Earth-Science Reviews 196 (2019) 102871

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Earth-Science Reviews
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Landslides and Quaternary climate changes—The state of the art T

Tomáš Pánek
⁎

Department of Physical Geography and Geoecology, Faculty of Science, University of Ostrava, Chittussiho 10, Ostrava 710 00, Czech Republic

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Climatic factors are considered major causes and triggers of slope instability, but the palaeoclimatic implications
Landslides of landslides have not yet been systematically reviewed. As inferred from landslides dated to the Late Glacial and
Slope stability Holocene, glacial-interglacial transitions are the major intervals of enhanced landsliding, but the length of this
Dating interval varies between distinct types of landscapes. Mass movements in non-glaciated temperate mountain
Glacial-interglacial cycle
ranges, arid and tropical regions, and coastal areas intensified soon after the onset of the Holocene alongside the
Climate changes
Quaternary
warming and wetting of the climate, whereas large rock slides in areas within the limits of Pleistocene glacia-
tions mostly show a millennial-scale time lag with respect to glacier withdrawal. Although the incidence of
landslides was ubiquitous throughout the Holocene, the mid- to late-Holocene transition (~5–4 ka) was espe-
cially favourable for the origin of landslides across distinct types of landscapes, indicating a strengthened role of
mass movements during the culmination phases of interglacial climate optima. In addition, growing evidence
suggests that the enhanced activity of landslides occurred during warmer interstadial conditions, which is best
demonstrated in the temporal coincidence of arid-zone landslides with Quaternary “pluvials”. Future progress in
the understanding of the relationships between landslides and Quaternary climate changes should benefit from
the i) extension of datasets of dated landslides, ii) geographical expansion of dating studies to regions with a lack
of chronologically determined landslides (e.g., tropics), iii) improvement of landslide-dating strategies involving
the incorporation of independent palaeoclimatic proxies and iv) wider incorporation of numerical modeling
within landslide-dating studies.

1. Introduction greater in the long-term Quaternary palaeoenvironmental context (Korup

Landslides produce some of the most widespread Quaternary landforms
and deposits. Additionally, landslides represent major natural hazards
(Petley, 2012) and efficient geomorphological processes that contribute to
global sediment flux from land to the sea (Korup, 2012). Although tradi-
tionally reported from mountain areas (Korup et al., 2007) and volcanic
edifices (Ponomareva et al., 2006), large landslides are also common in
mountain foothills (e.g. Philip and Ritz, 1999), dissected tablelands (e.g.
Castleton et al., 2016) and coastal regions (e.g. Pánek et al., 2016a). Failure
scars and debris piles that are related to terrestrial landslides might persist in
landscapes over 103–106 years, depending on the climate and tectonic set-
tings (Clague, 2015). Although climatic and accompanying hydrological
and ecological factors are unequivocally some of the most important drivers
of mass movements (Selby, 1993; Sidle and Ochiai, 2013), mechanisms by
which climate changes stimulate landslides are far from well known (Korup
et al., 2011). Many unanswered questions exist regarding the effects of
contemporary climate change on the magnitude and frequency of landslides
(Crozier, 2010; Gariano and Guzzetti, 2016), but uncertainties regarding
how altered precipitation and temperature regimes affect slope stability are
et al., 2011).
Recently, a growing number of studies have linked the temporal
occurrence of landslides with Quaternary climate changes of various
duration (i.e., from orbital to centennial timescales; Soldati et al., 2004;
Bookhagen et al., 2005; Margielewski, 2006; Dortch et al., 2009;
Borgatti and Soldati, 2010; Zerathe et al., 2014; Johnson et al., 2017;
Březný et al., 2018). However, using landslides in a palaeoclimatic
context is more challenging compared to other landforms that are fre-
quently used as geomorphological evidence of Quaternary environ-
mental changes (e.g., moraines, river terraces, dunes or sea/lake shor-
elines; Lowe and Walker, 2015). The origin of landslides might be
connected with a complex suite of causes and triggers that involve
climatic factors, intrinsic changes within the rock mass, seismic activity
and anthropogenic effects (McColl, 2015). Furthermore, a limited
number of chronologically constrained landslides exist, and only a few
regions involve extensive time series of dated landslide events (e.g.,
Whitehouse, 1983; Prager et al., 2008; Pánek et al., 2013; Starkel et al.,
2013; Ballantyne et al., 2014; Yuan et al., 2013; Booth et al., 2017;
Hermanns et al., 2017; Fig. 1). As a demonstration of this drawback,

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: tomas.panek@osu.cz.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.05.015
Received 30 January 2019; Received in revised form 27 May 2019; Accepted 27 May 2019
Available online 29 May 2019
0012-8252/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
T. Pánek Earth-Science Reviews 196 (2019) 102871

(caption on next page)

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T. Pánek Earth-Science Reviews 196 (2019) 102871

Fig. 1. Distribution of dated landslides (n = 1248). A. Worldwide context. Climate-related landslides (n = 831) are those whose origin was at least partially in-
terpreted in terms of climate forcing. B. Main characteristics of more extensive regional datasets of dated landslides (“n” denotes the number of dated landslides in a
particular region).

the > 1800 absolute-dating entries for glacial landforms and deposits
solely from the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen (Owen and Dortch, 2014)
significantly exceed the number of all landslides (> 1200), which have
been hitherto dated throughout the world (Pánek, 2015).
This study provides the first comprehensive state-of-the-art review
of the current knowledge regarding how past climate changes affected
terrestrial landslides in the Quaternary context. A substantial number of
recent papers have examined the slope-stability implications of con-
temporary climate change and global warming but only marginally
discussed the palaeoenvironmental record to infer the effect of climate
change on landslide activity (Crozier, 2010; Huggel et al., 2012;
Gariano and Guzzetti, 2016). Therefore, the main concern of this re-
view is to evaluate the palaeoclimatic implications of terrestrial land-
slides on timescales of ≥102 years, i.e., with a particular focus on an-
cient mass movements that are mostly datable by radiometric and
chronostratigraphic techniques. This study builds and expands on ear-
lier studies by Matthews et al. (1997); Dikau and Schrott (1999),
Borgatti et al. (2001), Borgatti and Soldati (2002, 2013) and Gariano
and Guzzetti (2016), who introduced the role of ancient landslides as
palaeo-evidence of climate change.
This study focuses on large (≥106 m3) landslides and uses > 1200
hitherto dated landslides across the globe to i) provide the first as-
sessment of the world's landslide chronology and discuss the possible
connections between the hitherto dated landslides and Quaternary
climate changes, ii) present the temporal behaviour and palaeoclimatic
context of Quaternary landslides in diverse types of landscapes, and iii)
discuss the role of landslides in the (last) glacial-interglacial cycle.
Rather than a comprehensive meta-analysis of existing landslide time
series, which are still too limited and thus challenging for sophisticated
statistical treatment (Korup et al., 2011), we summarize the original
authors' ideas regarding possible climatic influences on the studied
landslides, present regional differences in potential climate signals
within catalogues of dated landslides, and define research gaps and
future lines of work to the scientific community concerning the in-
tegration of the landslide topic with Quaternary science.

