JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH, VOL. 107, NO. C9, 3135, doi:10.

1029/2000JC000294, 2002

An experimental study of turbulent flow over a low-angle dune

Jim Best
School of Earth Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK

Ray Kostaschuk
Department of Geography, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
Received 24 February 2000; revised 13 August 2001; accepted 28 August 2001; published 24 September 2002.

[1] Many large, sand bed alluvial channels are dominated by dunes that possess low-
angle lee sides, often <10
, which play a critical role in the transportation of sediment and
generation of significant bed form roughness. Despite the fact that these low-angle dunes
are very common in such channels many current models of dune flow dynamics are based
on bed forms with an angle of repose slip face that generates a zone of permanent
separated flow in the dune lee. Study of flow associated with low-angle dunes in the field
is inherently difficult since it is usually both hard to measure very near the bed and hard to
quantify the nature of turbulence over these bed forms. Results from a detailed scale
model experimental study of flow over a low-angle dune, which is based on a prototype
dune from the Fraser River, Canada, present a necessary link between flume and field
studies and document the origins of macroturbulence associated with these bed forms.
Two-dimensional laser Doppler anemometer measurements over a low-angle dune
(maximum lower lee side slope = 14
) show that dune morphology exerts a dominant
control on the turbulent flow, causing flow deceleration in the lower lee and development
of an intermittent layer of shear at the interface with the higher velocity flow above. The
scale model confirms that permanent flow separation does not occur over low-angle dunes
but, instead, is replaced by a small region (here
7% of the dune wavelength in length) of
intermittent flow reversal, which may be present for up to 4% of the time. Shear layers
generated along this small zone of decelerated and/or separated flow in the lower lee have
a much smaller velocity differential than is characteristic of shear layers generated by flow
separation in the lee of angle of repose dunes. Turbulence production associated with low-
angle dunes is dominated by eddies generated along this shear layer, which produce highly
variable horizontal and vertical velocities and large Reynolds stresses in this region. These
results show that macroturbulence associated with low-angle dunes is generated by
intermittent separation or shear layer generation due to velocity gradients established in
the zone of lee side flow expansion. Velocity profiles and maps of turbulence structure
from the scale model are in reasonable agreement with field measurements from low-angle
dunes in natural sand bed rivers. These results highlight the need to consider the temporal
evolution and intermittency of shear layer behavior, often very near the bed, when
interpreting the generation of macroturbulence and dispersal of sediment associated with
low-angle dunes. INDEX TERMS: 1824 Hydrology: Geomorphology (1625); 4235 Oceanography:
General: Estuarine processes; 4568 Oceanography: Physical: Turbulence, diffusion, and mixing processes;
KEYWORDS: dune, low-angle leeside, intermittent flow separation
Citation: Best, J., and R. Kostaschuk, An experimental study of turbulent flow over a low-angle dune, J. Geophys. Res., 107(C9), 3135,
doi:10.1029/2000JC000294, 2002.

1. Introduction
[2] Dunes are ubiquitous bed forms in sand bed rivers
and exert a significant influence on the nature of turbulent
flow, which in turn controls the processes of sediment
erosion, transport, and deposition [Best, 1996]. Although
Copyright 2002 by the American Geophysical Union.
0148-0227/02/2000JC000294
dunes occur in a wide range of shapes and sizes, they are
often described, primarily on the basis of flume experi-
ments, as asymmetric bed forms with long, gently sloping,
upstream facing stoss sides and short, angle of repose lee
sides. Lee side slopes of asymmetric dunes often exceed
25
–30
and generate a well-developed separation zone of
permanent, recirculating flow [Roden, 1998; Kostaschuk,
2000]. However, evidence from field studies suggests that
such asymmetric dunes may be rather uncommon in large

18 - 1
18 - 2 BEST AND KOSTASCHUK: TURBULENT FLOW OVER A LOW ANGLE DUNE
sand bed rivers where most sand is transported in suspen-
sion. In such rivers many dunes have a more symmetric
shape with stoss and lee sides of similar length. Moreover,
the lee sides of these ‘‘symmetric’’ dunes are typically gentle
(usually <10
), with a steeper segment at the base of the
slope that can approach 30
but is usually much less. For
example, Roden [1998, Figure 4.12] measured lee slope
angles of over 500 dunes in the Jamuna River, Bangladesh,
and found that only around 15% had slopes >30
and that the
mean lee side angle was 8.6
. Carling et al. [2000a] also
measured the lee side angles of both developing and dimin-
ished large dunes in the River Rhine and found that the mean
leeside angle was 5.2
, with a range between 1.1
and 19.8
.
Additionally, the few velocity measurements that have been
taken in the lee sides of these low-angle dunes [Smith and
McLean, 1977; Kostaschuk and Ilersich, 1995; Kostaschuk
and Villard, 1996; McLean and Smith, 1979; Roden, 1998]
show no evidence for a zone of permanent flow separation,
although all of these field data were from lee slopes <18
,
where it was very difficult to obtain near-bed measurements.
Kostaschuk and Villard [1999] propose that a well-defined
zone of decelerated, downstream flow occurs in the trough
rather than in the region of flow separation characteristic of
asymmetric dunes. However, intermittent flow separation
[e.g., Soulsby et al., 1991] may be expected over both the
steeper lee sides of symmetric dunes and over lee sides
whose angle is in the transition region for the onset of flow
separation (e.g., 10
– 15
) [Ruck and Makiola, 1990]. Carl-
ing et al. [2000b] found, from electromagnetic current meter
measurements in the lee side of both steep and low-angle
dunes, that flow separation was weak or intermittent, with
periodic reverse (upstream) flow being noted at the toe of the
dune lee side.
[3] Although the physical processes responsible for the
contrasting morphologies of asymmetric and low-angle
dunes are, as yet, unresolved [Roden, 1998], several authors
have considered that the mechanisms of sand transport are
likely to play an important role. Smith and McLean [1977]
and Kostaschuk and Villard [1996] suggest that asymmetric
dunes occur when significant sand transport occurs as bed
load, whereas lower-angle dunes develop when most sand
transport is in suspension. Smith and McLean [1977] and
Kostaschuk and Villard [1996] propose that the steep ‘‘angle
of repose’’ lee sides of asymmetric dunes are maintained by
avalanching of bed load down the lee slope, whereas the
much lower angle lee sides of symmetric dunes result from
deposition of sand from suspension in the lee side and
trough between dunes. This argument finds parallels in the
changes in dune morphology that occur over the transition
from dunes to upper stage plane beds [Saunderson and
Lockett, 1983; Bridge and Best, 1988], where the dune lee
side becomes progressively lower and ‘‘swept out’’ in shape
as flow velocity, and sediment suspension, increases. How-
ever, it is also clear that not all flows with high suspended
sediment loads will be characterized by low-angle dunes
and that flow depth, bed shear stress, and upstream bed
form morphology will also be controlling factors [Carling
et al., 2000a, 2000b]. For instance, Roden [1998] found that
large asymmetric dunes occurred in the Jamuna River
during high flows when most sand was in suspension,
perhaps reflecting oversteepening of lee slopes by extensive
scour in the trough. Carling et al. [2000a] also contend that
low-angle lee sides with no or intermittent flow separation
may be produced in the absence of high suspended sediment
loads because of the influence of superimposed secondary
dunes on the upstream stoss side of the dune.
[4] Many sedimentological studies assume that the asym-
metric dune is the dominant dune type despite the fact that
these dunes are often uncommon in large sand bed rivers.
One reason for this focus on angle of repose asymmetric
dunes may lie in the fact that they are relatively easy to
generate and study in laboratory flumes where bed load is
often dominant; few flume studies have concentrated on
situations where appreciable quantities of suspended sedi-
ment are present. It is worthy of note, for instance, that
Wan’s [1982] studies of hyperconcentrated flows showed
that dunes flatten significantly as clay concentration
increases, this perhaps being analogous to the change in
dune form between angle of repose and low-angle dunes. To
date there have been no detailed laboratory studies of flow
and sediment transport associated with low-angle dunes
where most sand transport is in suspension.
[ 5 ] Significant progress in understanding the flow
dynamics of asymmetrical dunes has been achieved in
studies of fixed negative steps and dune forms [e.g., van
Mierlo and de Ruiter, 1988; Lyn, 1993; Mendoza and Shen,
1990; Bennett and Best, 1995; Gyr and Müller, 1996;
McLean et al., 1994; Müller and Gyr, 1986, 1996; Nelson
et al., 1993, 1995; Vendetti and Bennett, 2000]. The primary
advantages of utilizing fixed bed forms are that they allow
detailed measurements of velocity without the complica-
tions of both a migrating and changing bed form and the
difficulties of flow measurement in the presence of sediment
transport. Field studies of turbulent flow over low-angle
dunes are also fraught with serious logistical difficulties,
especially in detecting the presence or absence of flow
recirculation and a separation zone close to the bed surface.
The purpose of the present study is to link field and flume
research by conducting a scale model flume study of
turbulent flow over a fixed low-angle dune. The low-angle
dune is scaled from dunes in the Fraser River, Canada, for
which previous research has established an extensive data-
base [e.g., Kostaschuk and MacDonald, 1988; Kostaschuk
et al., 1989; Kostaschuk and Church, 1993; Kostaschuk and
Ilersich, 1995; Kostaschuk and Villard, 1996, 1999; Villard
and Kostaschuk, 1998; Kostaschuk, 2000]. The main objec-
tives of this study are to (1) compare velocity profiles over
the prototype and scale model dunes, (2) describe and
interpret patterns of turbulent flow over the scale model,
(3) compare turbulent flow patterns from the scale model
with previous studies of angle of repose and low-angle
dunes, and (4) examine the origins of large-scale turbulence
associated with low-angle dunes.
2. Scale Modeling
2.1. Dunes in the Fraser River Estuary
[6] The Fraser River has a mean annual discharge of
3400 m3 s1, with maximum flows over 11,000 m3 s1 and
discharges into the Strait of Georgia, a mesotidal marine
basin on the west coast of Canada. The main channel of the
Fraser Estuary has a sand bed with a median grain size of
0.25– 0.32 mm [Kostaschuk et al., 1989]. Dunes in the
estuary range from 0.1 to 4 m in height and 2 to more than
 BEST AND KOSTASCHUK: TURBULENT FLOW OVER A LOW ANGLE DUNE 18 - 3

