of the
acetabulum. o Acetabular notch → indentation at the medial part of the acetabulum. o Acetabular fossa →
the quadrangular, non-articular, thin, depressed area extending laterally from the
acetabular notch. o Acetabular bones → located on the floor of the acetabulum; it becomes incorporated
with the larger bones
during the 7th postnatal week.
o PELVIC CAVITY
▪ Must be large enough to allow for the passage of the young during
parturition.
▪ Cranial pelvic aperture (Pelvic Inlet): 1.
Promontory of the sacrum (dorsal) 2. Cranial
border of the pubis or pecten (ventral) 3.
Arcuate line (bilateral)
▪ Caudal pelvic aperture (Pelvic Outlet): 1. First caudal vertebra
(dorsal) 2. Sacrotuberous ligament (bilateral) 3. Tuber ischiadicum
(ventral) and the ischiatic arch in between them. o Obturator
Foramen
▪ The large oval to triangular opening in the floor of the os
coxae. o Symphysis pelvis K HAN LAMANERO JUNATAS,
DVM Department of Basic Veterinary Sciences, CVM-USM
▪ Median synostosis formed by the right and left pubic and ischial bones. 1. Symphysis pubis (cranially)
2. Symphysis ischii (caudally) o FEMUR (Thigh bone)
▪ The heaviest bone in the skeleton.
▪ It articulates proximally with the hipbone (hip joint) and distally with the tibia (stifle joint).
▪ Extremities and a Shaft Proximal Extremity Shaft/Body Distal Extremity
• Head
Lateral and medial surfaces
• Medial and Lateral Condyles
• Fovea capitis femoris
CRANIAL
(G. Knuckles)
• Neck
• Line of vastus lateralis
• Intercondylar fossa
• Greater trochanter
• Line of vastus medius
• Femoral trochlea (Patellar
• Lesser trochanter
CAUDAL
surface)
• Intertrochanteric crest
• Femoral lips (Medial &
• Medial and Lateral
• Third trochanter
Lateral)
Epicondyles
• Transverse line
• Popliteal surface
• Extensor fossa
• Trochanteric surface
• Medial and Lateral supracondylar tuberosities
▪ Proximal Extremity o Head→ a smooth, nearly hemispherical process articulating with the
acetabulum of the os coxae. o Fovea capitis femoris→ a small, indistinct, circular pit on the medial part
of the head for the round ligament of
the femur. o Neck → joins the head to the body of the femur. o Greater (Major, Lateral) Trochanter →
the largest tuber of the proximal extremity lateral to the head and neck. o Trochanteric fossa →
depression on the caudal aspect of the femur between the trochanters. o Lesser (Minor, Medial)
Trochanter→ distinct, pyramid-shaped eminence distal to the head. o Intertrochanteric crest→ a low but
wide arciform crest connecting the lesser trochanter with the greater
trochanter. o Third Trochanter→ the prominence on the lateral side, distal to the greater trochanter. o
Transverse Line→ dorsally arched and runs from the femoral head across the cranial surface of the
intertrochanteric crest to the greater trochanter.
▪ Shaft/Body o Cranial, lateral and medial surfaces are not distinct from each other but the caudal
surface is flatter than the
others. o Caudal surface
▪ Facies aspera→ finely roughened surface bounded by the medial and lateral lips (femoral lips)
diverging proximally and laterally.
▪ Popliteal surface→ sagittally concave, transversely flat area enclosed distally by the femoral lips.
▪ Trochanteric surface→ flat surface proximally enclosed by the femoral lips.
▪ Distal Extremity is quadrangular and protrudes caudally. o Lateral Condyle→ convex in both the
sagittal and the transverse plane. o Medial Condyle→ smaller and less convex in both the transverse
and the sagittal plane.
** Each condyle articulates with the tibia and the menisci. **On the caudal proximal surfaces are facets
for articulation of the medial and lateral fabellae. o Femoral trochlea (Patellar surface) → smooth, wide
groove on the cranial surface of the distal extremity
articulating with the patella or knee cap; bounded by medial and lateral ridges. o Medial and Lateral
Epicondyles → proximal and cranial to the condyles serving for the proximal attachment
of the medial and lateral collateral ligaments of the stifle joint. o Extensor Fossa → a small depression
(pit) between the junction of the lateral ridge of the patellar surface and
the lateral epicondyle. o Medial and Lateral supracondylar tuberosities → tubercles at the proximal edge
of the popliteal surface. o Sesamoid bones in the Stifle Joint of Dog
1. Patella (L.
The largest sesamoid
1. Base → is blunt and Little plate; Knee
bone of the body; ovate in
faces proximally. cap)
shape and curved so as to
2. Apex → distally articulate with the patellar
located and is slightly surface of the femur.
3. Articular surface 2. Fabellae Two sesamoid bones
located in the heads of the gastrocnemius muscle 3. Third
Associated with the Sesamoid bone
tendon of the popliteus m uscle.
o TIBIA (Shin bone)
▪ A long, strong bone lying on the medial part of the crus or true leg.
▪ Proximally articulates with the femur, distally with the tarsus, and laterally with the fibula. KHAN
LAMANERO JUNATAS, DVM Department of Basic Veterinary Sciences, CVM-USM

