BIOSENSORS &MEASUREMENTS

UNIT 2- DISPLACEMENT, PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE SENSORS

[2] Marks - What are transducers?

 Transducer is an electronic device that converts a signal, in the form of energy, into another form of
energy. It converts energy to a readable form e.g. thermometer that converts heat energy into height of
mercury column. OR Transducer covert physical quantity into electrical signal.
 EXAMPLES:
Microphones, loudspeakers, thermometers, pressure sensors, LED’s and even common bulb are considered as
transducers.

[2] Marks – Components of Transducer:

A transducer will have basically two main components. They are

1. Sensing Element
The physical quantity or its rate of change is sensed and responded to by this part of the transistor.

2. Transduction Element
The output of the sensing element is passed on to the transduction element. This element is responsible for
converting the non-electrical signal into its proportional electrical signal.

There may be cases when the transduction element performs the action of both transduction and sensing. The
best example of such a transducer is a thermocouple. A thermocouple is used to generate a voltage
corresponding to the heat that is generated at the junction of two dissimilar metals.

[2] [6] Marks - What are the classifications of a transducer?

There are many principles on which a transducer can work like resistive, inductive, capacitive etc. So
Transducer can be categorized on the basis of four thoughts. On the basis of transduction form it`s used, we
can go further.

 Primary and secondary type

 Analog and digital type
 Active and passive type
 Transducer and Inverse type

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[2] Marks - Draw the Types of Transducers:

Classification based on the Principle of Transduction

The transducer is classified by the transduction medium. The transduction medium may be resistive, inductive
or capacitive depends on the conversion process that how input transducer converts the input signal into
resistance, inductance and capacitance respectively.

[2] Marks - Primary Transducer – The transducer consists of the mechanical as well as the electrical
devices. The mechanical devices of the transducer change the physical input quantities into a mechanical
signal. This mechanical device is known as the primary transducers.

[2] Marks - Secondary Transducer – The secondary transducer converts the mechanical signal into an
electrical signal. The magnitude of the output signal depends on the input mechanical signal.

[2] Marks - Passive Transducer – The transducer which requires the power from an external supply source is
known as the passive transducer. They are also known as the external power transducer. The capacitive,
resistive and inductive transducers are the example of the passive transducer.

[2] Marks - Active Transducer – The transducer which does not require the external power source is known
as the active transducer. Such type of transducer develops theirs owns voltage or current, hence known as a
self-generating transducer. The output signal is obtained from the physical input quantity.

The transducer can also be classified by their output signals. The output signal of the transducer may be
continuous or discrete.

[2] Marks - Analog Transducer – The Analog transducer changes the input quantity into a continuous
function. The strain gauge, L.V.D.T, thermocouple, thermistor are the examples of the analogue transducer.

[2] Marks - Digital Transducer – These transducers convert an input quantity into a digital signal or in the
form of the pulse. The digital signals work on high or low power.

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Transducer – The device which converts the non-electrical quantity into an electric quantity is known as the
transducer.

[2] Marks - Inverse Transducer – The transducer which converts the electric quantity into a physical
quantity, such type of transducers is known as the inverse transducer. The transducer has high electrical input
and low non-electrical output.

[6] [10] Marks - Resistive Transducers:

Resistive transducers are those in which the resistance change due to the change in some physical
phenomenon like the environmental effects. They can be used for measuring various physical quantities like
temperature, pressure, displacement, force, vibrations etc. The change in resistance is measured by the ac or dc
measuring devices.

The measurement of the physical quantity is quite difficult. The resistive transducer converts the physical
quantities into variable resistance which is easily measured by the meters. The process of variation in
resistance is widely used in the industrial applications.

The resistive transducer can work both as the primary as well as the secondary transducer. The primary
transducer changes the physical quantities into a mechanical signal, and secondary transducer directly
transforms it into an electrical signal.

Working Principle of Resistive Transducer:

The resistive transducer element works on the principle that the resistance of the element is directly
proportional to the length of the conductor and inversely proportional to the area of the conductor.
Resistance of an electrical conductor is given by,

Where ,
R = Resistance in Ω
Ρ = Resistivity of the conductor (Ω - cm)
l = Length of the conductor in cm.
A = Cross-sectional area of the metal conductor in cm2
It is clear from the equation that, the electrical resistance can be varied by varying,
(i) Length
(ii) Cross-sectional area and
(iii) Resistivity or combination of these.

Applications of Resistive Transducer

The following are the applications of the resistive transducer.

Potentiometer – The translation and rotatory potentiometer are the examples of the resistive transducers. The
resistance of their conductor varies with the variation in their lengths which is used for the measurement of
displacement.
Strain gauges – The resistance of their semiconductor material changes when the strain occurs on it. This
property of metals is used for the measurement of the pressure, force-displacement etc.
Resistance Thermometer – The resistance of the metals changes because of changes in temperature. This
property of conductor is used for measuring the temperature.