Figure 1. Mean horizontal velocity (U ) over a low-angle dune in the Fraser River, Canada, on 20 June
1989.

100 m in length [Kostaschuk et al., 1989] and have a curved Sciences, University of Leeds, using a recirculating flume
concave downstream planform geometry with circular 10 m long, 0.3 m wide, and 0.3 m deep. Two-dimensional
depressions on crests and associated pits in the dune troughs model dunes were cut from high-density styrofoam that
[Kostaschuk and MacDonald, 1988]. Dunes migrate around permitted high-resolution manufacture of these low-angle
low tide during high river discharge when sand is in trans- and low-amplitude dunes. These experiments followed the
port [Kostaschuk et al., 1989; Kostaschuk and Church, principles of Froude-scale modeling (see review by Peakall
1993; Kostaschuk and Villard, 1996], although Helley- et al. [1996]) whereby the Froude number is kept constant
Smith bed load sampling together with pump sampling of between prototype and model but the flow Reynolds
the suspended load [Kostaschuk and Ilersich, 1995] sug- number is relaxed, provided the flow is fully turbulent.
gests that bed load accounts for <1% of the total sand For the present experiments and flume facilities a scale
transport with the remainder travelling in suspension. ratio between flume and prototype of 1:58 was chosen in
[7] Kostaschuk and Villard [1996] examined horizontal order to match the dune dimensions, flow depth, and flow
velocity profiles over six low-angle symmetric dunes, which velocities (see below and Table 1). The two-dimensional
were found to be the equilibrium dune form during high profile and dune height/flow depth ratio in the experiment
river discharge in the Fraser River. These dunes had a height were modeled on the 20 June Fraser dune (Figure 1), and
of 1.09 – 2.42 m and a wavelength of 29.9– 38.1 m in flow the maximum lower lee side slope angle of the scale model
depths of 11.1– 12.8 m. Velocities were measured with an dunes was 14
. The entire length of the flume was covered
electromagnetic current meter equipped with an internal with identical foam dunes, and the bed slope was adjusted
compass in order to determine flow direction. Since the so that at the discharge and flow depth imposed by the
current meter had a measurement sphere with a radius of 0.2 scale ratio the water depth was constant along the flume.
m, the closest that measurements could be taken to the bed On the basis of the 1:58 scale ratio (Table 1) the mean flow
was 0.5 m. The current meter was deployed from a research depth in the flume was 0.20 m, the Froude number was
launch anchored at three to six positions over individual maintained at 0.15, the flow was fully turbulent (Reynolds
dunes, and a velocity profile was measured at each position. number = 36,000), and the dune height:flow depth ratio
Each point in a velocity profile was sampled at 1 Hz for 90 was 0.16.
s, the short sampling period being necessary so that all [9] The scale modeling approach has several limitations.
velocity profiles could be completed during the 2– 3 hour First, the smooth surface of the styrofoam dune does not
period of steady flow around low tide. Mean flow velocity capture the effect of ‘‘skin’’ and ‘‘minor form’’ friction
over the dunes was 1.10– 1.68 m s1, the Froude number from sediment particles or smaller superimposed bed forms
was 0.10 – 0.15, and the Reynolds number was 9.95 – 14.2 
106. The flume study detailed in the present paper used the Table 1. Flow and Dune Characteristics in the Field and Flume
20 June dune of Kostaschuk and Villard [1996] as the Flow and Dune Characteristics Fraser River Flume Dune
prototype for the scale model (Figure 1). The morphology Dune (Scale Ratio 1:58)
of the experimental dune is consistent with other low-angle
Mean flow depth d, m 11.5 0.20
dunes in the Fraser River, and the velocity profiles are Mean velocity U, m s1 1.61 0.21
representative of spatial variations over the dunes examined Froude number 0.15 0.15
by Kostaschuk and Villard [1996]. Flow Reynolds number 14.2 106 36 515
Dune height H, m 1.8 0.031
Dune length L, m 38 0.66
2.2. Flume Methods H/L 0.047 0.047
[8] Flume experiments were conducted in the Sedimen- H/d 0.16 0.16
tological Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, School of Earth Maximum lower lee side angle, deg 15 14
18 - 4 BEST AND KOSTASCHUK: TURBULENT FLOW OVER A LOW ANGLE DUNE
(ripples/small dunes) that occur in the field [Villard and
Kostaschuk, 1998]. However, at the scale ratio of 1:58 the
scaled grain size and ripple height would approximate
0.004 and 0.3 mm, respectively, and would thus have a
minimal effect on the flow. Second, the experimental dunes
were two-dimensional and all the same shape and size,
whereas in the field, dunes are three-dimensional with
considerable spatial variability in both shape and size.
The possible effects of three-dimensional form were
excluded in the flume model since it was very difficult
to characterize a ‘‘typical’’ three-dimensional form and the
lateral scale of this variability could not be modeled at the
scale ratio dictated by the flume width. Third, the fixed
dune approach does not capture the effect of sediment
transport on velocity profiles. However, this effect may be
expected to be relatively minor since sand concentrations
in the field are not sufficiently high to have a significant
impact on the shape of velocity profiles [Kostaschuk and
Villard, 1996]. Finally, the Froude-scale approach in this
narrow flume produces a low width:depth ratio (1.5) that
may be expected to generate secondary flows in the flume
that are not present in the field [Nezu and Nakagawa,
1993]. The influence of secondary flows is evidenced by
lower velocities near the flow surface but does not mask
the significant influence of the dunes upon flow near the
bed. Despite these limitations, simplification of dune
morphology to a fixed two-dimensional profile does allow
investigation of the major features of flow, as has been
successfully demonstrated in previous studies of flow over
two-dimensional bed forms [e.g., Raudkivi, 1966; Lyn,
1993; Nelson et al., 1993; Bennett and Best, 1995], and
will provide a basis for study of the effects of three-
dimensionality. The benefits of the experimental approach
permit investigation of turbulent flow over low-angle
dunes to a level of detail and precision that is simply not
possible in the field. Experiments allow measurement of
both horizontal and vertical velocities at rapid rates at
many profiles, observations very close to the bed, and
combined flow quantification and flow visualization.
[10] A total of 32 velocity profiles were measured over a
0.775 m test section in the flume (Figure 2), with between
26 and 28 points in each vertical profile, thus yielding a grid
of 872 points over the test section. Velocity at each point in
a profile was measured for 1 min at an average data rate of
200 Hz with a DANTEC two-component fibre-optic laser
Doppler anemometer (LDA). Longer samples of 10 min
duration were also collected at certain locations for later
spectral analysis. The LDA was used in backscatter mode
with a 400 mm focal length lens and 100 mW argon ion
laser. A 40 MHz frequency shift was applied to one beam of
each beam pair to enable bidirectional measurements of
velocity along each axis. Signals were processed with a
DANTEC particle dynamics analyzer, with signals being
validated when Doppler bursts above a sufficient threshold
were recorded on both channels. This resulted in a range of
sampling rates between 120 and 600 Hz, in excess of those
desirable to ensure full characterization of the turbulence
spectra [see Nezu and Nakagawa, 1993, p. 30]. The four-
beam arrangement of the LDA prevented measurement of
vertical velocity at heights <4 mm above the bed, although
horizontal velocities were measured to within 1 mm. Veloc-
ity resolution of the LDA was 0.0027 m s1, and the size of
Figure 2. Sampling locations for horizontal velocity
measurements u over the scale model dune. The lowest
measurement is 1 mm above the bed. Vertical velocity v was
measured simultaneously at the same points as u, with the
lowest location being 4 mm above the bed.
the sampling volume was 0.22 mm2. Flow visualization was
achieved using long-exposure images on both a digital
video camera and a standard 35 mm camera, with neutrally
buoyant Pliolite particles that were illuminated with a laser
light sheet.
2.3. Comparison of the Prototype and Scale Model
[11] Table 1 shows an excellent morphological similarity
between the field and flume dunes, with the ratios of dune
height/flow depth (H/d ) and dune height/dune length (H/L),
together with the leeside angles, all being in good agree-
ment. The H/d and H/L ratios of the experimental dune are
also well within the range of the symmetric low-angle dunes
documented in the Fraser River by Kostaschuk and Villard
[1996].
[12] Nondimensional velocity profiles from the Fraser
dune and the scale model (Figure 3) provide a useful
comparison between field and flume measurements. Veloc-
ity profiles from the field (Figure 1) were measured over the
trough, the midstoss, the crest, and the lower lee side.
Corresponding profiles over the experimental dune
(Figure 2) were located at X = 180 mm (lower lee), X =
270 mm (trough), X = 450 mm (midstoss), and X = 630 mm
(crest). Mean horizontal velocity (U ) and the root mean
square (Urms), or standard deviation, were calculated for
each point in the field velocity profile and for the corre-
sponding point on the flume profiles. Mean velocity was
normalized by the average of the maximum near-surface
velocities for the four profiles (U s), following procedures
used for field data by Kostaschuk and Villard [1999]. The
root mean square value was normalized by the mean
velocity (Urms/U ) to provide a measure of turbulence
intensity. The vertical position of each point above the dune
surface (Ybed) was normalized by the dune height H.
[13] Profiles of normalized mean velocity and turbulence
intensity generally display the same trends between flume
and field data (Figure 3), although discrepancies between
the two data sets do exist. The profiles of downstream
 BEST AND KOSTASCHUK: TURBULENT FLOW OVER A LOW ANGLE DUNE 18 - 5