• Lateral and medial • Cranial and caudal
condyles (Articular areas) intercondyloid areas
• Intercondyloid eminences • Medial and lateral
intercondylar tubercles eral surfaces
• Tibial tuberosity audal, medial and
• Cranial border (Tibial crest) eral surfaces
• Popliteal notch audal, medial and
• Cochlea eral surfaces
• Medial malleolus Medial, interosseous and
• Caudal, medial and anial borders
CVM-USM
▪ Proximal Extremity o Proximal Articular Surface (Lateral and Medial Condyles) → extending from the
margin of the base on each side of a central elevation; the articular areas are separated by a sagittal,
non-articular strip, and two intercondyloid eminences; articulates with the femoral condyles and
fibrocartilage discs (medial/lateral menisci). o Intercondyloid eminences→ low but stout divided
eminence between the medial and lateral tibial condyles. o Medial and lateral intercondylar tubercles o
Cranial intercondyloid areas → the oval, depressed area cranial to the intercondyloid eminences. o
Caudal intercondyloid areas → the smaller, depressed area caudal to the eminences o Popliteal notch
→ caudally between the condyles. o Tibial tuberosity→ the large quadrangular proximal cranial process
where quadriceps muscles and the patellar
ligaments are being attached. o Cranial border→ formerly the tibial crest; extending distally from the tibial
tuberosity; also for muscle
attachment. o Extensor groove→ is a smaller notch which cuts into the lateral condyle as far as the articular
area. o Facies articularis fibularis→ on the caudolateral surface of the lateral condyle for articulation
with the head of
the
fibula.
▪ Body o Caudal, medial, and lateral surfaces/ medial, interosseous and cranial
borders
▪ Distal extremity o Distal articular surface or COCHLEA → two nearly, sagittal grooves receiving the ridges
of the proximal
trochlea of the tibial tarsal bone. o Medial malleolus → the whole medial part of the tibia with a cranial part
formed by a stout pyramid-shaped
proces
s.
o FIBULA (L. Pin or skewer, calf

bone)
▪ A long, thin bone bearing little weight and is situated along the lateral border of the tibia, from which it is
separated by the interosseous space of the leg; much more slender and does not articulate with the
femur.
▪ Mainly for muscle attachment.
▪ Divided into: body/shaft, lateral malleolus, or distal extremity o Facies articularis capitis fibulae→ small facet
at the proximal head; articulates with a similar one on the
caudolateral part of the lateral condyle of the tibia. o
Lateral m alleolus→ the distal end of the fibula
o The HINDPAW
▪ Tarsal bones
▪ Metatarsal bones
▪ Digits
▪ Sesamoid
bones o TARSUS
(Hock)
▪ Consists of seven tarsal
bones.
Proximal Row Central Part Distal Row

• Tibial tarsal (Talus, Ankle al tarsal • First tarsal
bone) • Second tarsal
• Fibular tarsal (Calcaneus, • Third tarsal
Heel bone) • Fourth tarsal
▪ Proximal Row o Talus (L. Ankle bone, tibial tarsal) → the largest bone of the tarsus situated at the tibial
(medial) side and has a
trochlea for articulation with the distal end of the tibia. o Calcaneus (L. Heel, fibular tarsal) → situated at the
fibular (lateral) side, has a process, the calcaneal tuber,
which projects proximally and plantarly and constitutes a lever for the muscles which extend the
hock joint.
▪ Central tarsal bone → lies on the medial part of the tarsus between the proximal and
distal rows.
▪ Proximal row o First tarsal bone → articulates with central tarsal, second tarsal, and
the first metatarsal. o Second tarsal bone → the smallest of the tarsal bones.
o Third tarsal bone → nearly three times larger and two times longer than the second tarsal bone. o
Fourth tarsal bone → articulates with the central (slopes upward and outward) and third (downward and
inward) tarsals medially. o Metatarsus (Metatarsal bones)
▪ First metatarsal
▪ Metatarsal bones II, III, IV and V 1. Proximal base 2. Shaft/body 3. Head o Digits and sesamoid
bones are described similarly in the thoracic limbs.
BRIEF COMPARATIVE REVIEW OF THE LIMB BONES
THORACIC LIMB PELVIC LIMB Scapula (girdle) Hip bone (girdle) Humerus
• Head and neck of the humerus
• Greater & Lesser tubercles
• Intertubercular groove
• Lateral epicondylar crest
• Humeral condyles (Trochlea and Capitulum)
Femur
• Head (with fovea) and neck of the femur
• Greater, Lesser & Third trochanters
• Intertrochanteric crest/Trochanteric fossa
• Lateral (medial) supracondylar tuberosities
• Femoral Condyles (the trochlea is the surface for the patellar bone and not a part of the condyle) Radius
• Articular fovea and articular circumferences
• Radial tuberosity
• Styloid process of the radius
Tibia • Irregular shaped proximal head with condyles
• Tibial tuberosity
alleolus Ulna • Proximal head is presented with a number of