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Thermistor – It works on the principle that the temperature coefficient of the thermistor material varies with
the temperature. The thermistor has the negative temperature coefficient. The Negative temperature coefficient
means the temperature is inversely proportional to resistance.

Advantages of Resistive Transducer

The following are the advantages of the resistive transducer.

Both the AC and DC, current or voltage is appropriate for the measurement of variable resistance.
The resistive transducer gives the fast response.
It is available in various sizes and having a high range of resistance.

[6] [10] Marks - Potentiometer (POT)

Definition:
 The instrument designs for measuring the unknown voltage by comparing it with the known voltage,
such type of instrument is known as the potentiometer.
 In other words, the potentiometer is the three terminal device used for measuring the potential
differences by manually varying the resistances. The known voltage is drawn by the cell or any other
supply sources.
 The potentiometer uses the comparative method which is more accurate than the deflection method. So,
it is mostly used in the places where higher accuracy is required or where no current flows from the
source under test.
 The potentiometer is used in the electronic circuit, especially for controlling the volume.

Characteristics of Potentiometer
The following are the important characteristics of the potentiometer.

 The potentiometer is very accurate because its works on the comparing method rather than the
deflection pointer method for determining the unknown voltages.
 It measures the null or balance point which does not require power for the measurement.
 The working of the potentiometer is free from the source resistance because no current flows through
the potentiometer when it is balanced.

Construction of Potentiometer:
 The construction of the potentiometer is categorised into two parts. They are the sliding and non-sliding
parts. The sliding contact is a called wiper.
 The motion of the sliding contacts is either translatory or rotational. Some potentiometer uses both the
translatory and rotational motions.
 Such type of potentiometer uses the resistor in the form of a helix, and hence they are called heliports.

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  The potentiometer has three terminals, the two terminals are connected to the resistor, and the third
terminal is connected to the wiper which is movable with the wire.
 Because of this moving wire, the variable potential is tapped off. The third terminal is used for
controlling the variable resistor.
 The potential of the third terminal is controlled by changing the applying potential at the end of the
resistor. The body of the potentiometer is made up of resistive material, and the wire is wound on it.

Working of Potentiometer:
 The working principle of the potentiometer is explained through the circuit shown below. Consider S is
the switch used for connecting or disconnecting the galvanometer from the potentiometer.
 The battery through the rheostat and slide wire supply the working current. The working current may
vary by changing the setting of the rheostat.

 The method of findings the unknown voltage depends on the sliding position of the contact at which the
galvanometer shows the zero deflection. The zero or null deflection of galvanometer shows that the
potential of the unknown source E and the voltage drops E1 across the sliding wires are equal.
 Thus, the potential of the unknown voltage is evaluated by knowing the voltage drop across the ac
portion of the sliding wire.
 The slide wire has the uniform cross-section and resistance across the entire length. As the resistance of
the sliding wire is known, then it is easily controlled by adjusting the working current.
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  The process of equalising the working voltage as that of voltage drop is known as the standardisation.

[6] [10] Strain Gauge:

If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance changes on account of the fact that both the
length and diameter of the conductor change. Also there is a change in the value of resistivity of gthe
conductor when it is strained and this property is called piezoresistive effect. Therefore resistance strain gauge
is also called piezoresistive gauge.
The strain gauges are used for the measurement of strain and associated stress in experimental analysis.
Secondly, many detectors and transducers, like the load cell, torque meters, diaphragm type pressure gauges,
temperature sensors, accelerometers and flow meters, employ strain gauges as secondary transducers.

Theory of Strain Gauge:

If the strip of the elastic material is subjected to tension, its longitudinal dimension will increase while there
will be a reduction in lateral dimension. So when a gauge is subjected to a positive strain, its length increases
while its area of cross section decreases.
Let us consider the strain gauge is made of circular wire. The wire has dimensions, length =L, area = A,
diameter = D before strained. He material has resistivity ρ.
There fore the resistance of unstrained gauge is
R=ρL/A

Let a tensile stress is applied to the wire. This produces a positive strain causing the length to increase and area
to decrease. Thus when the wire is strained there are changes in is dimensions. Let ΔL = Change in area, ΔD =
change in diameter, ΔR = change in resistance.

Types of Strain Gauge:

(1) Unbonded Strain Gauges:

These strain gauges are not directly bonded (that is, pasted) onto the surface of the structure under study.
Hence they are termed as unbounded strain gauges.

Description of the Unbonded Strain gauges:

The arrangement of an unbonded strain gauges consists of the following. Two frames P and Q carrying rigidly
fixed insulated pins as shown in diagram. these two frames can move relative with respect to each other and
they are held together by a spring loaded mechanism. A fine wire resistance strain gauge is stretched around
the insulated pins. The strain gauge is connected to a wheat stone bridge.

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Operation of Unbonded strain gauges:
When a force is applied on the structure under study (frames P & Q), frames P moves relative to frame Q,
and due to this strain gauge will change in length and cross section. That is, the strain gauge is strained. This
strain changes the resistance of the strain gauge and this change in resistance of the strain gauge is measured
using a wheat stone bridge. This change in resistance when calibrated becomes a measure of the applied force
and change in dimensions of the structure under study.