velocity and turbulence intensity are less consistent in the

field compared to the flume, reflecting the shorter relative
sampling frequency, larger sampling volume, and more
complex upstream dune morphology in the field. All of
these factors may be expected to cause greater variability
in profiles of both mean velocity and turbulence intensity
in the field. Additionally, the simplification of dune mor-
phology to a two-dimensional profile in the flume may also
be expected to impart a slightly different shape and range
to the profiles when compared with the three-dimensional
field dunes. Normalized mean velocities near the bed are
generally higher in the flume profiles, and turbulence
intensity is lower, especially over the midstoss and dune
crest. However, agreement between profiles is far better in
the lower lee and trough where the velocity profiles are
more influenced by the local topography. As highlighted
above, the normalized mean velocity profiles in the flume
also display a deceleration toward the flow surface due to
the influence of secondary flows at this low width:depth
ratio. Figure 3 clearly shows that although the flume
experiment was not designed to incorporate the variability
in dune morphology that occurs in the field and does
possess some features caused by secondary flows, it
effectively captures the effect of two-dimensional dune
shape on the mean flow structure, especially over the
crucial lee side region.

3. Turbulent Flow Over the Scale Model

3.1. Mean Velocity, Turbulence Intensity, and Reynolds
Stresses
[14] The time series of horizontal (u) and vertical (v)
velocity for each sampling point were decomposed into the
first- to third-order moments of the mean (U , V ) root mean
square (Urms, Vrms) and skewness (Uskew, Vskew) using