2. Background

Climatic factors represent some of the most important causes and

triggers of mass movements and, in most cases, have been used to ex-
plain the temporal occurrence of ancient landslides (Fig. 2A). However,
precipitation and temperature variabilities alongside related environ-
mental changes affect the resisting and driving forces that act on hill-
slopes in a complex manner (Crozier, 2010; Sidle and Bogaard, 2016).
The effect of past climate changes on landslide occurrence is therefore
challenging to evaluate because of the i) complex tectonic, climatic, and
anthropogenic array that influences slope stability and ii) low temporal
resolution and limited size of catalogues of dated landslides, which
often lack independent comparative palaeoclimatic proxies (Dikau and
Schrott, 1999). Processes that are related to climate change might act as
both preparatory factors (e.g., an increase in the precipitation total
lowering rock-mass strength by weathering) and triggers (e.g., more
frequent heavy rainfall transiently increasing pore-water pressures). Fig. 2. Database of dated landslides (n = 1248) and related literature (n = 331
Simultaneously, climate variables influence slope stability on various studies) that were published between 1969 and 2018. A. Literature that focused
spatial and temporal scales. Dikau and Schrott (1999) emphasized that on landslide dating with the interpretation of possible landslide triggers. The
the same past climatic conditions in the Holocene led to both an in- number of landslide-dating studies per year and cumulative number of studies
crease and inhibition of landslide activity in distinct European regions is presented by blue bars and the solid blue line, respectively. B. Dated land-
and that various types of landslides reacted differently to similar cli- slides per year are marked with red bars, and the solid red line shows the cu-
matic inputs. mulative number of dated landslides. (For interpretation of the references to
The implications of climate changes on slope-stability responses colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this
were thoroughly discussed in other papers (Crozier, 2010; Borgatti and article.)

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T. Pánek Earth-Science Reviews 196 (2019) 102871

Table 1
Reported changes in climatic factors that were responsible for the increase in landslide incidence in the Quaternary palaeoenvironmental context (partly based on
Crozier, 2010 and Gariano and Guzzetti, 2016).
Change in climatic factor Examples of consequences Landslide response/type of landslides Study

Increased precipitation total Higher water table during “humid Deep-seated landslides due to gradual reduction of shear Bertolini et al. (2004); Margielewski (2006);
periods”. strength. Pánek et al. (2013); Starkel et al. (2013);
Higher lake levels and increased Various types of landslides originate due to wet antecedent Sewell et al. (2015)
discharge in streams. conditions.

Decreased precipitation Deforestation and vegetation Discrete high-magnitude rainfalls acting on desiccated Nott et al. (2001); Sewell et al. (2015)
total decay. landscape.
Especially shallow landslides and debris flows.

Increased frequency of Rapid build-up of perched water Transitional increase of pore-water pressures. Scott Eaton et al. (2003); Matthews et al.
extreme rainfalls tables. Increased through flow and Especially shallow landslides and debris flows. (2009); Johnson et al. (2017)
surface runoff.

Increase in air temperature
Deglaciation Debutressing of rock slopes, accumulation of thick piles of
unstable deposits (moraines etc), collapses of moraine/ice-
dammed lakes, lost of cohesion due to interstitial ice melt,
reduction of the shear strength of ice-filled clefts.
Permafrost degradation Rock avalanches, rock falls, retrogressive thaw slumps etc.
Blikra et al. (2006); Ballantyne et al. (2014);
Pánek et al. (2016b); Gallach et al. (2018);
Hilger et al. (2018); Böhme et al. (2019)

Decrease in air temperature Higher accumulation of winter Water saturation due to seasonal snowmelt. Bertolini et al. (2004); McIntosh and Barrows
snow. Various types of landslides, earth flows etc. (2011); Slee et al. (2017)

Change in circulation Enhancing of Asian summer
patterns monsoon.
Pluvial periods in Northern Africa
and Middle East.
El Niño Southern Oscillation
Tropical Atlantic Sea wet periods.
Arid areas previously unaffected subject to higher rainfall. Busche (2001); Keefer et al. (2003); Trauth
et al. (2003); Bookhagen et al. (2005)
Various types of landslides involving rock avalanches, rock
slides, rotational slides, spreads etc.

Soldati, 2013; Gariano and Guzzetti, 2016), so their detailed treatment
is outside the scope of this study. Table 1 summarizes the main climate-
change parameters and their effects, which have been hitherto dis-
cussed in relation to palaeolandslide origins. Here, we consider climate
change in its broadest sense, including direct and indirect environ-
mental consequences. As such, we also consider as climate-triggered
palaeolandslides those that are related to paraglacial processes (see
Ballantyne, 2002), which involve seismicity accompanying the release
of lithospheric stresses during and after the retreat of continental ice
sheets (e.g., Ballantyne et al., 2014; Ojala et al., 2018). Similarly, we
include all landslides that are related to past cryosphere dynamics (e.g.,
permafrost degradation), sea−/lake-level oscillations and changes in
vegetation cover that were linked to climate variability (Table 1).
To ensure compatibility with other studies, the terminology of
landslide types follows the widely accepted classification of Cruden and
Varnes (1996), which was recently updated by Hungr et al. (2014). For
generalization, we sometimes use terms beyond classical mass move-
ment types, but these terms are familiar to researchers that work in the
area of landslide science. In particular, rock-slope failure (RSF) is an
umbrella term for massive rock slides, rock avalanches and rock falls
(Jarman, 2006), and deep-seated gravitational slope deformations
(DSGSDs) encompass short-displacement, rather prolonged deforma-
tions of high-relief hillslopes (Agliardi et al., 2001).
3. Dataset
3.1. Literature review
We perform an extensive literature review based on > 330 mostly
peer-reviewed publications to summarize recent views on the climatic
control of Quaternary landslides. Nearly 73% of these studies explained
the temporal occurrence of landslides as the direct effects of pre-
cipitation and temperature changes or alternatively related processes,
such as deglaciation, sea-level oscillations or vegetation changes. We
focus on studies that involved the absolute dating of landslides
(n = 331; see Fig. 2A and Supplementary material Table S1) alongside
some articles that discussed palaeolandslides in the climatic context
without absolute time constraints (e.g., Busche, 2001; Thomas, 2004;
Crosta et al., 2013; Coquin et al., 2015; Safran et al., 2015). Thus, we
compile a database that involves 1248 hitherto dated terrestrial land-
slides (Fig. 2B), from which 831 landslides were related to climatic
forcing, or at least where climate acted as one contributing factor. The
number of dated landslides does not reflect individual mass movements
that were reconstructed from minerogenic deposits within lakes and
mires (e.g., Matthews et al., 2009), although these studies are con-
sidered in this review. Offshore turbidites are considered only in the
case of existing direct links with adjacent coastal landslides (Bøe et al.,
2003, 2004). Although the gathered dataset is probably not complete
and some dated landslides that were published in local or technical
reports were likely omitted, we believe that this database involves a
substantial number of dated landslides that have been published since
the 1990s (Fig. 2B). Chronological data are presented throughout this
study in their original published form, without recalibration or the use
of new updated scaling models.
The obtained dataset is strongly geographically biased, with > 50%
of the landslides dated in Europe but only a negligible fraction (< 5%)
of chronologically constrained landslides from Africa, Australasia and
the tropical areas of South America (Figs. 1 and 3). This fact creates
gaps in our understanding of landslides and their palaeoclimate con-
trols in low-latitude areas (Thomas, 2004). The asymmetric distribution
also reveals the contribution from individual landslide types,
where > 90% of the dated landslides comprise flows (40%, especially
debris flows and earth flows), slides (33%, mainly rock slides, rotational
and translational slides) and rock avalanches (22%; Fig. 3). Other types
of mass movements, such as deep-seated gravitational slope deforma-
tions (DSGSDs or mountain/rock slope deformations; Hungr et al.,
2014), rock falls and topples, comprise only a few percent of the dated
cases (Fig. 3). This phenomenon is generally related to the relative ease
of dating fragmented landslide bodies (e.g., debris flows, earth flows,
and rock avalanches) by radiocarbon (14C) or terrestrial cosmogenic
nuclide (TCN) techniques, which are by far the most common methods
for determining landslide ages (Fig. 3). On the contrary, block-type
emplacements (e.g., DSGSDs, rock spreading and topples) require only
the application of novel dating strategies, for instance, the TCN dating
of exposed scarps (Hippolyte et al., 2009, 2012; Zerathe et al., 2014;
Březný et al., 2018) or other rarely applicable procedures, such as