Application of Unbonded strain gauge:

Unbonded strain gauge is usedin places where the gauge is to be detached and used again and again.
unbonded strain gauges are used in force, pressure and acceleration measurement.

Advantages of Unbonded strain gauge:

The range of this gauge is +/- 0.15% strain.

This gauge has a very high accuracy.

Limitation of unbonded strain gauges:

It occupies more space.

(2) Bonded Strain Gauges

These gauges are directly bonded (that is pasted) on the surface of the structure under study. Hence they are
termed as bonded strain gauges. The three types of bonded strain gauges are

(a)Fine wire strain gauge

(b)Metal foil strain gauge
(c)Semi-conductor gauge

(a)Fine wire strain gauge

The arrangement consists of following parts,

A fine resistance wire diameter 0.025 mm which is bent again and again as shown in diagram. This is done to
increase the length of the wire so that it permits a uniform distribution of stress. This resistance wire is placed
between the two carrier bases (paper, Bakelite or Teflon) which are cemented to each other. The carrier base
protects the gauge from damages. Leads are provided for electrically connecting the strain gauge to a
measuring instrument (Wheatstone bridge).

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Operation

With the help of an adhesive material, the strain gauge is pasted/bonded on the structure under study. Now the
structure is subjected to a force (tensile or compressive). Due to the force, the structure will change the
dimension. As the strain gauge is bonded to the structure, the stain gauge will also undergo change in both in
length and cross-section (that is, it strained). This strain (change in dimension) changes the resistance of the
strain gauge which can be measured using a wheat stone bridge. This change in resistance of the strain gauge
becomes a measure of the extent to which the structure is strained and a measure of the applied force when
calibrated.

Fine Wire strain gauge Materials

Material Composition
Nichrome Ni - 80% ; Cr – 20%
Constantan Ni – 45%; Cu – 55%

Advantages of Fine Wire Strain Gauge

The range of this gauge is +/- 0.3% of strain.

This gauge has a high accuracy.

Limitation of Fine Wire strain gauge

These gauges cannot be detached and used again (because the gauges are bonded to the structure).
These gauges are costly.

(b)Metal foil strain gauge

The arrangement consists of the following;

The metal foil of 0.02mm thick is produced using the printed circuit technique. This metal foil is produced on
one side of the plastic backing. Leads are soldered to the metal foil for electrically connecting the strain gauge
to a measuring instrument (wheat stone bridge).

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Operations of Metal foil Strain gauge

With the help of an adhesive material, the strain gauge is pasted/bonded on the structure under study. Now the
structure is subjected to a force (tensile or compressive). Due to the force, the structure will change the
dimension. As the strain gauge is bonded to the structure, the stain gauge will also undergo change in both in
length and cross-section (that is, it strained). This strain (change in dimension) changes the resistance of the
strain gauge which can be measured using a wheat stone bridge. This change in resistance of the strain gauge
becomes a measure of the extent to which the structure is strained and a measure of the applied force when
calibrated. Same as Fine Wire strain gauge operation.

Advantages of Metal foil Strain gauge

These strain gauges can be manufactured in any shape.

The backing can be peeled off and the metal foil with leads can be used directly on the structure under study.
In such cases, a ceramic adhesive is to be used.
These gauges have a better life time.
Has good sensitivity and have stability even at high temperatures.

(c)Semi-conductor gauge

The arrangement of a semi-conductor strain gauge is as follows:

The sensing element is rectangular filament made as a wafer from silicon or geranium crystals. To these
crystals, boron is added to get some desired properties and this process is called doping and the crystals are
called doped crystals. This sensing element is attached to a plastics or stainless steel backing. Leads made of
gold are drawn out from the sensing element for electrically connecting the strain gauge to a measuring
instrument (wheat stone bridge).

Operation

With the help of an adhesive material, the strain gauge is pasted/bonded on the structure under study. Now the
structure is subjected to a force (tensile or compressive). Due to the force, the structure will change the
dimension. As the strain gauge is bonded to the structure, the stain gauge will also undergo change in both in
length and cross-section (that is, it strained). When the sensing element (crystal) of the semiconductor strain
gauge is strained, its resistivity changes contributing to a change in the resistance of the strain gauge. The
change in the resistance of the strain gauge is measured using a wheat stone bridge. . This change in resistance
of the strain gauge becomes a measure of the extent to which the structure is strained and a measure of the
applied force when calibrated.

Advantages of semi-conductor Strain gauges

These gauges have high gauge factor and hence they can measure very small strains.
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They can be manufactured to very small sizes.
They have a good frequency of response.
They have good life time.

Limitation of semi-conductor Strain gauges

These gauges are brittle and hence they cannot be used for measuring large strain.
The gauge factor is not constant.
These gauges are very costly and are difficult to be bonded onto the structure under study.
These gauges are sensitive to change in temperature.