1X n
U¼ ui ; ð1Þ
n i¼1

1X n
V ¼ vi ; ð2Þ
n i¼1

" #0:5
1X n  2
Urms ¼ ui  U ; ð3Þ
n i¼1

" #0:5
1X n  2
Vrms ¼ vi  V ; ð4Þ
n i¼1

n  3
1X ui  U
Uskew ¼ ; ð5Þ
n i ¼ 1 Urms

Figure 3. Vertical profiles of mean horizontal velocity U n  3

1X vi  V
and turbulence intensity Urms/U for comparable locations Vskew ¼ ; ð6Þ
n i ¼ 1 Vrms
on the field prototype (Figure 1) and flume-scale model
(Figure 2) dunes.
where n is the total number of velocity measurements, ui
and vi are the instantaneous downstream and vertical
18 - 6 BEST AND KOSTASCHUK: TURBULENT FLOW OVER A LOW ANGLE DUNE
Figure 4. Selected profiles of horizontal velocity moments at different locations on the model dune. U
is mean velocity, Urms is the root mean square, and Uskew is the skewness.
velocities, respectively, and u0 = ui  U and v0 = vi  V . The
time-averaged Reynolds stress for each point in the profile
tR was determined using
1X n    dune trough region. Mean vertical velocity is close to zero
u0 v0 ¼ ui  U vi  V ð7Þ
n i¼1
tR ¼ ru0 v0 ; ð8Þ
where r is water density. Contour maps of the first three
moments and Reynolds stress were generated using a
kriging procedure in the Spyglass2 contouring package.
Kriging minimizes the variance between interpolated points
and was achieved using a spherical distribution. Vertical
distance is expressed as height above the bed (Ybed) for
profiles and height above datum (Y ) for contour maps (e.g.,
Figures 4 and 5).
[15] The lowest mean velocities U occur close to the bed
on the lower lee side of the dune (Figures 4 and 5). All
values of U are oriented downstream, and there is no
evidence of permanent flow reversal. Detailed examination
of the time series in the immediate lee side (X = 165– 195
mm) showed that intermittent flow reversals do occur, but
they are infrequent (<4% of the time series; see below).
There is a consistent increase in U with height above the
dune until
Ybed = 160 mm, where velocity then decreases
toward the surface, possibly because of the presence of
secondary flows, although the vertical velocities are zero at
the topmost points in the profile (Figures 6 and 7). Profiles
from the midstoss and crest display a consistent decrease in
the root mean square of horizontal velocity (Urms) to around
Ybed = 100 – 150 mm. In contrast, Urms increases over the
lower lee and trough to
Ybed = 6 – 10 mm and then
decreases to Ybed = 100– 150 mm. The only positive skew-
ness values of horizontal velocity (Uskew) are close to the
bed on the lower lee, trough, and lower stoss, but these
become negative above Ybed = 7 –8 mm. Skewness becomes
more negative to Ybed = 100 – 150 mm and then less
negative toward the flow surface.
[16] A pronounced zone of negative mean vertical veloc-
ity V is centered above the lee side, and a larger zone of
positive V occurs above the midstoss (Figures 6 and 7),
both zones reflecting topographic forcing of flow in the
elsewhere over the dune. Values of root mean square
vertical velocity Vrms are high close to the bed in the lower
lee and trough but are low elsewhere. All profiles show a
general decrease in Vrms above the bed to Ybed = 100– 150
mm, although there is a slight increase above the bed to Ybed
= 10– 20 mm on the midstoss and crest profiles (Figure 6).
Skewness in the vertical velocity distribution (Vskew) is
generally negative between the bed and Ybed
6– 8 mm,
then positive to Ybed
80 –90 mm, and negative to the flow
surface. The exception is in the lower lee, where Vskew
follows a similar pattern but is positive close to the bed.
[17] Time-averaged Reynolds stress (tR) is positive
between the bed and Ybed
80 – 90 mm and slightly
negative in the upper half of the flow (Figure 8). A zone
of high positive tR, centered on the lower lee, extends from
the upper lee to the lower stoss. Profiles of tR in the lower
lee, trough, and midstoss show a slight increase from near
the bed to Ybed
7 – 10 mm, then a consistent decrease to
Ybed
80– 90 mm. Above the crest, tR decreases from the
bed to Ybed
80– 90 mm and then remains constant to the
flow surface (Ybed
200 mm).
[18] These patterns of mean flow and Reynolds stresses
are similar to those documented in past studies of flow over
angle of repose dunes [Nelson et al., 1993, 1995; McLean
et al., 1994, 1996; Bennett and Best, 1995]. Hence,
although permanent flow separation is not present in the
lee side of low-angle dunes, their topographic forcing of
flow results in similar gross patterns of flow acceleration,
deceleration, and Reynolds stress production.
3.2. Intermittency in Flow Reversals
[19] Although the mean downstream velocities do not
show any regions of permanently reversed flow, examina-
tion of the time series for points close to the bed (Ybed = 1 –
10 mm) in the lee side shows that intermittent flow
 BEST AND KOSTASCHUK: TURBULENT FLOW OVER A LOW ANGLE DUNE 18 - 7

Figure 5. Contour maps of horizontal velocity: (top) mean U (m s1), (middle) root mean square Urms
(m s1), and (bottom) skewness Uskew. Flow is from left to right.

reversals, and thus temporary flow separation, are present.
Flow reversals are restricted to profiles at X = 165– 195 mm
in the lee side, and these time series were examined to
determine the intermittency factor c defined as the percent-
age of the total at a point time series when the horizontal
flow was directed upstream (u). Reverse flow near the bed
in the lee side can occur for up to 3.8% of the time series,
with flow reversals being most frequent at X = 180 mm
(Figure 9). Intermittent flow separation also causes reverse
flows at the profiles upstream and downstream of X =
180 mm, and these are used to calculate the approximate
maximum length of the separation zone, Xr, as 50 mm.
Given that the bed form height is 31 mm, this produces a
ratio of reattachment length:dune height (Xr /h) of 1.67,
which is a value much lower than those of between 5 and
8 previously recorded in the lee of negative steps [Eaton
and Johnston, 1980, 1981; Simpson, 1989; Ruck and
Makiola, 1990]. However, because of the flattened shape
of the crest and the low-angle lee side (14
) of the dune, it is
more realistic to use the height of the lee side face, which is
12.3 mm, rather than the total dune height to calculate the
dimensionless reattachment distance. Use of this lee side
height produces an Xr /h value of 4.1, a value that is
comparable with those found in the lee side of 15
angle
steps [Ruck and Makiola, 1990]. The percentage time of
upstream flow in the lee of this low-angle dune is also much
lower than that recorded behind (1) steep negative steps,
which can have reverse flow occurring for between 50 and
95% of the time [Eaton and Johnston, 1980; Simpson et al.,
1981], (2) angle of repose dunes, which also may have
reverse flow for between 2 and 95% of the time series,
depending on position within the separation zone [Kadota
18 - 8 BEST AND KOSTASCHUK: TURBULENT FLOW OVER A LOW ANGLE DUNE
Figure 6. Selected profiles of the vertical velocity moments. mean V , root mean square Vrms, and
skewness Vskew.
and Nezu, 1999], or (3) large-amplitude wavy surfaces
[Buckles et al., 1984], which possess reverse flow near the
wall in the separation region for between 5 and 79% of the
time. The few field measurements of intermittent reverse
flow in the lee side of dunes also show periods of reversal
from 0 to 48% of the time series [Soulsby et al., 1991;
Roden, 1998]. Roden [1998] documented flow reversal for
up to 48% of the time in the lee side of angle of repose
dunes but found no evidence for flow reversal in the lee side
of low-angle dunes, although her study was unable to
resolve flow very close to the bed.
[20] Although the results shown here are different from
studies of flow over high-angle steps and angle of repose bed
forms, the intermittency characteristics of low-angle dunes
are similar to the flow patterns documented in low-angle
diffusers [Kline et al., 1959; Azad and Kassab, 1989; Singh
and Azad, 1995a, 1995b, 1995c, 1995d; Azad, 1996; John-
ston, 1998]. Experimental studies of conical, low-angle
diffusers where the angle of bed divergence is
4
[e.g.,
Azad, 1996; Singh and Azad, 1995a, 1995b, 1995c, 1995d]
show that intermittent flow separation can occur up to a
dimensionless depth (Ybed/Yt, where Yt is the flow depth
before the diffuser expansion) of
0.3 (Figure 9). Although
showing a similar shape of intermittency profile to that
documented in the present study, differences in the magni-
tude and form of the two data sets may be expected for two
principal reasons: (1) the diffuser data shown in Figure 9 are
at a dimensionless distance downstream of the separation
point (the point of bed divergence), x/Yt of
3 – 5  11
(where x is the distance downstream from point of the bed
divergence), whereas the intermittent separation data in the
present study are at a maximum x/Yt of
0.225, appreciably
closer to be point of bed divergence. (2) The data for low-
angle diffusers concern flow in a constant angle expansion,
whereas over a dune field the lee side flow is rapidly
influenced by the topographic form and flow acceleration
over the next downstream dune. Kline et al. [1959] demon-
strated that flow in two-dimensional diffusers developed less
frequent separation at lower values of x/Yt, although their x/Yt
values (x/Yt = 2 – 80) were also higher than those of the low-
angle dune bed forms described here. Kline et al. [1959] and
Johnston [1998] also show the angle of bed divergence
required to generate separation was higher at lower x/d
ratios. Singh and Azad [1995c] also showed that the occur-
rence of intermittent flow separation decreases slightly with
increasing flow Reynolds number (in the range of 50 –250 
103) in low-angle diffusers, and it is worthy of consideration
that flow separation over low-angle dunes may also display
some Reynolds number dependence. Dengel and Fernholtz
[1990] detailed the characteristics of flow over a flat boun-
dary in the region of incipient separation. Their data (see
Figure 9) also show the presence of a region of low-
frequency reversals in the zone of incipient separation and
an intermittency profile similar to that documented herein,
especially for the distance nearest to the separation point (x =
1.031 m). Simpson et al. [1981] and Simpson [1989] classi-
fied the permanence of flow separation into several classes:
incipient detachment, where backflow occurs up to 1% of the
time; intermittent transitory detachment, where backflow
occurs up to 20% of the time; and transitory detachment,
which has reverse flow for up to 50% of the time. Permanent
flow separation was defined as where the time-averaged wall
shear stress was zero. Application of this classification to the
present data would place flow over low-angle dunes in the
regime of intermittent transitory detachment.
[21] Measurement of the length of time of reversals, t, in
the time series shows that the maximum period of reverse
flow (at X = 180 mm, Ybed = 1 mm) is only 0.3 s1. This
produces a dimensionless maximum time of reversal, Xr /tU
[see Driver et al., 1987; Simpson, 1989], of 0.08, again
shorter than those periods of Xr /tU
0.6 derived behind
steep negative steps. Flow reversals in the lee side of this
low-angle dune thus occur infrequently and last for a short
period. However, intermittent flow reversal in this region,
together with flow deceleration in the lee side, may both
produce velocity gradients that are favorable for the for-
mation of intermittent shear layers that generate Kelvin-
Helmholtz instabilities.
 BEST AND KOSTASCHUK: TURBULENT FLOW OVER A LOW ANGLE DUNE 18 - 9

