Solutions

• Homogeneous mixtures:
– Solutions – ions or molecules (small particles)
Chapter 11 – Colloids – larger particles but still uniform (milk,
fog)

Solutions and
Their Properties

The Solution Process The Solution Process

• During dissolution, some forces are • Solvent-solvent interactions
broken and new forces are created • Solute-solute interactions
• Solvent-solute interactions
∆Hsoln = ∆H1 + ∆H2 + ∆H3

Figure 12.2
3 4

The Solution Process Hot and Cold Packs

• Generally,
• if the solute is more strongly attracted
to the solvent attraction (than to itself –
weak IMF), then dissolution is
favorable; exothermic (∆ ∆Hsoln < 0)
• if the solute is more strongly attracted
to itself (than to the solvent – strong
IMF), then dissolution is not favorable;
endothermic (∆ ∆Hsoln > 0)
• Hot packs – dissolving solid releases
heat
– CaCl2 (s) ∆Hsoln = -81.3 kJ/mol
– MgSO4 (s) ∆Hsoln = -91.2 kJ/mol
• Cold packs – dissolving solid absorbs
heat
– NH4NO3 (s) ∆Hsoln = +25.7 kJ/mol
Ways of Expressing Concentration Concentration Units
• Variety of units • Molarity
– Most commonly used is M (molarity) – Molarity = moles solute / liter solution = mol/L
– Also ppm, mole fraction, molality, and Normality – Depends on temperature; density of liquids
changes with temperature (dH2O at 20oC =
• Qualitative terms relating to solubility 0.9982 g/cm3)
– insoluble, slightly soluble, soluble, very soluble – Molarity:
– <0.1 g/100g >2 g/100 g – Ex: 5.0 g NaCl in water that gives a volume of
251mL
• Other comparative terms: – Ans: 0.34 M NaCl
– dilute, concentrated (solids in liquids)
– miscible, immiscible, partially miscible (liquids in • Mole fraction (X):
liquids) – Mole Fraction = mole A / (mole A + mole B)
– Ex: 5.0 g NaCl in 251 mL water
– Ans: 0.0061 NaCl; 0.994 water
7 8

Concentration Units Types of Solutions

• Mass Percent • Unsaturated solution: contains less solute than it
– Mass Percent = (mass of solute / mass of solution) has the capacity to dissolve
x 100%
– Ex: 5.0 g of NaCl in 251 mL water • Saturated solution: contains the maximum amount
– Ans: 2.0 % NaCl of solute that will dissolve in a given solvent at a
specific temperature
• Molality
– molality = moles solute / kilograms solvent = • Supersaturated solution: contains more solute than
mol/kg is present in a saturated solution
– Independent of temperature because masses do
not change with temperature • Crystallization: process in which a dissolved
– Ex: 5.0 g NaCl in 251 mL water solute comes out of solution and forms crystals
– Ans: 0.34 m NaCl

Supersaturated Solution Supersaturated Solution

Acetate
Solid Solubility and Temperature Effect of Temperature on Solubility
• Solubility of ionic compounds in water generally • The solubility of gases in water decreases with
increases with higher water temps increasing temperature. Why?
• Solubility goes to 0 at boiling point of water.

Figure 11.6 14

Effect of Pressure on Solubility Effect of Pressure on Solubility

• Strong effect only for gases dissolved in • Henry’s Law: concentration (solubility) of a gas in a
liquid is proportional to the pressure of the gas over
liquids.
the solution
• What happens to the amount of dissolved • Why does a soft drink fizz when the
solute when pressure is increased (2nd container is opened?
picture)?
Figure 11.8

More dilute solution More concentrated solution

15 16

Molarity to molality Colligative Properties

Remember the distinction between molarity (M) and molality (m) • Colligative properties: depend only on the number of
solute particles in solution and not on the nature of the
solute particles. The particles may be covalent
M= Moles of solute
L of solution m= Moles of solute
kg of solvent
molecules or ionic compounds. (We’ll only deal with
covalent molecules.)

To do these calculations, you must have one extra

piece of information: density • Colligative means “depending on the collection”
– Examples: vapor pressure
What is the molality of a 0.123 M HCl(aq) solution? boiling point
The density of the solution is 1.030 g/mL. freezing point
osmosis / osmotic pressure
What is the molarity of a 3.21 m KOH(aq) solution?
(density of solution = 1.163 g/mL)
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Vapor Pressure Lowering Vapor Pressure Lowering
• Adding a solute to a solvent lowers the • Pvap is lowered because fewer surface positions are
Pvap occupied by solvent molecules and because
• Pvap of a solution < Pvap of a pure solvent intermolecular forces in solutions are usually greater
than those in the separated substances.

• Raoult’s Law: partial pressure of a solvent vapor over a

solution is the product of the mole fraction of the
solvent (X1) and the vapor pressure of the solvent
(Po1).
– P1 = X1Po1

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B. P. Elevation/F. P. Depression B. P. Elevation/F. P. Depression

• Phase diagrams can be used to see how • Lower vapor pressure (red lines)
vapor pressure changes cause changes
in boiling and freezing points.

Freezing pure water Freezing solution

Figure 11.12 22

Freezing Point Depression Boiling Point Elevation

• Changes in freezing point are directly proportional to • Changes in boiling point are directly proportional to the
the number of solute particles number of solute particles
• Equations that govern these effects: • Equations that govern these effects:

∆Tf = Kf m ∆Tb = Kb m

∆Tf is the change in normal freezing point ∆Tb is the change in normal boiling point
– Kf is based on the identity of the solvent – Kb is based on the identity of the solvent
– m is molality = moles solute/kg solvent – m is molality = moles solute/kg solvent

• Calculate the freezing point of a solution when 62.345 • Calculate the boiling point of a solution when 62.345 g
g of vinyl chloride (CH2CHCl) is added to 1264 g of vinyl chloride (CH2CHCl) is added to 1264 g
cyclohexane. cyclohexane.

25
B.P. Elevation/F.P. Depression Group Work
• Calculate the molar mass of an unknown
solute when the freezing point of water
is lowered by 7.77°C after 651 g of the
solute is dissolved in 2505 g of water.

• Kb and Kf depend only on the solvent being used

Osmosis – pickling of cucumbers Osmotic Pressure

• Osmosis: selective passage of solvent
molecules through a porous membrane P anim
os

from a dilute solution to a more

concentrated one.
– Semipermeable membrane: allows the passage
of solvent molecules but blocks the passage
of solute molecules.
Π = MRT

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Reverse Osmosis
• Uses high pressure to force water from a more
concentrated solution to a less concentrated one
through a semipermeable membrane. The
membrane allows water
molecules to pass
through but not
dissolved ions.