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T. Pánek
Fig. 3. Main characteristics of the world database of dated landslides.
U—Th dating of speleothems that infill landslide cracks or cover rear
scarps (Fig. 3; Pánek et al., 2009, 2018a; Zerathe and Lebourg, 2012).
3.2. Towards the world's landslide chronology
The number of dated landslides that have been recorded in the
world over Quaternary timescales is shown in Fig. 4. The vast majority
(97%) of the hitherto dated landslides span the time interval over the
last < 100 ka, from which 93% are landslides that are constrained be-
tween 0.1 and 25 ka and 79% fall within the Holocene (0.1–11.6 ka;
Fig. 4A, B). This observation clearly indicates strong temporal biasing
towards more recent events because of the removal of older landslides
by erosion (Clague, 2015) or their overlapping by younger generations
of landslides (Bertolini, 2007; Pánek et al., 2013). Therefore, this global
dataset of dated landslides confirms the earlier hypothesis of Clague
(2015), who suggested that the number of dated Holocene landslides
reveals a progressive decrease in frequency back in time (Fig. 4B). This
overall negative exponential trend is disrupted only by slight incre-
ments at ~10 ka, ~4 ka and ~2 ka (Fig. 4C), whereas the increase of
mass movement frequency at ~10 ka is more clearly evident for large
landslides with V ≥ 106 m3 (Fig. 4B).
Our global dataset fits earlier ideas, such that large landslides
(> 106 m3) are less biased than smaller ones because of their better
preservation potential (e.g., Korup et al., 2011; Sanhueza-Pino et al.,
2011; Clague, 2015). Histograms that were compiled separately for two
groups of the largest landslides (≥106 m3, and ≥ 108 m3, respectively;
Fig. 4B) show a regular distribution of large events throughout the
Holocene (< 10 ka). However, both size categories show a significant
decrease in the number of landslides before ~15 ka. This observation
likely reflects the erosion of landslides by glaciers from the Last Glacial
Maximum (LGM) because > 60% of the studied landslides are situated
within the limits of Pleistocene glaciations. Strong trends are also
missing if the global dataset of chronologically determined landslides is
stratified according to the landslide types (Fig. 4C) and inferred causes
and triggers (Fig. 4D). The proportion of individual types of landslides
remains similar across the last 25 ka, even though flows approximately
double at ~5–6 ka compared to older periods (Fig. 4C). This trend may
indicate more suitable conditions for such slope failures since the
humid Holocene Climatic Optimum because flows require abundant
water for initiation (Hungr et al., 2001). Climate forcing is ascribed to
the majority of palaeolandslides throughout the last 25 ka, but without
any time interval revealing a dramatic increase in climate-induced
landslides (Fig. 4D).
This compiled global database shows that the catalogue of dated
landslides is strongly biased in the last ~100 ka, which complicates the
evaluation of the importance of landslides even in the last glacial-in-
terglacial cycle. In this respect, the preservation potential of landslides
is much lower than that of other landforms that are traditionally used in
Quaternary studies, such as glacial moraines (Owen and Dortch, 2014)
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Earth-Science Reviews 196 (2019) 102871
or river terraces (Schanz et al., 2018). Although this global catalogue of
dated landslides might reveal potential imprints of first-order climate
changes that occurred after the Late Glacial-Holocene transition, during
the Holocene Climatic Optimum and during the late Holocene
(Mayewski et al., 2004), these signals should be considered with cau-
tion and treated separately for different types of landscapes, particular
landslide types and their magnitude (Crozier, 2010).
4. Landslides within the limits of Pleistocene glaciations
Studies that involved landslide dating have traditionally focused on
alpine regions and areas covered by continental ice sheets (Fig. 1). Full
or partial deglaciation in these regions during the late Pleistocene-Ho-
locene transition inducedhad widespread slope-stability consequences
because of glacial erosion, debuttressing, sheet jointing, permafrost
degradation and seismicity from glacial isostatic rebound (Ballantyne,
2002; McColl, 2012).
Contrary to pioneering studies, which assumed that large landslides
in areas that were covered by Pleistocene glaciers originated soon after
the LGM and/or Late Glacial Period ice retreat (Abele, 1969, 1974), a
recently growing number of dated landslides from regions with well-
constrained ice-retreat dates (e.g., European Alps, British Islands,
Scandinavia, Iceland, Himalayas and Southern Alps of New Zealand)
showed rather complex temporal behaviour for mass movements in the
last glacial-interglacial cycle. Some studies suggested that the para-
glacial phase during the Late Glacial-Holocene transition represented a
major slope-destabilization effect (Cossart et al., 2008; Ballantyne et al.,
2014; Hermanns et al., 2017; Mercier et al., 2017), while others high-
lighted the importance of millennial- or shorter-scale precipitation and
temperature variability (González-Díez et al., 1996; Soldati et al., 2004;
Bookhagen et al., 2005; Borgatti and Soldati, 2010; Prager et al., 2008;
Ivy-Ochs et al., 2017; Hilger et al., 2018). More or less evenly temporal
distribution of postglacial landslide events in many deglaciated regions
reveals that suitable conditions for the origin of large landslides pre-
vailed throughout the Late Glacial and Holocene. Recent findings (e.g.,
McColl, 2012; Riva et al., 2018) indicate that i) some paraglacial pro-
cesses operated throughout various timescales, causing an often pro-
nounced time lag of the landslide origin with respect to glacier dis-
appearance, and ii) landslides reacted to many intrinsic and external
causes and triggers after deglaciation, such as rock slope fatigue, pre-
cipitation and temperature changes, seismicity, and human effects.
Somewhat controversial opinions on the role of paraglacial processes,
postglacial climate variability and other landslide causes and triggers in
deglaciated regions are summarized in Table 2.
Because of geographical differences, we review areas of mountain
glaciation, regions that were covered by continental ice sheets and
glacier forelands. These regions often have different climatic condi-
tions, seismic activity and types of rocks within slope instabilities.
T. Pánek Earth-Science Reviews 196 (2019) 102871

Fig. 4. Temporal distribution of the world's dated landslides. A. All Quaternary dated landslides. B. Timing of the largest dated landslides in the last 25 ka (i.e.,
approximately since the maximum coverage of ice sheets in the last glacial-interglacial cycle). Figures C and D show all dated landslides in the last 25 ka stratified by
the type and possible triggers, respectively. Note the temporal bias of dated landslides, with progressively fewer events recorded back in time.