Figure 7. Contour maps of vertical velocity: (top) mean V (m s1), (middle) root mean square Vrms
(m s1), and (bottom) skewness Vskew. Flow is from left to right.

3.3. Spectral Analysis
[22] The periodicity of turbulence at four points in the
vertical profile at X = 180 mm was examined by spectral
analysis of samples collected for 600 s at Ybed = 1, 4, 50,
and 120 mm. The signals were detrended using linear
regression and analyzed using a Lomb-Scargle routine for
unevenly spaced data [Scargle, 1982; Press and Rybicki,
1989] and filtered with a Tukey-Hann window. The four
spectra (Figures 10a– 10d) show that the signal is largely
dominated by frequencies <1 Hz. Near the bed (Ybed = 1 and
4 mm; Figures 10a and 10b), significant peaks are grouped
around 0.15 –0.2, 0.33– 0.6, and 1.5– 2.7 Hz, with the 0.15
and 0.5 Hz groups being more dominant at 50 mm above
the bed (Figure 10c), although significant peaks are still
present at 1 – 2.7 Hz. However, once above the region of
flow deceleration at 120 mm (Figure 10d), the signal is
dominated by peaks only at
0.26 and
0.54 Hz, with the
higher-frequency peaks being absent. Simpson (1989)
shows that the frequency f of eddy shedding from a free-
shear layer bounding a separation zone in the lee of a
negative step can be estimated from

f Xr U
0:6  0:8: ð9Þ
Additionally, Simpson [1989] proposed that the shear layer
may vary in its reattachment position and this ‘‘flapping’’ of
the shear layer could be approximated from

f Xr U < 0:1: ð10Þ
18 - 10 BEST AND KOSTASCHUK: TURBULENT FLOW OVER A LOW ANGLE DUNE

Figure 8. Selected profiles and contour map of mean Reynolds stress tR. Flow is from left to right.

Application of (9) and (10) to the present data (using Xr =
50 mm) yields eddy-shedding frequencies of 2.5– 3.4 Hz and
a shear layer flapping frequency of 0.42 Hz. The groups of
significant spectral peaks at
0.4– 0.55 Hz at all heights
(Figures 10a– 10d) match well with the lower-frequency
flapping frequency, and it is noticeable that higher in the
flow the signal is dominated only by these lower frequencies.
Several peaks in the spectral response are also present at

1 – 2.5 Hz at heights up to 50 mm, and these fall just below
the range for eddy shedding given by (9). However, given
the uncertainties in estimating the exact reattachment length
in (9), this group would seem to correlate well with the eddy-
shedding frequency. Although differences in eddy-shedding
magnitude and frequency may be expected between this
region of gentle flow expansion and the permanently
separated flow behind vertical negative steps, the corre-
spondence of the flapping frequency may again indicate the
intermittent nature of flow reversal in this region. The
spectral peaks at 0.15 Hz may also reflect this longer-period
movement in the region of intermittent flow separation.
[23] Itakura and Kishi [1980] used a series of flow
visualization measurements over experimental dunes to
propose an empirical relationship for the frequency of
large-scale turbulence generation:

f ¼ 0:14 U H: ð11Þ
 BEST AND KOSTASCHUK: TURBULENT FLOW OVER A LOW ANGLE DUNE
: ð13Þ
Figure 9. Plot of intermittency factor c against dimen-
sionless height above the bed (Ybed/Yt, where Ybed is height
above the bed and Yt is the flow depth upstream of the
diffuser or at the dune crest) for profiles in the immediate
dune lee side (X = 165 – 195 mm). Here c is defined as the
percentage of the time that flow at a point undergoes
reverse (upstream) horizontal flow. Upstream flow was
only present near the bed for profiles at X = 165, 180, and
195 mm. Also shown here are the plots of c given by
Dengel and Fernholtz [1990] (DF) for flow at three
distances along a flat plate in the region of transitory
detachment and Singh and Azad [1995a, 1995d] (SA) for
flow in a conical diffuser (at 0.236 and 0.557 m
downstream of the diffuser entrance).
Application of this relationship to the present data produces
a dominant frequency of 0.95 Hz, which is similar to the
group of significant peaks at
1 – 1.5 Hz (Figures 10a– 10c)
and may represent the presence of eddies generated from the
intermittent shear layer. Levi [1983, 1991] has also argued
that the Strouhal law may be used to express the frequency
of eddy shedding in a restrained fluid body where the
Strouhal number S is given by

S ¼ fd U
0:16: ð12Þ
Solving (12) for f produces an estimated frequency of
0.17 Hz, similar to the low-frequency peak detected both
near the bed and higher in the flow (Figures 10a– 10c) but
noticeably lower than that yielded by the Itakura and Kishi
relationship. Levi [1983, 1991] also noted that this
relationship produced similar values to the bursting
frequency adopted earlier by Rao et al. [1971] and Jackson
[1976].
3.4. Quadrant Analysis
[24] Quadrant analysis [Lu and Willmarth, 1973; Will-
marth and Lu, 1974; Bogard and Tiederman, 1986; Luchik
and Tiederman, 1987; McLean et al., 1994; Best, 1996] has
proven to be a useful technique for defining turbulent events
from velocity data [e.g., Luchik and Tiederman, 1987;
Nelson et al., 1995; Bennett and Best, 1995, 1996] and
for investigating the nature of the instantaneous flow
18 - 11
structure and its interaction with sediment transport [e.g.,
McLean et al., 1994]. Each observation in a time series is
identified as quadrant 1 (outward interaction; +u0, +v0),
quadrant 2 (ejection; u0, +v0), quadrant 3 (inward inter-
action; u0, v0), or quadrant 4 (sweep; +u0, v0) and the
results used to determine the percentage of each time series
occupied by each quadrant. Each velocity pair may be
investigated either through examination of the entire signal
or only those events that lie above a certain threshold value
(Ho or hole size) defined as
Ho ¼ ju0 v0 j=½ðUrms ÞðVrms Þ
In this study, events above a hole size of 2 were used,
consistent with past work [e.g., Bennett and Best, 1995,
1996].
[25] The percentages of quadrant 1 (Q1) and quadrant 3
(Q3) events generally increase above the bed, with the
highest percentages occurring at Ybed
150 – 200 mm and
then decreasing toward the surface (Figure 11). In contrast,
the percentages of quadrant 2 (Q2) and quadrant 4 (Q4)
events are highest near the bed and decrease toward the
surface (Figure 11). A broad region of high Q2 occurrence
(Ybed = 20 –75 mm) extends along the dune surface from
crest to crest, although the percentage occurrence is highest
over the dune trough and lee side. The Q2 plot shows two
zones of slightly higher percentage occurrence (5%) near
the lower lee (X = 175 mm, Ybed = 20– 25 mm) and 20– 25
mm above this lower region (X = 200 mm, Ybed = 40– 70
mm), although the pattern is rather patchy.
[26] Pliolite flow visualizations showed that flow paths
in the lower 20% of the flow generally followed the
topography of the dune surface and in the upper 80%
were essentially horizontal. The most irregular flow paths
occur close to the bed in the lower lee and trough regions
of the dune (Figure 12), where Q2 and Q4 events domi-
nate. Particle paths near the dune surface are also often
toward the bed (Q4 events, Figure 11) and display infre-
quent flow reversals in the lee side. Some particles were
also observed rising at high angles over the trough and
being ejected toward the flow surface (Figure 12; Q2
events, Figure 11).
3.5. Turbulence Production and Correlation
Coefficients
[27] The production of turbulence P is dominated by
vertical shear over two-dimensional dunes [Nelson et al.,
1993] and can be estimated from
@U
P ¼ u 0 v 0 ð14Þ
@Y
and is plotted in Figure 13a. Figure 13a confirms the patterns
shown by the turbulence intensity and Reynolds stress -
plots (Figures 5, 7, and 8) in that turbulence production is
concentrated in the immediate lee side and region of
intermittent flow separation. This further illustrates that this
region of flow deceleration and intermittent flow reversal
dominates the production of turbulence over low-angle
dunes, with the rest of the dune form and flow field being
uniform in the generation of turbulence.
18 - 12 BEST AND KOSTASCHUK: TURBULENT FLOW OVER A LOW ANGLE DUNE