(3) Rosettes:
In addition to single element strain gauge, combination of strain gauges called Rosettes are available in many
combinations for specific strain analysis or transducer applications.
An element many be subjected to stresses in any direction and hence it is not possible to locate the direction of
principle stress. Therefore it is necessary to evolve a strain gauge measurement system which measures the
values of principle strains and stresses without actually knowing their directions.

[2] What is doping?

Doping means the introduction of impurities into a semiconductor crystal to the defined modification of
conductivity. Two of the most important materials silicon can be doped with, are boron and phosphorus. Other
materials are aluminum, indium and arsenic, antimony.

[6][10] Resistance Thermometer (or) Resistance Temperature Detector:

 Resistance temperature detector, is a temperature detector sensor that uses the relationship between
temperature and resistance of the conductor to measure the temperature. This sensor is rapidly replacing
thermocouples.

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  The term RTD stands for Resistance Temperature Detector. This sensor is also known as Resistance
thermometer. This sensor is used to measure the temperature.
 Usually, they are available as a length of fine wire made of platinum nickel or copper, wrapped around
a ceramic or glass core. This sensor makes use of the temperature/resistance relationship of the wire to
measure the temperature.

Material used in Resistive Thermometer:

 By using temperature Vs resistance relationship one can find the amount of change happened to the
resistance value of the sensor, for a degree change in the temperature. Platinum metal has a stable
resistance-temperature relationship across a wide range of temperature.

 For Nickel, the amount of change in resistance due to change in temperature becomes non-linear, at a
temperature above 3000C. Based on their behavior, at different temperature ranges, materials are
chosen to make the thin wire, which is used in RTD.

 The resistance thermometer uses a sensitive element made of extremely pure metals like platinum,
copper or nickel. The resistance of the metal is directly proportional to the temperature. Mostly,
platinum is used in resistance thermometer. The platinum has high stability, and it can withstand high
temperature.

 Gold and silver are not used for RTD because they have low resistivity. Tungsten has high resistivity,
but it is extremely brittles. The copper is used for making the RTD element. The copper has low
resistivity and also it is less expensive. The only disadvantage of the copper is that it has low linearity.
The maximum temperature of the copper is about 120ºC.

 The RTD material is made of platinum, nickel or alloys of nickel. The nickel wires are used for a
limited temperature range, but they are quite nonlinear.

(Protection Tube)

(Insulated tube)

Probe Tip
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Construction:

 The construction of resistance thermometer detector is shown in figure. RTD uses platinum, nickel or
copper as a resistance element. Generally, platinum wire is wound on either ceramic bobbin to form a
resistance element. This resistance element is placed inside the hollow structure called protection tube.
It is made up of stainless steel or carbon steel.
 Internally lead wire is used to connect resistance element with external lead terminals. Lead wire
covered by insulated tube for short circuit prevention. Fiber glass is used for low and medium
temperature and a ceramic insulation for high temperature.
 Protection tube is used to protect the resistance element and internal lead wires from ambient
conditions. Protection tube is fitted with the mounting attachment to install the resistance temperature
detector to measuring point.
 The sensing element Rs is made of a material having a high temperature coefficient, R 1, R2 and R5 are
made of resistance that are practically constant under normal temperature changes.
When the sensing element is very near the bridge, and under balance conditions, the following relationship

holds good.
In normal practice, the sensing element is away from the indicator and the bridge, and its leads have a

resistance, say R3, R4.

When resistance Rs changes, the bridge balance is upset and the galvanometer shows a deflection, which can be
calibrated to give a suitable temperature scale.
Advantages
 Accuracy is more.
 More linear than thermocouple.
 No necessary for temperature compensation.
 Performance is stable for long period.

Disadvantages:
 Expensive.
 Their change in temperature is very small even for large change in input temperature.
 External current source is required.
 Low sensitivity.

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[6] [10] Resistance Thermistor:

The thermistor is a kind of resistor whose resistivity depends on surrounding temperature. It is a

temperature sensitive device. The word thermistor is derived from the word, thermally sensitive resistor. The
thermistor is made of the semiconductor material that means their resistance lies between the conductor and the
insulator.
The variation in the thermistor resistance shows that either conduction or power dissipation occurs in
the thermistor. The circuit diagram of thermistor uses the rectangular block which has a diagonal line on it.

Types of Thermistor:

The thermistor is classified into types. They are the negative temperature coefficient and the positive
temperature coefficient thermistor.

 Negative Temperature Coefficient Thermistor – In this type of thermistor the temperature increases
with the decrease of the resistance. The resistance of the negative temperature coefficient thermistor is
very large due to which it detects the small variation in temperature.

 Positive Temperature Coefficient Thermistor – The resistance of the thermistor increases with the
increases in temperature.

Construction of Thermistor
The thermistor is made with the sintered mixture of metallic oxides like manganese, cobalt, nickel, cobalt,
copper, iron, uranium, etc. It is available in the form of the bead, rod and disc. The different types of the
thermistor are shown in the figure below.