4.1. High mountains
Deciphering climatic signals from alpine landslides is challenging
because i) orogenic belts are affected by permanent tectonic strain and
associated high-magnitude earthquakes (Burbank and Anderson, 2011),
ii) high mountain slopes are strongly influenced by static and cyclic
fatigue (McColl, 2015) and iii) high-relief landscapes are usually
characterized by the highest erosion rates (Montgomery and Brandon,
2002). In other words, landslides in high mountain areas are often
triggered by non-climatic factors (Stolle et al., 2017; Roback et al.,
2018), sometimes originating without any obvious triggers (Hancox
et al., 1999), and their chance for survival over long periods
(> 103 years) is low (Clague, 2015).
Despite these limitations, alpine areas provide invaluable insights to
the chronology of RSFs and their potential links to glacier retreat and
postglacial climate variability. These relationships are best documented
in the European Alps and Himalayas, which contain some of the most
extensive records of dated landslides (Fig. 5). Although both mountain
regions differ in terms of topography, tectonic activity, deglaciation
history and climate, they share some similarities with respect to post-
LGM landslide occurrence, such as i) missing or only indistinct peaks of
RSF activity following post-LGM ice retreat and ii) large landslides that
roughly originated evenly throughout the Holocene and nearly across
the entire altitudinal range of mountains.
Enhanced slope activity in the European Alps occurred at ~10–9 ka,
~5–3 ka and ~2–1 ka, where the oldest cluster temporally coincides

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Table 2
Overview of glaciated regions where climate changes are discussed among factors that contributed to the genesis of ancient landslides.
Region/type of glaciationa Datasetb Main dating methods Age of landslides Role of paraglaciation Role of post-glacial climatic changes Main referencesc

European Alps/MG
Scandinavia/IS
British Islands/IS
Iceland/IS
> 239; debris flows,
earthflows, rock
avalanches and rockslides,
few DSGSDs
> 110; debris flows,
debris slides and rock
avalanches
> 55; rock avalanches,
rockslides, rockfalls, few
rotational slides and
earthflows
> 17; rock avalanches
and rockslides
14 10
C and Be ~114–0.2 ka; 98% post- Largely preparatory factor Early Holocene warming (~10–9 ka) and Prager et al. (2008); Borgatti and
LGM, 91% Holocene Mid-to Late Holocene humid and cold phases Soldati (2010); Zerathe et al. (2014);
(~5–3 ka and ~2–1 ka) often cited as causes Ivy-Ochs et al. (2017)
or triggers of landslides.
Some landslides attributed to seismicity.
14 10
C and Be ~18.8–0.1 ka; 100% Often cited as preparatory or Climatic changes at the end of the Holocene Bøe et al. (2003, 2004); Blikra et al.
post-LGM, 88% triggering factor. thermal optimum responsible for ~5 ka (2006); Schleier et al. (2015, 2017);
Holocene Landslides in Finland directly landslides cluster. Hermanns et al. (2017); Hilger et al.
related to postglacial rebound- (2018); Ojala et al. (2018)
induced seismicity.
10 14
Be (only few C) ~17.9–0.1 ka; 100% Major factor. Landslides in Mid-to Late Holocene humid phases likely Dowell and Hutchinson (2010);
post-LGM, 51% Scotland and Northern Ireland responsible for origin of some landslides in Ballantyne and Stone (2013);
Holocene directly related to postglacial England. Ballantyne et al. (2014); Southall
rebound-induced seismicity. et al. (2017)
14
C and ~15.97–1 ka; 100% Major preparatory and triggering Not mentioned Coquin et al. (2015); Mercier et al.
tephrochronology post-LGM, 94% older factor. (2017)
than Preboreal

7
Cantabrian Mountains/MG
Himalayas/MGd
Central Andes-Cerro
Acocangua region/MG
Tatra Mts (Carpathians)/ MG
San Juan Mountains
(Colorado, New
Mexico)/ MG
> 23; earthflows, slides
and few rock avalanches
> 66; rock avalanches,
rockslides and debris flows
> 22; rock avalanches,
rockslides
> 14; DSGSDs, rockfalls,
rock avalanches
> 7; rockslides
14
C ~44.7–0.1 ka; 87% post- Some of the major preparatory and Some landslides likely related to Early and González-Díez et al. (1996, 1999);
LGM, 52% Holocene triggering factor. Late Holocene humid phases. Rodríguez-Rodríguez et al. (2018)
Some landslides attributed to seismicity.
10 14
Be (few C and OSL) ~122–0.5 ka; 80% post- Seldom mentioned. Landslides originated during ~29.9–24 ka Bookhagen et al. (2005); Dortch et al.
LGM, and ~9–4 ka intervals attributed by some (2009); Yuan et al. (2013)
68% Holocene authors to intensified monsoon phases.
Landslides largely attributed to seismicity
36
Cl (few 14C and ~192–4.1 ka; 59% post- Major factor for landslides situated Not mentioned Fauqué et al. (2009); Hermanns and
tephrochronology) LGM, 32% Holocene within deeply incised deglaciated Longva (2012); Moreiras et al. (2015)
valleys.
10
Be ~20.2–4.4 ka; 100% Both preparatory and triggering Possible connection with humid phases Pánek et al. (2016b, 2017)
post-LGM, 43% factor. Bølling–Allerød chronozone and Mid-
Holocene Holocene Climatic Optimum
36
Cl, 14C, soil ~14–2 ka; 100% post- Preparatory factor. Landslides related to short-term weather Johnson et al. (2017)
development LGM, 57% Holocene events.

a
MG – mountain glaciation, ice cap, IS – ice sheet.
b
Involving dated reactivations of individual landslides.
c
Mainly papers presenting large datasets of dated landslides and review papers involving data from other authors.
d
Including whole Himalayan-Tibetan orogen.
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Fig. 5. Timing of dated post-LGM landslides in the European Alps (A; Prager et al., 2008; Ivy-Ochs et al., 2017 and references therein) and the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen (B;
Chen et al., 2013; Yuan et al., 2013; Peng et al., 2018 and references therein) related to selected topographical and environmental characteristics. The upper plots show large
RSFs (rock avalanches and rock slides with ≥106 m3) with known volume and scar elevation, the lower plots denote individual ages of all the dated RSFs (red points with age-
uncertainty bars), and the 1-ka binned histograms display the temporal distribution of the complete dataset of chronologically determined landslides (including flows and falls).
The major glacial advances for the European Alps and Himalayas are adopted from Ivy-Ochs et al. (2009) and Owen and Dortch (2014), respectively. The period with a
strengthened monsoon in the Himalayas was adopted from Gasse et al. (1996). For a complete list of references of landslide ages, see Supplementary material Table S1. (For
interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