Figure 10. (a) – (d) Spectral plots of amplitude versus frequency for 600 s time series collected at X =
180 mm for points at Ybed = 1, 4, 50, and 150 mm. (e) Spectral plot of amplitude versus frequency for 60 s
time series at X = 150 mm, Ybed = 1 mm, and data rate = 328 Hz. The data rates in Figures 10a– 10e were
194, 109, 115, 141, and 328 Hz, respectively. The significance limits are shown as lines for the 90, 99,
and 99.9% significance levels.
 BEST AND KOSTASCHUK: TURBULENT FLOW OVER A LOW ANGLE DUNE 18 - 13

Figure 11. Contour maps of percentage of time occupied by quadrants: Q1 (outward interactions), Q2
(ejections), Q3 (inward interactions), and Q4 (sweeps). A hole size, Ho (equation (13)), of >2 is shown.
Flow is from left to right.
18 - 14 BEST AND KOSTASCHUK: TURBULENT FLOW OVER A LOW ANGLE DUNE
Figure 12. Pliolite flow visualization of the lower lee and trough. Flow is from left to right.
[28] The boundary layer correlation coefficient R is given
by
u0 v0
R¼ h i0:5 ð15Þ
ðu0 Þ2 ðv0 Þ2
and is typically around 0.4 over most flat bed boundary
layers [Hinze, 1975; Nelson et al., 1993]. Figure 13b
shows that the value of R reaches 0.3 – 0.5 near the bed
over much of the lee and stoss sides of the low-angle dune,
but R is lower in the upper flow. This distribution is similar
to that expected in flat bed boundary layers and is different
from that documented in the lee side of angle of repose
dunes by Nelson et al. [1993], who attributed low
correlation coefficients in the near-bed lee side region to
unsteadiness due to flow separation. It is noticeable that the
values of R over the low-angle dune are far more uniform
and near to values expected in a boundary layer developed
over a flat bed, thus again reflecting the far more
intermittent nature of flow separation than that associated
with angle of repose dunes. However, lower values of R
are present higher in the flow over the stoss side, especially
toward the crest, and may indicate interaction of the
boundary layer with wake-like turbulence generated from
the intermittent shear layer.
4. Discussion
[29] LDA measurements and flow visualization over the
scaled Fraser dunes indicate that the principal features of
turbulent flow are controlled by bed friction and dune
topography, which primarily influence the lower half of
the flow. The decreasing influence of bed friction with
height above the bed is most evident over the upper stoss,
crest, and upper lee side, resulting in an increase in
horizontal velocity and a decrease in turbulence intensity
of both horizontal and vertical velocities. Topographic
forcing of flow exerts the strongest control on flow and
generates a zone of low horizontal velocities centered on the
lower lee side. This region of decelerated flow undergoes
intermittent flow reversal near the bed in a small region in
the immediate lee side as a result of weak and infrequent
flow separation. Such intermittent flow reversals and decel-
eration of flow in the lee side will generate a vertical
gradient in the horizontal velocity and possible formation
of a shear layer between this decelerated flow and the
higher-velocity flow above. Mixing and formation of Kel-
vin-Helmholtz instabilities along this shear layer result in
highly variable horizontal and vertical flow velocities and
large Reynolds stresses in this region. The shear layer also
determines the type of turbulent events that predominate
over the dune, with a higher percentage of Q2 events
occurring along and above the shear layer and more Q4
events occurring below it (similar to that associated with the
shear layer of angle of repose asymmetrical dunes [Bennett
and Best, 1995]). Dune topography also exerts a broad
control on the direction of the vertical component of flow,
producing a zone of positive mean vertical velocity over the
stoss side and a region of negative mean vertical velocity
over the lee side. These broad observations can be examined
 BEST AND KOSTASCHUK: TURBULENT FLOW OVER A LOW ANGLE DUNE
Figure 13. Contour maps of (top) turbulence production P and (bottom) correlation coefficient R. Flow
is from left to right.
against previous studies of both low-angle dunes and dunes
that are clearly asymmetric in profile with steeper lee side
angles.
4.1. Comparison With Previous Studies
4.1.1. Low-angle dunes
[30] Perhaps the most noticable aspect of turbulent flow
over low-angle dunes that have been recorded in the field,
and which are more symmetric in profile than those
employed in many models of dune dynamics, is the
apparent lack of permanent flow separation in the lee
side [e.g., Smith and McLean, 1977; Kostaschuk and
Villard, 1996; Roden, 1998; Carling et al., 2000a,
2000b]. Accurate positioning of instruments is always
difficult in deep rivers, especially over the relatively
small zone in the lee where flow separation is likely to
occur. For instance, the present flume experiments indicate
that the region of intermittent flow reversal would only be
a maximum of 3 m long and 0.6 m high over the field
prototype dunes, a small region in which to obtain
accurate flow information from a moving or anchored
boat. In addition, field instrumentation may not be able
to resolve the duration, magnitude, or direction of
intermittent flow reversals close to the bed [Roden,
1998]. The scale model approach used herein eliminates
these uncertainties and confirms the field observation that
18 - 15
permanent flow separation does not occur over dunes with
low lee side angles <14
but is replaced by a region of
intermittent flow reversal. Flow separation does occur over
steeper slopes on the lower lee side, although field evidence
[Kostaschuk and Villard, 1996] indicates that no permanent
separation occurs at lee side angles up to 18
. The occurrence
of intermittent flow separation will thus increase at larger lee
side angles [Carling et al., 2000b] until permanent flow
separation is present at lee side angles of >
18
.
[31] Field studies of turbulent flow over low-angle
dunes comparable to the present scale model are those
of McLean and Smith [1979] from the Columbia River,
Roden [1998] from the Jamuna River, Kostaschuk and
Villard [1999] from the Fraser River, and Carling et al.
[2000a, 2000b] from the Rhine River. The spatial varia-
tions in Reynolds stress described by McLean and Smith
[1979, Figure 11] are virtually identical to those of the
present scale model (Figure 8), especially over the lee and
trough. Roden’s [1998] profiles of horizontal and vertical
velocity and Reynolds stress over the lee sides of two
dunes [Roden, 1998, Figures 5.43 – 5.45] are also very
similar to those of the scale model (Figures 4, 6, and 8),
although the acoustic Doppler profiler (ADCP) that she
used was unable to resolve flow close to the bed (Y <
0.5 m). Carling et al. [2000a, 2000b] also found that flow
separation is weak or intermittent in the lee side of low-
18 - 16 BEST AND KOSTASCHUK: TURBULENT FLOW OVER A LOW ANGLE DUNE
angle dunes but becomes more consistent over steeper
angle lee sides.
[32] Kostaschuk and Villard [1999] combined velocity
measurements from individual dunes in the Fraser River
(e.g., Figure 1) to generate contour maps of nondimensional
mean horizontal velocity and turbulence intensity that can
be compared to the scale model maps (Figure 5). Their
maps show a zone of decelerated horizontal flow with high
turbulence intensity in the trough area that is also found
over the scale model. A prominent feature on the maps of
Kostaschuk and Villard [1999] was a zone of low horizontal
velocity and high turbulence intensity above and down-
stream of the dune crest. Kostaschuk and Villard [1999]
interpreted this zone as the time-averaged region of upwell-
ing turbulent flow structures [Kostaschuk and Church,
1993], or ejections, generated over the dune. However, the
scale model maps of mean horizontal velocity and turbu-
lence intensity (Figure 5) do not indicate a similar zone,
although the map of Q2 events (Figure 11) does show a
relatively high percentage of ejection events in a similar
position. This pattern may not be as clearly represented in