The bead form of the thermistor is smallest in shape, and it is enclosed inside the solid glass rod to form
probes.

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The disc shape is made by pressing material under high pressure with diameter range from 2.5 mm to 25mm.

Resistance Temperature Characteristic of Thermistor

The relation between the absolute temperature and the resistance of the thermistor is mathematically expressed
by the equation shown below.

Where RT1 – Resistance of the thermistor at absolute temperature T1 in Kelvin.

RT2 – Resistance of the thermistor at absolute temperature T2 in Kelvin.
Β – a temperature depending on the material of thermistor.

The resistance temperature coefficient of the thermistor is shown in the figure below. The graph below shows
that the thermistor has a negative temperature coefficient, i.e., the temperature is inversely proportional to the
resistance. The resistance of the thermistor changes from 105 to 10-2 at the temperature between -100C to
400C.

Advantages of Thermistor:
The following are the advantages of the thermistor.
 The thermistor is compact, long durable and less expensive.
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  The properly aged thermistor has good stability.
 The response time of the thermistor changes from seconds to minutes. Their response time depends on
the detecting mass and the thermal capacity of the thermistor.
 The self-heating of the thermistor is avoided by minimising the current passes through it.
 The thermistor is installed at the distance of the measuring circuit. Thus the reading is free from the
error caused by the resistance of the lead.
 The thermistor has more advantages as compared to the conventional thermocouple and resistance
thermometer. Along with the temperature sensing the thermistor are also used in various other
application.

[6] Different Uses for Thermistors

Microwave 
For those who have used a microwave, you have used a thermistor. They are used in these machines to
determine and maintain internal temperature. Without the resistor in the microwave, there is a possibility of
overheating in the unit. This could lead to potential fires.

Circuit Protector 
If you have a power supply or surge protector in your home or office then you are also using a thermistor.
Without a thermistor in this product, surges of energy would be uncontrolled. This could lead to overheating or
too much electricity being pushed to whatever is plugged in. This could lead to some of your electronics
shorting out.

Automotive 
Cars, trucks, and buses all use thermistors. They are used to determine the temperature of oil and coolants.
This is how you are able to know if your car is overheating or not. The thermistors are connected to indicators
on the dashboard of the vehicle. Thermistors in cars do not prevent or regulate. Instead, they are used to gather
information. This allows a driver to fix their car or truck before something serious happens.

Digital Thermometers 
Have you ever wondered how digital thermometers are able to accurately gauge someone’s temperature? This
is possible because of thermistors. Just like with cars, these devicesused to gather information rather than
helping to maintain temperature.

Rechargeable Batteries
The ability to recharge a battery is only possible because of the help it gets. When you start charging batteries,
there is a tendency for things to get hot. The low resistance of the thermistor allows it to stop the charging if
things are getting too hot. 

Thermistors are used in everyday life, and they are used in so many different ways

[2] What are the applications of thermistors?

1. Measurement of power at high frequencies
2. Measurement of thermal conductivity
3. Measurement of level, flow and pressure of liquids
4. Measurement of composition of gases
5. Vacuum measurements
6. Providing time delay
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[6] [10] Thermocouple
 The thermocouple can be defined as a kind of temperature sensor that is used to measure the
temperature at one specific point in the form of the EMF or an electric current. This sensor comprises
two dissimilar metal wires that are connected together at one junction. The temperature can be
measured at this junction, and the change in temperature of the metal wire stimulates the voltages.
 The amount of EMF generated in the thermocouple is very minute (millivolts), so very sensitive
devices must be utilized for calculating the e.m.f produced in the circuit. The common devices used to
calculate the e.m.f are voltage balancing potentiometer and the ordinary galvanometer. From these two,
a balancing potentiometer is utilized physically or mechanically.

Thermocouple Working Principle:

The thermocouple principle mainly depends on the three effects namely Seebeck, Peltier and Thompson.
(1) See beck-effect [2 mark]
This type of effect occurs among two dissimilar metals. When the heat offers to any one of the metal
wire, then the flow of electrons supplies from hot metal wire to cold metal wire. Therefore, direct
current stimulates in the circuit.

(2) Peltier-effect [2 mark]

This Peltier effect is opposite to the Seebeck effect. This effect states that the difference of the
temperature can be formed among any two dissimilar conductors by applying the potential variation
among them.

(3) Thompson-effect [2 mark]

This effect states that as two disparate metals fix together & if they form two joints then the voltage induces
the total conductor’s length due to the gradient of temperature. This is a physical word which demonstrates the
change in rate and direction of temperature at an exact position.