with the early Holocene warming and permafrost degradation, while
the later phases are explained by a shift to wetter and colder climatic
conditions (Fig. 5A; Prager et al., 2008; Ivy-Ochs et al., 2017). Although
some landslides or their clusters were attributed to seismic triggering
(e.g., Sanchez et al., 2010; Grämiger et al., 2016) or the direct effects of
glacial shrinking (Cossart et al., 2008), the prevailing opinion is that
landslides in the European Alps resulted from the joint effects of long-
lasting preparatory processes that were related to deglaciation (e.g.,
stress redistribution and subcritical crack growth) and Holocene cli-
matic variations, which stimulated landslide activity either as causes or
triggers (Soldati et al., 2004; Borgatti et al., 2007; Prager et al., 2008; Le
Roux et al., 2009; Borgatti and Soldati, 2010; Ivy-Ochs et al., 2017;
Schwartz et al., 2017). An open question remains regarding whether
some large landslides reflect shorter, centennial-scale Holocene climatic
events. Based on high-resolution TCN dating, some studies related the
occurrence of large RSFs to a cold “8.2 ka BP event” (Ostermann et al.,
2012) and “4.2 ka event” (Zerathe et al., 2014).
In the Himalayas, the linking of ancient landslides with climate
changes is more difficult because of the stronger seismicity and more
complex chronological pattern of Late Quaternary glacier advances
(Owen and Dortch, 2014). However, > 40% of all landslides that were
dated in the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen span the time interval ~9–4 ka,
which excellently coincidences with the timing of the Holocene's in-
tensified monsoon phase (Fig. 5B; Gasse et al., 1996). Moreover, several
other massive rock slides were dated to a late Pleistocene humid phase
(~35–25 ka; Shi et al., 2001), which led some authors (e.g., Bookhagen
et al., 2005) to conclude that enhanced monsoons throughout the
Quaternary provided especially suitable conditions for the production
of large RSFs. This phenomenon was demonstrated in the contemporary
arid NW portion of the mountain range, where rainfall advects only
during abnormal monsoon years (Bookhagen et al., 2005). Although
earthquakes represent a major trigger of Himalayan landslides
(Dunning et al., 2007; Parker et al., 2011; Stolle et al., 2017; Roback
et al., 2018), the marked chronological coincidence between mass
movement events and humid monsoon phases suggests that earth-
quakes were more efficient destabilization agents during the wet Qua-
ternary periods (Dortch et al., 2009; Hewitt et al., 2011). Interestingly,
the occurrence of large RSFs in the Himalayas is seldom linked with
glacier retreat (Shroder et al., 2011) but should be considered for at
least some major mass movement events, given that a substantial
number of dated landslides follow early Holocene orogen-scale glacier
advance (Fig. 5B; Owen and Dortch, 2014).
Although not supported by extensive catalogues of dated landslides,
studies from other glaciated mountain belts confirmed complex inter-
play between long-term climate variability and stability of hillslopes.
For instance, Fauqué et al. (2009) examined deeply incised valleys in
the vicinity of Cerro Acocangua (Central Andes) and found that 10 large
RSFs originated between ~18.7 and 8.6 ka, i.e., soon after the local
retreat of glaciers. In the Cantabrian Mountains (North Iberian Pe-
ninsula), enhanced mass movement activity immediately followed
glacier retreat at ~16.1 ka (Rodríguez-Rodríguez et al., 2018) but also
occurred during subsequent humid intervals at ~8.5–7.5 ka, ~3–2.5 ka
and ~0.5–0.3 ka (González-Díez et al., 1996; Rodríguez-Rodríguez
et al., 2018). Recent findings from the Tatra Mountains (Carpathians,
Slovakia and Poland) suggest that relatively small rock falls (≤105 m3)
dated to ~20.2–15.6 ka immediately reacted to deglaciation (i.e., a few