the scale-model study because of the two-dimensional
dunes modeled in the flume, which may limit the ejection
of intense vorticity generated in three-dimensional dune
troughs.
4.1.2. Angle of repose asymmetric dunes
[33] Many investigations of asymmetric dunes [e.g.,
Bennett and Best, 1995; McLean et al., 1994, 1996;
Nelson et al., 1993] are based on flume-generated dune
profiles or idealized dune shapes rather than scale models of
asymmetric dunes derived from the field. Lee side angles of
these asymmetric dunes are around 25
– 30
, much steeper
than the 14
lower lee slope of the Fraser scale model dunes,
and with crest lines that have a much sharper break of slope.
In comparison to the dunes of the present study (Table 1),
past experimental studies of fixed asymmetric dunes [e.g.,
Bennett and Best, 1995] have a greater dune steepness
(height/length >0.06) and higher mean horizontal flow
velocities (>0.5 m s1) and mean Froude numbers (>0.5).
The only detailed field measurements of turbulent flow over
asymmetric dunes are those of Roden [1998] in the Jamuna
River, Kostaschuk [2000] in Canoe Pass, a distributary of
the Fraser River, and Carling et al. [2000b] in the Rhine
River. Dunes in the Jamuna River were up to 6 m in height
and 300 m in length, somewhat larger than low-angle dunes
from the Fraser River [Kostaschuk et al., 1989], whereas the
angle of repose dunes detailed by Kostaschuk [2000] were
up to 2.92 m high and 51 m in wavelength and had
maximum lee side angles of 37
. Dunes in the Rhine
River were up to 1.1 m high and 77 m in wavelength
with lee side angles of up to 19
[Carling et al., 2000a].
[ 34 ] The most obvious difference in flow patterns
between the fixed low-angle dune (Figures 5, 7, 8, and 9)
and the asymmetric angle of repose dunes documented in
many laboratory experiments [e.g., Nelson et al., 1993;
McLean et al., 1994, 1996; Bennett and Best, 1995] and
field studies [Roden, 1998; Kostaschuk, 2000] is the
upstream mean horizontal velocity in the lee and trough
of asymmetric forms. Permanent flow reversal in the lee
side of the angle of repose asymmetric dune causes a small
zone of positive mean vertical velocity near the lee side that
does not exist over low-angle dunes. Both asymmetric and
low-angle dunes, however, have similar zones of positive
mean vertical velocity over the stoss and negative mean
vertical velocity over the lee. The highest turbulence inten-
sities are centered on the lower lee of the low-angle dune
but are often at the reattachment point of the flow separation
zone of the asymmetric dune. High values of turbulence
intensity of the vertical velocity occupy a large area above
the separation zone on the asymmetric dune, as compared to
a much smaller region close to the bed on the lower lee of
the low-angle dune. Positive skewness in the horizontal
component of velocity is also restricted to a small zone in
the lee and trough of the asymmetric dune but extends well
above the lower lee of the low-angle dune. The region of
positive skewness in the vertical component of velocity
occupies a broad zone extending downstream of the crest of
the asymmetric dune, as compared to a thin region close to
the bed in the trough of the low-angle dune. High Reynolds
stresses occur above the separation zone of the asymmetric
dune but are close to the lower lee of the low-angle dune.
The percentages of Q1 and Q3 events display similar
patterns over asymmetric and low-angle dunes. The highest
percentages of Q2 events over the asymmetric dune occupy
a distinct single zone that extends downstream of the crest
above the separation zone and corresponds to the location of
the free shear layer. A similar but less well-developed zone
also occurs over the low-angle dune, where a region of high
Q2 occurrence extends from the lower lee downstream
above the trough. The highest Q4 percentages on the
asymmetric dune are along the lee and in the trough,
compared to the lower lee and trough of the low-angle
dune. The production of turbulence is concentrated in the
immediate lee side (Figure 13) and associated with the
region of expanded, decelerated, and intermittently separa-
ted flow. Flume studies over angle of repose dunes [Nelson
et al., 1993] have also found turbulence production at a
maximum along the separation zone shear layer, but above
these dunes this layer expands farther into the outer flow.
4.2. Generation of Macroturbulence Over Low-Angle
Dunes
[35] Although there are differences in turbulent flow
patterns over angle of repose asymmetric dunes and low-
angle dunes, which can be explained by dune morphology
and which may influence the processes of sediment trans-
port and deposition [Smith and McLean, 1977; Kostaschuk
and Villard, 1996], it is evident that there are many
similarities between flows over these two forms. Addition-
ally, it is clear that large-scale macroturbulence can be
generated over both asymmetrical angle of repose dunes
[e.g., Nelson et al., 1993; Bennett and Best, 1995, 1996] and
low-angle dunes [Kostaschuk and Church, 1993; Kosta-
schuk and Villard, 1999; Carling et al., 2000b]. The
generation of large-scale turbulence over angle of repose
dunes has been linked to the shedding of Kelvin-Helmholtz
instabilities generated along the free shear layer of the flow
separation zone [e.g., Bennett and Best, 1995; Kadota and
Nezu, 1999]. This process may both generate large instanta-
neous shear stresses in the reattachment region and lead to
the suspension of appreciable quantities of suspended sedi-
ment in macroturbulent eddies that may reach the flow
surface as ‘‘boils’’ [e.g., Jackson, 1976; Kostaschuk and
Church, 1993; Babakaiff and Hickin, 1996].
 BEST AND KOSTASCHUK: TURBULENT FLOW OVER A LOW ANGLE DUNE
[36] However, in the absence of permanent flow separa-
tion over low-angle dunes, what processes can generate
such large-scale turbulence? Two interlinked processes
appear likely. First, although permanent flow separation
does not occur in the lee side of low-angle dunes, the
present flume study has demonstrated the presence of a
small region of intermittent flow separation and flow
reversal. This small zone, which leads to reverse flow for
<4% of the time in the immediate lee side near the bed, may
generate a shear layer linked to short-lived flow separation.
This process is thus identical to that observed over angle of
repose dunes, except that eddy generation will occur over a
far shorter time period and also have a lower magnitude
because of the smaller size of the flow separation zone.
Second, it is apparent from many other studies that shear
layer development may occur in regions of sharp velocity
gradient but in the absence of flow separation. For example,
such shear layers commonly occur at channel confluences
where large-scale turbulence is generated along the interface
between mixing flows [e.g., Best, 1987; Best and Roy,
1991]. Generation of shear layers and large-scale turbulence
simply require a sufficient velocity gradient between two
layers of fluid, a case examined in detail in many studies of
plane mixing layers [e.g., Browand and Weidman, 1976;
Hussain and Zaman, 1985]. The present scale model experi-
ments, together with past field studies, demonstrate that the
lee side of low-angle dunes is a zone of marked flow
expansion and deceleration (Figures 5 and 7) that may lead
to velocity gradients capable of generating temporary shear
layers. Although exact quantification of the scale and
periodicity of this process awaits full flow field quantifica-
tion, it is likely that flow deceleration, aided by temporally
varying local velocity gradients generated by the flow field
from upstream dunes, may cause local shear layer develop-
ment and instability. Research detailing pulsating flow over
a negative step [Mullin et al., 1980] has demonstrated that
the stability of the separation zone is strongly perturbed by
fluctuations in the upstream free stream velocity. Mullin
et al. [1980] state that the stability of the separation zone
may depend on the frequency of pulsation, fp, as expressed
through the dimensionless parameter F, where
 stresses in this region. The development of Q2 events