Construction & Working:

 Generally, a thermocouple is designed with two different metal wires namely iron and constantan that
makes in detecting element by connecting at one junction that is named as a hot junction. This consist
of two junctions, one junction is connected by voltmeter or transmitter where the cold junction and
second junction is associated in a process that is called as a hot junction

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  The thermocouple schematic diagram is shown in the below figure. This circuit can be built with two
different metals, and that are coupled together by generating two junctions. The two metals are
surrounded to the connection through welding.
 In the above diagram, the junctions are denoted by P & Q, and the temperatures are denoted by T1, &
T2. When the temperature of the junction is dissimilar from each other, then the electromagnetic force
generates in the circuit.
 If the temperate at the junction end turn into equivalent, then the equivalent, as well as reverse
electromagnetic force, produces in the circuit, and there is no flow of current through it. Similarly, the
temperature at the junction end become imbalanced, then the potential variation induces in this circuit.
 The magnitude of the electromagnetic force induces in the circuit rely on the sorts of material utilized
for thermocouple making. The entire flow of current throughout the circuit is calculated by the
measuring tools.
 The electromagnetic force induced in the circuit is calculated by the following equation
E = a (∆Ө) + b (∆Ө)2
Where ∆Ө is the temperature difference among the hot thermocouple junction end as well as the reference
thermocouple junction end, a & b are constants

Advantages & Disadvantages of Thermocouple

The advantages include the following.

 Accuracy is high
 It is Robust and can be used in environments like harsh as well as high vibration.
 Thermal reaction is fast
 The operating range of temperature is wide.
 Wide operating temperature range
 Cost is low and extremely consistent

The disadvantages include the following.

 It has low-accuracy.
 The thermocouple recalibration is hard

Thermocouple Applications
Some of the applications of thermocouple include the following.
 These are used as the temperature sensors in thermostats in offices, homes, offices & businesses.
 These are used in industries for monitoring temperatures of metals in iron, aluminum, and metal.
 These are used in the food industry for cryogenic and Low-temperature applications. Thermocouples
are used as a heat pump for performing thermoelectric cooling.
 These are used to test temperature in the chemical plants, petroleum plants.
 These are used in gas machines for detecting the pilot flame.

[6] [10] Inductance Transducer:

In inductive transducers, the basic principle is that self-inducance of a single coil or the mutual inductance
between two coils is changed by a quantity to be measured, i.e measurand. Usually, the measurand could be a
rotary or linear displacement, force, pressure, torque, velocity, acceleration and vibration. Inductive transducer
work on one of the following principles for its working.

(a) Change of self inductance

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 (b) Change of mutual inductance
(c) Production of eddy current.

Change of Self Inductance of Inductive Transducer

We know very well that self inductance of a coil is given by

Where,
N = number of turns.
R = reluctance of the magnetic circuit.
Also we know that reluctance R is given by

Change of Mutual Inductance of Inductive Transducer

Here transducers, which work on change of mutual inductance principle, use multiple coils. We use here two
coils for the sake of understanding. Both coils have their self-inductance as well. So let’s denote their self-
inductance by L1 and L2.
Mutual inductance between these two coils is given by

Thus mutual inductance can be changed by varying self inductance or by varying coefficient of coupling, K
Production of Eddy Current of Inductive Transducer
when a conducting plate is placed near a coil carrying alternating current, a circulating current is induced in the
plate called “EDDY CURRENT”. This principle is used in such type of inductive transducers. Nearer the
plate is to the coil, higher will be eddy current and higher is the reduction in inductance and vice versa. Thus
inductance of coil varied with the variation of distance between coil and plate. Thus the movement of the plate
can be calibrated in terms of inductance change to measure the quantity like displacement.

18 | K r i p a ’ s n o t e s . .
[6] [10] LVDT
The term LVDT stands for the Linear Variable Differential Transformer. It is the most widely used inductive
transducer that converts the linear motion into the electrical signal.

The output across secondary of this transformer is the differential thus it is called so. It is very accurate
inductive transducer as compared to other inductive transducers.

LVDT Construction

 The above LVDT sensor diagram comprises a core as well as a coil assembly. Here, the core is
protected by the thing whose location is being calculated, while the coil assembly is increased to a
stationary structure. The coil assembly includes three wire wound coils on the hollow shape. The inside
coil is the major, which is energized by an AC source. The magnetic flux generated by the main is
attached to the two minor coils, making an AC voltage in every coil.
 The main benefit of this transducer when we compared with other LVDT types is toughness. As there is
no material contact across the sensing component.
 Because the machine depends on the combination of magnetic flux, this transducer can have an
unlimited resolution. So the minimum fraction of progress can be noticed by an appropriate signal
conditioning tool, and the transducer’s resolution is exclusively determined by the declaration of the
DAS (data acquisition system).
 LVDT comprises of a cylindrical former, which is bounded by one main winding in the hub of the
former and the two minor LVDT windings are wound on the surfaces. The amount of twists in both the
minor windings is equivalent, but they are reverse to each other like clockwise direction and anti-
clockwise direction.