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T. Pánek
Fig. 6. Different temporal reactions of RSFs to the post-LGM glacier retreat in the Tatra Mts. (highest portion of the Carpathians; Slovakia; Google Earth Images). A.
Immediate reaction of small RSFs (≤106 m3) to the deglaciation of the Malá and Velká Studená Valleys (Engel et al., 2015; Pánek et al., 2016b). B. Delayed response
of DSGSDs to ice withdrawal in the Roháčská Valley (Engel et al., 2017; Pánek et al., 2017).
hundred years; Pánek et al., 2016b), but deep-seated mass movements,
such as rock avalanches or sackung-type DSGSDs, revealed a millennial-
scale time lag with respect to ice retreat coeval with the humid
Bølling–Allerød chronozone, early Holocene and Holocene Climatic
Optimum (Fig. 6; Pánek et al., 2017).
Because of the lack of reliable proxies and insufficient resolution of
landslide dating, only a few studies attempted to correlate past land-
slide events with short, sub-millennial climate fluctuations (Ostermann
et al., 2012; Zerathe et al., 2014). Johnson et al. (2017) analysed seven
exceptionally large prehistoric landslides that affected Tertiary volcanic
rocks in the San Juan Mountains (Colorado, New Mexico). Although
this area was covered by several extensive ice caps during the LGM, the
occurrence of landslides between ~14 ka and 2 ka cannot be explained
by paraglacial triggering, and instabilities do not correspond with post-
glacial climatic shifts. With respect to dating results and the current
regional rainfall regime, Johnson et al. (2017) proposed that landslides
were likely triggered by seasonal weather events or short-term climatic
fluctuations that lasted several years at most.
4.2. Regions affected by continental ice sheets
Unlike in high mountain areas, paraglacial processes at the Late Glacial-
Holocene transition are agreed to represent the most important control on
the occurrence of RSFs in regions that were covered by ice sheets
(Ballantyne et al., 2014; Coquin et al., 2015; Hermanns et al., 2017; Mercier
et al., 2017; Ojala et al., 2018; Table 2). Although in some respects similar to
deglaciated high mountain areas, terrains that were covered by North
Hemisphere ice sheets are, with some exceptions (e.g., Iceland, North
American Cordillera), tectonically relatively stable and their post-glacial
surface uplift is chiefly related to glacial isostatic crustal rebound (Steffen
and Kaufmann, 2005). This phenomenon simplifies deciphering paraglacial
and climatic signals from time series of dated landslides.
Some of the most widespread datasets of chronologically determined
landslides involve British Islands and Scandinavia (Fig. 7; Bøe et al., 2003,
2004; Blikra et al., 2006; Hermanns and Longva, 2012; Ballantyne et al.,
2013, 2014; Ballantyne and Stone, 2013; Coquin et al., 2015; Hermanns
et al., 2017; Hilger et al., 2018; Ojala et al., 2018). These regions are similar
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in that mass movement activity started alongside the onset of the decay of
Fennoscandian and British-Irish ice sheets (Fig. 7), and evidence suggests
that rock avalanches have already collapsed onto decaying ice sheets
(Ballantyne et al., 2013; Schleier et al., 2015). The peak of the post-glacial
slope instability is more pronounced for the British Islands, where > 90% of
the dated RSFs in Scotland and Northern Ireland occurred within a few
millennia after deglaciation (Fig. 7; Ballantyne et al., 2014; Southall et al.,
2017). The most possible trigger of enhanced post-glacial activity of RSFs in
the northern portion of the British Islands (Ballantyne et al., 2014) and
Scandinavia (Blikra et al., 2006; Ojala et al., 2018) is considered to be
transient seismicity that was related to a major interval of glacial isostatic
uplift (Fig. 7). Seismic loading triggered the RSFs in the steep bedrock ter-
rain of Scotland, Northern Ireland and Norway and debris slides in the low-
gradient landscape of northern Finland (Ojala et al., 2018). A crucial effect
from the paraglacial phase on rock slope instability was also reported from
Iceland, where all 17 dated RSFs originated before the Boreal chronozone
(> 8 ka) following the fast retreat of the local ice sheet (Table 2; Mercier
et al., 2013, 2017; Coquin et al., 2016; Decaulne et al., 2016). Moreover,
lessons from Iceland showed that the genesis of large DSGSDs might be
coeval with deglaciation, with the onset occurring even before complete ice
withdrawal from adjacent valleys (Coquin et al., 2015).
The temporal distribution of landslides in Scandinavia and British
Islands also contain a common climatic signal in the pronounced mid-
to late-Holocene increase in landslide frequency (Fig. 7). Climate de-
terioration after ~5 ka, at the end of the Holocene Climatic Optimum,
induced higher precipitation and stronger weather seasonality in
Norway (Matthews et al., 2009; Hilger et al., 2018). Moreover, the
mean annual average temperatures at ~5 ka in the permafrost areas of
the Scandinavian Mountains were ~1 °C higher than those today
(Fig. 7; Lilleøren et al., 2012). Therefore, the high incidence of cata-
strophic RSFs in that period can be attributed to the effects of increased
precipitation (Blikra et al., 2006; Hermanns and Longva, 2012) and
permafrost degradation from an increase in surface air temperature
(Hilger et al., 2018). In addition to catastrophic rock avalanches, mid-
Holocene warming favoured the acceleration of slow-moving rock
slides that were underlain by mountain permafrost (Böhme et al.,
2019). Although not explicitly stated in published landslide studies, a
T. Pánek
Fig. 7. Timing of dated post-LGM landslides in Scandinavia (A) and the British
Islands (B), which are expressed as individual central ages (red and green
diamonds) and probability density distributions (black solid curves; kernel
density estimates) and plotted against selected palaeoenvironmental proxies.
The majority of the Scandinavian landslide ages were adapted from Bøe et al.
(2003, 2004), Blikra et al. (2006), Hermanns et al. (2017), Hilger et al. (2018)
and Ojala et al. (2018). The landslide ages from the British Islands were inferred
from Dowell and Hutchinson (2010 and references therein), Ballantyne et al.
(2014) and Southall et al. (2017). The paleoenvironmental proxies were
adapted from the following: 1 – Lilleøren et al. (2012), 2 – Matthews et al.
(2009), 3 – Steffen and Kaufmann (2005), 4 – Patton et al. (2017), 5 – Macklin
et al. (2012), and 6 – Firth and Stewart (2000). For a complete list of references
of landslide ages in both regions, see Supplementary material Table S1. (For
interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is
referred to the web version of this article.)
similar mid- to late-Holocene peak of mass movement activity was also
recorded in the British Islands (Fig. 7). Herein, the majority of land-
slides in central and northern England that were dated to the mid- to
late Holocene are rotational slides and earth flows, and some authors
attributed their genesis at least partially to wetter climatic phases
(Redda and Hansom, 1989; Boon et al., 2015).
4.3. Glacier forelands
Thick piles of unconsolidated moraine, glaciofluvial and glaciola-
custrine deposits in glacier forelands represent highly prone
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Fig. 8. Examples of giant landslides that affected LGM moraines in the foreland
of the Patagonian Ice Sheet (Lago Pueyrredón region/Argentina; Pánek et al.,
2018b). A. Laguna Seca landslide (WGS84 lat −7.5911° lon −71.4647°). B.
Lago Ghio landslide (WGS84 lat −47.3399° lon −71.4559°). C. Rio Blanco
landslide (WGS84 lat −47.3551° lon −71.4100°). The yellow dashed lines
indicate the glacial-lake shorelines between ~11.5 and 8 ka (Glasser et al.,
2016), which are disturbed by landslides or trimmed within landslide bodies.
Landslides originated during successive lake-level fall, which overlapped with
the early Holocene humid period as defined by Markgraf et al. (2003). (For
interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is
referred to the web version of this article.)
environments to slope failure (Ballantyne, 2002). Temperature in-
creases might substantially affect the stability of moraine slopes
through permafrost degradation and the melting of buried ice (Klimeš
et al., 2016; Moreiras, 2017), but relationships between climate change
and the occurrence of landslides in glacier forelands is potentially more
complex, involving the effects of proglacial lake-level oscillations
(Pánek et al., 2018b), glacier-lake outburst floods (GLOFs; Emmer,
2017) and river incision into weak sediments that flank former gla-
ciated margins (LaHusen et al., 2016).
Unfortunately, virtually no data exist regarding the temporal be-
haviour of mass movements in glacier forelands. Pánek et al. (2018b)
noted that some of the largest landslides (> 1 km3) in terminal mor-
aines originated in the eastern piedmont of the Patagonian Ice Sheet
(Lago Buenos Aires region, Argentina), especially along the former
shorelines of the Late Glacial-early Holocene glacial lakes (Fig. 8).
T. Pánek
Major mass movement episode(s) with a cumulative volume of
~11 km3 occurred here between ~11.5 ka and 8 ka, when glacial lakes
experienced several dramatic (> 100 m) lake-level drops (Glasser et al.,
2016) and the climate was more humid than recently (Markgraf et al.,
2003). However, mass movement activity in this region continued
throughout the Holocene and affected slopes of gorges that deeply in-