F ¼ fp H U : ð16Þ
When F < 0.07, the separation vortex is unstable and sheds,
whereas when F > 0.07 the separation zone is stable but
smaller than for steady flow [Mullin et al., 1980]. Pulsation
in the flow over a dune may come from many sources,
including long-periodicity fluctuations [e.g., Barua and
Rahmann, 1998] or vortices generated by upstream dunes.
The frequencies detected close to the bed at the profile
immediately upstream from the zone of flow reversal on the
low-angle dune (X = 150 mm; Figure 10e) have a strong
component at
0.36 Hz (Figure 10e). If this periodicity
were to cause pulsation in flow at the downstream
separation point, then F
0.053 if the dune height is
taken as 31 mm or F
0.02 if the lee side height of 12.3 mm
were adopted (see discussion of the intermittency of flow
separation above). Although there are many uncertainties in
both the frequency and magnitude of such vortices at the
bed, this estimate of F indicates that the very process of
vortex generation and separation zone stability may be
18 - 17
modulated by the vortices and flow pattern imposed from
upstream. This may produce a more complex spectral
response for vortex generation than is yielded by simple
scaling laws and suggests that future work should seek to
examine the spatiotemporal evolution of vorticity over
series of bed forms.
[37] Flow over an angle of repose asymmetric dune
results in an extensive separation zone with a large velocity
differential across the shear layer. The sharp crest of the
asymmetric dune produces a broad wake region with an
upward tilting shear layer that extends downstream of the
crest [Nelson et al., 1993; Bennett and Best, 1995]. In
contrast, the shear layers above the small zone of decel-
erated flow on the lower lee, and downstream of the
rounded crest, of low-angle dunes have a much smaller
velocity differential and are weakly developed. Since a
larger velocity differential and better developed shear layers
result in more energetic Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities
[Bennett and Best, 1995], dune morphology thus controls
the location of the shear layers and therefore the spatial
patterns of turbulent flow over the dunes.
5. Conclusions
[38] Many models of alluvial dunes assume such bed
forms are asymmetrical with an angle of repose lee side in
excess of 30
and a zone of permanent flow separation.
However, most dunes in large sand bed rivers possess more
symmetrical profiles, lower lee side angles, and flow
separation that is either intermittent or absent. The present
study provides a link between flume studies of asymmetric
dunes and field studies of low-angle dunes by examining
turbulent flow over a fixed scale model of a low-angle dune
from the Fraser River, Canada. The principal conclusions of
the present study are as follows.
1. Dune morphology exerts a strong control on turbulent
flow, causing flow deceleration in the lower lee and
development of an intermittent layer of shear at the interface
with the higher velocity flow above. Turbulent eddies
generated along this shear layer produce highly variable
horizontal and vertical velocity flow and large Reynolds
(ejections), and an associated positive skewness in horizon-
tal velocity, is enhanced along and above the shear layer.
Below the shear layer, there is a predominance of Q4 events
and a negative skewness in horizontal velocity. Topographic
forcing generates regions of positive and negative mean
vertical velocity over the stoss and lee sides, respectively.
2. The scale model confirms that permanent flow
separation does not occur over low-angle dunes but instead
is replaced by a region of intermittent flow reversal. Shear
layers generated above the small zone of decelerated and/or
separated flow on the lower lee have a much smaller
velocity differential than is characteristic of shear layers
generated along the separation zone of asymmetric dunes.
However, it is important to note that although permanent
flow separation is often assumed as a prerequisite for the
generation of large turbulent structures associated with
dunes that suspend sand [e.g., Nezu and Nakagawa, 1993],
these macroturbulent structures also commonly occur over
low-angle dunes without permanent flow separation [Kos-
taschuk and Church, 1993; Kostaschuk and Villard, 1999].
18 - 18 BEST AND KOSTASCHUK: TURBULENT FLOW OVER A LOW ANGLE DUNE
Macroturbulence production is thus related to both inter-
mittent separation and the high shear gradients that may be
generated in the lee side of these low-angle dunes. Future
work should therefore quantify the magnitude of the
velocity gradient in the lee side and ascertain whether this,
rather than the presence of permanent flow separation per
se, is important in generating dune-related macroturbulence.
[39] Although the present study has clarified several
issues of flow structure over low-angle dunes, many ques-
tions remain unanswered. Perhaps the most fundamental
issue is the relationship between dune morphology, espe-
cially lee side slope angle, and the mechanisms of sand
movement. Most research to date has focused on extreme
examples of this relationship, from asymmetric angle of
repose dunes in the flume where most sand is bed load to
low-angle dunes in fine-grained rivers where most sand is
suspended. It seems likely that there is a continuum in dune
shape depending on the relative importance of the bed load
and suspended load. However, this relationship is complex,
and the feedbacks of morphology on flow may cause any
‘‘suspension effect’’ on dune form to be overwhelmed by
trough erosion during high flow velocities, producing an
asymmetric dune with an oversteepened lee side at high
suspended sediment loads. Furthermore, recent work by
Carling et al. [2000a, 2000b] suggests that low-angle dunes
may be produced by the influence of smaller upstream
superimposed dunes and their effect on the boundary layer
developed over the main dune. Carling et al. [2000a]
suggest that the superimposition of bed forms upstream
from a dune crest may lead to local sediment starvation and
a decrease in dune height [cf. Ditchfield and Best, 1992],
which may cause the dune to adopt a longer, and lower, lee
side angle. This may act to produce low-angle dunes in the
absence of high suspended loads. This contention also
points to the need for a greater understanding of the controls
on flow separation and lee side shear layer development in a
range of flow conditions. Since sediment-scaling limitations
will probably restrict the ability of flume experiments to
resolve some of these issues, detailed field studies are
clearly necessary. These field studies need to be allied to
carefully controlled laboratory experiments that attempt to
examine whole flow field development over low-angle
dunes. These studies should quantify the periodicity of
shear layer formation and establish relationships for the
scaling of vortex generation over low-angle dunes. Addi-
tionally, combined field and flume work can begin to assess
the role of the three-dimensional geometry of dunes and its
influence on flow and local erosion in the dune lee.
[40] Acknowledgments. We would like to thank Neil Woodhouse for
his technical assistance in conducting the LDA work and Sean Bennett for
his help in analyzing the quadrant data. Sherry Ilersich is thanked for her
assistance in the earlier field data collection, and we have benefited from
discussions with Paul Villard and Mike Church in developing our ideas on
these issues. The thorough and helpful comments of Steve McLean and the
other, anonymous, JGR reviewer helped improve the manuscript consid-
erably. We are also very grateful to Ram Azad for discussions concerning
intermittent separation in conical diffusers and also providing data and
reports on intermittency factors in diffusers.
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J. Best, School of Earth Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT,
UK. ( j.best@earth.leeds.ac.uk)
R. Kostaschuk, Department of Geography, University of Guelph, Guelph,
Ontario, Canada, N1G 2W1. (rkostasc@uoguelph.ca)