19 | K r i p a ’ s n o t e s . .
Principle of Operation and Working

As the primary is connected to an AC source so alternating current and voltages are produced in the secondary
of the LVDT. The output in secondary S1 is e1 and in the secondary S2 is e2. So the differential output is,

Now three cases arise according to the locations of core which explains the working of LVDT are discussed
below as,
 CASE I 
When the core is at null position (for no displacement)
When the core is at null position then the flux linking with both the secondary windings is equal so the
induced emf is equal in both the windings. So for no displacement the value of output e out is zero as
e1 and e2 both are equal. So it shows that no displacement took place.
 CASE II 
When the core is moved to upward of null position (For displacement to the upward of reference point)
In the this case the flux linking with secondary winding S 1 is more as compared to flux linking with S 2.
Due to this e1 will be more as that of e2. Due to this output voltage eout is positive.
 CASE III 
When the core is moved to downward of Null position (for displacement to the downward of the
reference point). In this case magnitude of e2 will be more as that of e1. Due to this output eout will be
negative and shows the output to downward of the reference point.

Advantages of LVDT
 Low Power Consumption – The power is about 1W which is very as compared to other transducers.
 Direct Conversion to Electrical Signals – They convert the linear displacement to electrical voltage
which are easy to process
 High Range – The LVDTs have a very high range for measurement of displacement.they can used for
measurement of displacements ranging from 1.25 mm to 250 mm
 No Frictional Losses – As the core moves inside a hollow former so there is no loss of displacement
input as frictional loss so it makes LVDT as very accurate device.

Disadvantages of LVDT
 LVDT is sensitive to stray magnetic fields so it always requires a setup to protect them from stray
magnetic fields.
 LVDT gets affected by vibrations and temperature.

20 | K r i p a ’ s n o t e s . .
 Applications of LVDT
1. We use LVDT in the applications where displacements to be measured are ranging from a fraction of
mm to few cms. The LVDT acting as a primary transducer converts the displacement to electrical
signal directly.
2. The LVDT can also act as a secondary transducer. E.g. the Bourbon tube which acts as a primary
transducer and it converts pressure into linear displacement and then LVDT coverts this displacement
into an electrical signal which after calibration gives the readings of the pressure of fluid.

[6] [10] Capacitive Transducer:

Being the simplest form of a capacitor, it has two parallel conducting plates that are separated to each other by
a dielectric or insulator with a permittivity of Ε (for air). Other than paper, vacuum, and semi-conductor
depletion region, the most commonly used dielectric is air.

Due to a potential difference across the conductors, an electric field develops across the insulator. This causes
the positive charges to accumulate on one plate and the negative charges to accumulate on the other.

he capacitance is denoted by C.
The equations below express the capacitance between the plates of a capacitor
Where
A–overlapping area of plates in m2
d – the distance between two plates in meter
ε – permittivity of the medium in F/m
εr – relative permittivity
ε0 – the permittivity of free space

The capacitive transducer is mainly used for measurement of linear displacement. The capacitive transducer
uses the following three effects.
1. Variation in capacitance of transducer is because of the overlapping of capacitor plates.
2. The change in capacitance is because of the change in distances between the plates.
3. The capacitance changes because of dielectric constant.
The following methods are used for the measuring displacement.
1. A transducer using the change in the Area of Plates 
The capacitance is directly proportional to the area of the plates. The capacitance changes correspondingly
with the change in the position of the plates.

21 | K r i p a ’ s n o t e s . .
 2. The transducer using the change in distance between the plates – The capacitance of the transducer
is inversely proportional to the distance between the plates. The one plate of the transducer is fixed, and
the other is movable. The displacement which is to be measured links to the movable plates.

Advantage of Capacitive Transducer

The following are the major advantages of capacitive transducers.

1. It requires an external force for operation and hence very useful for small systems.
2. The capacitive transducer is very sensitive.
3. It gives good frequency response because of which it is used for the dynamic study.
4. The transducer has high input impedance hence they have a small loading effect.
5. It requires small output power for operation.
Disadvantages of capacitive Transducer
The main disadvantages of the transducer are as follows.
1. The metallic parts of the transducers require insulation.
2. The frame of the capacitor requires earthing for reducing the effect of the stray magnetic field.
3. Sometimes the transducer shows the nonlinear behaviours because of the edge effect which is
controlled by using the guard ring.
4. The cable connecting across the transducer causes an error.

Uses of Capacitive Transducer

The following are the uses of capacitive transducer.

1. The capacitive transducer uses for measurement of both the linear and angular displacement. It is
extremely sensitive and used for the measurement of very small distance.

22 | K r i p a ’ s n o t e s . .
2. It is used for the measurement of the force and pressures. The force or pressure, which is to be
measured is first converted into a displacement, and then the displacement changes the capacitances of the
transducer.
3. It is used as a pressure transducer in some cases, where the dielectric constant of the transducer changes
with the pressure.
4. The humidity in gases is measured through the capacitive transducer.
5. The transducer uses the mechanical modifier for measuring the volume, density, weight etc.