cised glacigenic sediments (Pánek et al., 2018b). Persistent Holocene
slope instability that affected glaciofluvial and glaciolacustrine sedi-
ments was recently described from the foreland of the Puget Lobe of the
Cordilleran Ice Sheet in Washington State (USA; Booth et al., 2017).
Because of the unfavourable slope lithology, which consists of sands
and gravels that overlie impermeable glaciolacustrine clays, this region
is extremely susceptible to catastrophic flow-like landslides, including
the deadly 2014 Oso landslide (Booth et al., 2017). Although other
factors should be considered (e.g., preservation bias, seismicity, lateral
erosion), the increase in landslide frequency between ~7 ka and ~1 ka
likely reflects a change from a relatively warm and dry early Holocene
climate to relatively cool and wet conditions, which prevailed in the
Pacific Northwest during the mid- to late Holocene (Booth et al., 2017).
Although limited in number, case studies from glacier forelands
indicated that (i) large portions of terminal moraines can fail cata-
strophically several thousand years after emplacement because of the
direct effects of climate change and/or external factors, such as the
drawdown and drainage of glacial lakes; (ii) the accumulation of loose
glacigenic deposits created persistent slope instability throughout the
Holocene; and (iii) the main phases of mass movements might coincide
with humid Holocene phases because of intensive river incision and
increased pore-water pressures within unconsolidated sediments.
5. Landslides in non-glaciated regions
Compared to glaciated areas, where glaciers act as erasing agents,
one can expect a longer record of dated landslides in regions outside the
limits of Pleistocene glaciations. Additionally, changes in geomorphic
boundary conditions during the glacial-interglacial transitions were
generally less dramatic than in areas that experienced ice retreat (Lowe
and Walker, 2015). Unfortunately, catalogues of past landslide activity
are, with some exceptions, more limited in non-glaciated areas than in
glaciated regions (Fig. 1). Because of the contrasting contemporary
climatic conditions and distinct Quaternary climate histories, we con-
sider temperate mountains, arid regions and tropical low-latitude areas
separately.
5.1. Temperate mountain belts
Although covering vast territories of North America and Eurasia and
containing some of the most landslide-prone areas (Van Den Eeckhaut
and Hervás, 2012), only a few mid-latitude mountain belts (e.g., Ap-
palachians, Apennines and Carpathians) have relatively widespread
datasets of dated landslides (Pánek, 2015). These regions involve some
common specifics, such as i) their position within the periglacial zone
during glacial periods, ii) the presence of soil-mantled slopes with dense
vegetation cover throughout the interglacials and iii) the crucial role of
fluvial processes in shaping of topography. Climate variability in tem-
perate mountain belts influenced mass movements, especially through
the direct alteration of precipitation and temperature regimes and re-
lated changes in moisture balance, vegetation cover and river discharge
(Sidle and Bogaard, 2016). Soil-mantled slopes of forested mountains
are especially prone to flows and slides, which greatly depend on the
availability of water and soil moisture (Hungr et al., 2014), whereas
rock avalanches, rock falls and DSGSDs (e.g., lateral spreads and
sackungen) are less frequent.
First-order climate cycles, such as transitions from glacial to inter-
glacial conditions, are considered major intervals of slope destabiliza-
tion because of permafrost degradation, higher groundwater recharge
and increasing precipitation totals (Bertolini et al., 2004; Margielewski,
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2006; Starkel et al., 2013). Although some landslide deposits in the
Carpathians pre-date the LGM and were dated to the wetter interstadial
conditions of MIS3 (> 40 ka; Pánek et al., 2014; Jankovská et al.,
2018), these landslides are no more morphologically evident. It can be
expected that deep-seated landslides in temperate medium-high
mountains were more frequent in the wake of the Late Glacial-Holocene
transition because of large amounts of infiltrating water from intense
and/or prolonged rainfall or snowmelt (Margielewski, 2006; Pánek
et al., 2010, 2011, 2013). On the contrary, shallow, rapid mass move-
ments, such as debris flows, were likely inhibited at the onset of the
Holocene because of the ascending tree line, afforestation of hillslopes
and more effective apparent root cohesion (Šilhán and Pánek, 2010).
In flysch rocks of the Outer Western Carpathians and Northern
Apennines, the onset of record of dated deep-seated landslides and
earth flows began during the Last Termination since ~16.5 ka (Fig. 9;
Bertolini et al., 2004; Bertolini, 2007, 2010; Margielewski, 2006; Pánek
et al., 2013; Starkel et al., 2013). Although both regions contain only a
few landslides that were constrained between ~16.5 and 12.7 ka
(Fig. 9), dramatic environmental changes at the Late Glacial-Holocene
transition were likely decisive for the genesis of first-time landslides.
Some of the kilometre-scale earth flows in the Outer Western Car-
pathians (Pánek et al., 2010, 2011, 2013) and Northern Apennines
(Bertolini, 2007, 2010) originated at the onset of the Holocene.
Bertolini (2007) expected that the majority of contemporary landslides
in the Emilia-Romagna region in the Northern Apennines originated at
the beginning of the Holocene and have since been periodically re-
activated, with the culmination of landslide activity between ~5 and
2.5 ka in the most humid intervals of the Subboreal and Subatlantic
(Fig. 9).
Similarly, reactivations of landslides throughout wet Holocene
periods were common in the flysch Carpathians (Fig. 9; Pánek et al.,
2013). Based on a dataset that comprised 69 radiocarbon-dated land-
slides, Starkel et al. (2013) stated that especially suitable phases for the
origin and reactivation of deep landslides occurred at ~13.3 ka,
~9.5–9.1 ka, ~7.8–7.6 ka, ~6.9–6.6 ka, ~5.7–5.5 ka, ~4.1–3.7 ka,
~2.8 ka, ~2.1–1.9 ka, ~1.4–1.2 ka and ~0.7–0.5 ka. These periods
coincide with regional palaeoclimatic proxies of climate moistening
(e.g., fluvial activity, pollen spectra, and speleothem growth; Starkel
et al., 2013) and broadly correlate with the ages of other landslides
across the Carpathians (Fig. 9). As revealed by TCN dating, large rock
slides and DSGSDs in the highest area of the Czech flysch Carpathians
originated at ~6–3 ka (Březný et al., 2018), and this deep-seated slope
instability is supported by the ages of some crevice-type caves in the
Polish flysch Carpathians (Margielewski and Urban, 2017). Březný et al.
(2018) explained the enhanced mid- to early late-Holocene activity of
deep-seated landslides in this region by a combination of suitable pre-
paratory factors (long-term rock-mass-strength degradation) and trig-
gers (intensive and/or long-lasting rainfall) during and immediately
following the terminal phase of the humid Holocene Climatic Optimum
(Fig. 10).
Increases in mass movements in the late-Quaternary history of
temperate mountains have been explained by the occurrence of rare,
extreme meteorological events, such as hurricanes. In the Blue Ridge
Appalachian region (Virginia, USA), Scott Eaton et al. (2003) re-
cognized 11 generations of debris flows that originated between > 50
ka and ~2.1 ka, recurring at least every 2.5 ka on average. These au-
thors suggested that the dated debris flow deposits revealed high-
magnitude storms that were related to the incursions of tropical air
masses into the Appalachians.
5.2. Arid regions
Because of their low erosion rates, arid zones comprise the longest
time series of dated landslides, with some deposits conserved since the
Middle Pleistocene (Hermanns et al., 2001; Ryb et al., 2013; Moreiras
et al., 2015) or even earlier (Pinto et al., 2008). Although modern
T. Pánek
Fig. 9. Timing of dated Late Glacial and Holocene landslides in the non-gla-
ciated areas of the Western Carpathians and Apennines. The probability density
distributions (green solid lines) of 14C dates from landslides were pre-
dominantly based on data from the following: 1 – Alexandrowicz (1993, 1996);
Alexandrowicz and Alexandrowicz (1999); Margielewski (1997, 1998, 2003,
2006) and Margielewski et al. (2010, 2011), 2 – Pánek et al. (2013), and 3 –
Starkel et al. (2013) for the Western Carpathians; and 4 – Bertolini et al. (2004)
and 5 – Bertolini (2007) for the Apennines. Other sources of landslide ages: 6 –
Margielewski and Urban (2017) and 7 – Březný et al. (2018). The timing of
humid (green panel), humid/cold (green/blue) and warm (orange) intervals in
the Western Carpathians is after Kłapyta et al. (2016), Krąpiec et al. (2016) and
Obidowicz (1996). The radiocarbon ages were calibrated by using the IntCal 09
calibration curve (Reimer et al., 2013) in the OxCal v 4.2.4 software (Bronk
Ramsey, 2009). For a complete list of references of landslide ages in both re-
gions, see Supplementary material Table S1. (For interpretation of the refer-
ences to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of
this article.)
climatic conditions are not favourable for mass movements, some of the
largest terrestrial landslides were detected in the world's driest regions
(Philip and Ritz, 1999; Zerathe et al., 2017). This fact might be less
surprising because many subtropical and temperate arid regions ex-