• Medial m
processes (olecranon→radial notch)
• Styloid process of the ulna
Fibula • Proximal head is smoother and has one articular

surface for attachment with the tibia
• Lateral malleolus Carpals
• Seven carpal bones (proximal and distal rows)
Tarsals
• Seven tarsal bones (proximal and distal rows with one central part) Metacarpals
• Five metacarpal bones
• Always remember the position of the base and the head
Metatarsals
• Five metatarsal bones, the first usually atypical
igits • Five digits

• Always remember the position of the base and the head D
Digits • Five digits (with the true dewclaw)

• SPLANCHNIC/HETEROTOPIC SKELETON o OS Penis or BACULUM
▪ Always present in the male dog; passes through the bulbus glandis. 1. Caudal part (BASE) → truncated
and attached to the tunic of each cavernous body. 2. Cranial part (APEX) → tapers gradually and ends in
cartilaginous tip attaching to corona of the glands. 3. Body → URETHRAL GROOVE, running ventrally
along the base and body of the bone. o OS Clitoridis
▪ The counterpart of the os penis in the bitches.

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General Veterinary Macroscopic Anatomy: Osteology ​| ​4

• ​OSTEOLOGY ​(G. ​Osteon​, bone + ​logos,​ study) - is the study of bones.

• ​External and Internal Structure of bone ​o ​DIAPHYSIS-

• ​Physical Properties of Bone ​o ​One-third organic; two-thirds

​ compact substance (via

• ​Surface Contours of Bone (Bone Markings) ​o ​The

KHAN LAMANERO JUNATAS, DVM

▪ Formerly the Nasal

OPENINGS STRUCTURES PASSING THROUGH Infraorbital foramen Infraorbital nerve

KHAN LAMANERO JUNATAS, DVM

Mental foramen Mandibular alveolar nerve

KHAN LAMANERO JUNATAS, DVM

​ ​Tubercles on the caudal articular processes—decreasing

in prominence from C​3​-C​7 ​segment.

KHAN LAMANERO JUNATAS, DVM

Always remember these important landmarks in the radius and ulna

Radius and Ulna Connection Radius Ulna

Proximal radioulnar joint A ​ rticular circumference Radial notch ​Distal

Proximal Row Distal Row

▪ ​Radial Carpal (SCAPHOID) ​o ​The largest carpal bone located on the

• ​BONES OF THE PELVIC LIMB ​o ​Pelvic girdle

Proximal Extremity Shaft/Body Distal Extremity

o ​FIBULA (L. Pin or skewer, calf

Proximal Row Central Part Distal Row

​ alleolus ​Ulna ​• Proximal head is presented with a number of

Fibula ​• Proximal head is smoother and has one articular

​ igits ​• Five digits

Digits ​• Five digits (with the true dewclaw)

You might also like

General Veterinary Macroscopic Anatomy: Osteology | 4

• OSTEOLOGY (G. Osteon, bone + logos, study) - is the study of bones.

• External and Internal Structure of bone o DIAPHYSIS-

• Physical Properties of Bone o One-third organic; two-thirds

compact substance (via

• Surface Contours of Bone (Bone Markings) o The

Tubercles on the caudal articular processes—decreasing

in prominence from C3-C7 segment.

Proximal radioulnar joint A rticular circumference Radial notch Distal

▪ Radial Carpal (SCAPHOID) o The largest carpal bone located on the

• BONES OF THE PELVIC LIMB o Pelvic girdle

o FIBULA (L. Pin or skewer, calf

alleolus Ulna • Proximal head is presented with a number of

Fibula • Proximal head is smoother and has one articular

igits • Five digits

Digits • Five digits (with the true dewclaw)