[6] Capacitive displacement transducers

  Displacement transducers based on capacitive effects. The principle of a capacitive displacement

transducer.
   All capacitive displacement transducers operate on the principle of a capacitor, which is formed by two
plates separated by a dielectric. Changing the size of the plates, the distance between them, or between them
and the dielectric changes the capacitance.
   Figure 1 shows the principle of a capacitive displacement transducer. It capacitance changes due to the
movement of one plate relative to the other (Fig. 1 a), changes in the area of overlapping plates (Fig. 1, b), or
move the dielectric (Fig. 1, в).
   Known as the design, in which the dielectric, remaining stationary, changes its characteristics.
   Based on this principle capacitive proximity sensor and capacitive switch approach that can detect target at a
distance from the device. The same principle is laid down in a capacitive liquid level transmitter, where the
change of the liquid level varies dielectric constant.

[6] Capacitive Pressure Transducer:

Capacitive Pressure Transducer Working Principle:

23 | K r i p a ’ s n o t e s . .
The Capacitive pressure sensor operates on the principle that, if the sensing diaphragm between two
capacitor plates is deformed by a differential pressure, an imbalance of capacitance will occur between itself
and the two plates.
This imbalance is detected in a capacitance bridge circuit and converted to a D.C. output current of 4 to 20 mA.
This is shown in Figure, where the movement of a flexible diaphragm relative to a fixed plate is sensed by the
capacitance change. A secondary isolating diaphragm is used to protect the sensing diaphragm.

Capacitive Pressure Sensor

Another type of capacitor uses concentric hollow metal cylinders. The capacitance of this type just like the flat-
plate type is proportional to the area.
This principle can be applied to differential pressure measurement, as shown in Figure. The pressure acting on
the isolating diaphragms set up similar pressures in the silicone oil filling the space between them.
A net force proportional to the difference between the two pressures acts upon the metal sensing diaphragm
and deflects it to one side or the other, depending on which input pressure is the greater.
Each plate forms a capacitor with the sensing diaphragm, which is connected electrically to the metallic body
transducer.

The sensing diaphragm and capacitor thus form a differential variable separation capacitor. When the two input
pressure are equal, the diaphragm is positioned centrally and the capacitances are equal.
A difference in the two input pressures causes displacement of the sensing diaphragm and is sensed as a
difference between the two capacitances.
This change in capacitance is measured using a bridge circuit to measure the equivalent pressure signal.
24 | K r i p a ’ s n o t e s . .
Active Transducer

 An active transducer is a self-generating type transducer that has the ability to generate electrical
voltage or current as its output without using any external source of power.
 These transducers draw the energy needed for their operation from the measuring system itself. It is
noteworthy in case of active transducers that the output produced is very small thus further
amplification is required in its case.
 The various examples of active transducers are as follows:

Tachogenerators – These are basically used to measure angular velocity.

Thermocouples – Temperature measurement is accomplished using thermocouples.
Piezoelectric crystals – These converts charges generated by application of force into electric potential.

Passive Transducer

 These are externally powered transducers, that induces variation in the parameters associated with the
electrical circuits, with the variation in the applied input signal.
 Here, energy conversion is established by the use of an auxiliary power source. In these type of
transducers, changes in voltage, current or frequency are noticed when electrical parameters such as
inductance, capacitance or resistance associated with the circuit changes. A passive transducer
sometimes may draw energy from the measuring system itself.
 The output of a passive transducer is not that much low which requires further amplification. However,
sometimes amplifiers are employed in such transducers also.
 The various examples of passive transducers are:
Potentiometer – It is a device that converts displacement into voltage.
Thermistor – These produce voltage with change in temperature.

Differences Between Active and Passive Transducer

 The key difference between active and passive transducer is that in an active transducer, the energy
required for its operation is taken from the quantity that has to be measured. On the other side, in
passive transducer energy needed for operation is derived from an external source.
 Active transducers basically produce electrical current or voltage as its output while passive transducers
show variation in passive parameters as its output.
 On the basis of their working active transducers are known as self-generating transducers whereas
passive transducers are known as externally powered transducers.
 A very low amplitude signal is produced at the output by an active transducer thus requires
amplification. As against, high amplitude signal is generated by a passive transducer thus signal
amplification is not required.
 The system design of an active transducer is simple whereas passive transducer holds a complex system
design.
 Active transducers do not need an external supply of power while the passive transducer requires an
external energy source.

25 | K r i p a ’ s n o t e s . .
[2]Seebeck effect
The Seebeck effect is a phenomenon in which a temperature difference between two dissimilar electrical
conductors or semiconductors produces a voltage difference between the two substances.
When heat is applied to one of the two conductors or semiconductors, heated electrons flow toward the cooler
one. If the pair is connected through an electrical circuit, direct current (DC) flows through that circuit.

[2] What is potentiometer?

Basically a resistance potentiometer, or simply a POT, (a resistive potentiometer used for the purposes of
voltage division is called a POT) consists of a resistive element provided with asliding contact. The POT is a
passive transducer.

[2] What is gauge factor?

The gauge factor is unit resistance change per unit strain, which is due to three factors as revealed by the above
equation.

[2] What is young’s modulus?

It is a ratio of stress and strain, dR/R / dl/l

26 | K r i p a ’ s n o t e s . .