perienced distinct wet periods during the Quaternary, which were
usually related to an intensified summer monsoon in response to in-
creased insolation (Skonieczny et al., 2015; Lehmkuhl et al., 2018).
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Therefore, landslides in contemporary arid regions might reveal strong
climatic signals and may even serve as palaeoclimatic proxies (Trauth
and Strecker, 1999), especially when situated in tectonically stable
domains (Busche, 2001).
The best record of the effects of Quaternary climate changes on the
mobilization of large landslides in dry regions was obtained from sev-
eral regions in the Andes in South America. Trauth and Strecker (1999)
provided strong evidence between the timing of the wet Minchin period
(~40–25 ka) and the occurrence of enormous rock avalanches with a
volume ≥ 108 m3 in the Cordillera Oriental region of northwestern
Argentina. Later dating programs in this area revealed that large
landslides were also clustered in younger humid phases, such as the
Tauca period (~14.5–11 ka; Hermanns et al., 2004) and especially the
Titicaca period (< 5 ka; Trauth et al., 2000, 2003). These humid per-
iods probably reflected changes in atmospheric circulation patterns
across South America from the activation of the El Niño-Southern Os-
cillation (ENSO) and Tropical Atlantic Sea Surface Temperature
Variability (TAV; Trauth et al., 2003). Independent support for the
climatic control of slope instability here is provided by the high-re-
solution limnological analysis of varved landslide-dammed deposits,
suggesting strong inter- and intra-annual fluctuations of precipitation
and the occurrence of heavy rainfall, which are currently lacking in this
area (Trauth and Strecker, 1999).
Interestingly, Keefer et al. (2003) inferred a similar timing of mass
movements along the opposite slope of the Andes, specifically, the
hyper-arid coastal region of southern Peru (Ilo region). Herein, debris-
flow deposits that were dated to ~38.2–12.9 ka, and mainly postdating
~5.3 ka, are related to short-term periods of heavy rainfall from ENSO
activity (Keefer et al., 2003). Additionally, other dated large-scale mass
movements in the western Andes of Peru might have been related to
humid climate periods, such as the ~40-km3 Chuquibamba landslide
complex, which coincided with the Ouki wet climatic event (~100 ka),
or the giant (~15 km3) polyphase Cerro Caquilluco rock avalanche,
which sequentially originated since ~600 ka (Zerathe et al., 2015,
2017).
Although all these discussed mass movement phases in the Andes
might also reflect seismic triggering (McPhillips et al., 2014), most
authors attributed slope instabilities to i) higher runoff from the
scouring and undercutting of structurally preconditioned mountain
slopes and ii) enhanced seasonality and the occurrence of extreme
rainfall, which reduced the slope-stability threshold and increased the
susceptibility of rock slopes to even low-magnitude earthquakes
(Trauth and Strecker, 1999; Keefer et al., 2003). A similar interpreta-
tion was used for the occurrence of large rotational landslides in the Rio
Grande canyon (New Mexico, USA) by Reneau and Dethier and Reneau
(1996). Several phases of river-damming landslides occurred between
~17.5 and 12.4 ka, which correspond with the most distinct late-
Pleistocene climate change in the western USA and were associated
with humid pluvial conditions and high river discharges from the
melting of mountain glaciers (Dethier and Reneau and Dethier, 1996).
Climate control is also speculated for the largest terrestrial ~50-km3
Baga Bogd landslide in central Mongolia. Although the genesis of this
rock avalanche was related to strong earthquakes along the mountain-
front thrust (Philip and Ritz, 1999), its timing compared to the begin-
ning of the last interglacial (~140 ka) suggests that failure originated
under wet conditions, allowing the fluidization of basal clays along the
shear plane (Balescu et al., 2007).
Perhaps the most mysterious giant landslides in arid settings flank
sandstone plateaus and volcanic elevations in the central Sahara
(Fig. 11; Ostaficuk, 1973; Busche, 2001). Unfortunately, none of these
landslides have been absolutely dated. According to Busche (2001),
who summarized the distribution and preconditions of Saharan land-
slides, most mass movements in the Sahara occurred under con-
siderably wetter early Pleistocene conditions. Busche (2001) suggested
that only very limited slope instability occurred during later-Qua-
ternary humid episodes because of insufficient precipitation. However,
T. Pánek
Fig. 10. One of the mid- to early late-Holocene ridge-top grabens that was related to deep-seated landslides in the highest portion of the Czech Western Carpathians
(Březný et al., 2018).
this idea was challenged by recent findings, which stated that the Sa-
hara received enough precipitation to establish extensive drainage
networks during late-Quaternary humid periods in Africa (< 120 ka),
producing large quantities of freshwater to the Atlantic Ocean
(Skonieczny et al., 2015). Therefore, some Saharan landslides might be
much younger and we cannot exclude their genesis during the early
Holocene African humid period (~11.7–5 ka). In any case, the future
dating of kilometre-scale rotational slides, lateral spreads and earth
flows in the contemporary hyper-arid landscape of the Sahara (Fig. 11)
would bring additional proxy information regarding the nature and
timing of “Green Sahara Periods”.
5.3. Low-latitude settings
Climate variability influences slope stability in tropical areas in a
complex manner. In addition to the intensity and duration of rainfall
events, which directly control water infiltration and pore-water pres-
sures, climate mediates changes in vegetation density, the effectiveness
of chemical weathering and sediment production (Thomas, 2004).
Therefore, the frequency and magnitude of landslides from the same
rainfall event often reveals major contrasts even between two adjacent
river basins (Hsieh and Chyi, 2010). Information regarding the past
landslide activity in tropics is mostly derived from colluvial sediments,
alluvial fans and river terraces (e.g., Coelho Netto, 1999; Modenesi-
Gauttieri, 2000; Nott et al., 2001; Thomas et al., 2007; Hsieh et al.,
2017); only a few landslides have been dated directly (e.g., Shroder Jr.,
1976; Thomas and Murray, 2001; Sewell et al., 2006). By far the most
dated mass movements are debris flows and earth flows, with only a
few cases of deep-seated landslides, rock avalanches and rock falls.
Beyond catalogues of dated mass movement events in Taiwan, NE
Australia and Hong Kong (Sewell et al., 2006, 2015; Thomas et al.,
2007; Hsieh and Chyi, 2010; Hsieh et al., 2017), dated landslides across
tropical areas are generally scarce (Fig. 1).
Although limited in number, time series of dated landslides across
tropics reveal a strong linkage with glacial-interglacial climate change.
Enhanced mass movement activity at the beginning of the Holocene
was documented in several regions of Taiwan (~11–8 ka; Hsieh and
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Earth-Science Reviews 196 (2019) 102871
Chyi, 2010; Hsieh et al., 2011, 2014, 2017), Hong Kong (~9–5 ka;
Sewell et al., 2015), NE Queensland/Australia (< 12 ka; Thomas et al.,
2007), central Africa/Malawi (~11.8 ka; Shroder Shroder Jr., 1976)
and SE Brazil (~9–8.5 ka; Modenesi-Gauttieri, 2000). This landslide
mobilization likely reflects a transition to warm and humid conditions
after enhanced monsoon precipitation (Fig. 12). Hsieh et al. (2014,
2017) attributed the early Holocene debris flows, slides and rock ava-
lanches in Taiwan to frequent prolonged rainfall from the early Holo-
cene East Asian summer-monsoon maximum. However, many Late-
Glacial and Holocene mass movement phases in Taiwan do not link
with regional climate trends and are interpreted as products of in-
dividual typhoons, which acted especially effectively after strong
earthquakes (Fig. 12; Hsieh et al., 2014, 2017). Slope instability that
was related to humid phases were also reported for older, pre-LGM
periods, such as debris flow and landslide activity in NE Queensland
alongside the wet and warm OIS 3 (~64–28 ka) or the massive accu-
mulation of a > 50-ka colluvial deposit in Taiwan, which is thought to
have accumulated during the last interglacial period (Hsieh et al.,
2018).
However, the attribution of mass movement activity to wet periods
in tropics is not always unequivocal. Slope stability was likely also re-
duced during relatively cool and dry conditions, e.g., around the global
LGM, when many tropical areas experienced the replacement of tro-
pical forests by dry woodlands or even the absence of arboreal vege-
tation (Thomas et al., 2007). Sewell et al. (2015) explained the occur-
rence of massive debris flows in Hong Kong for the interval ~28–19 ka
from the mobilization of thick weathering mantles because of periodic
rainstorms acting on slopes with low vegetation cover. Similarly, Nott
et al. (2001) reported landslides and debris flows from NE Queensland
that originated between ~27 and 14 ka, i.e., when rainforests that
covered the escarpment of the Eastern Highlands were replaced by dry
sclerophyll vegetation (Fig. 12).
According to this published evidence, tropical regions are especially
sensitive to highly episodic mass movement events, whose recurrence is
controlled by the frequency of extreme rainfall events and the avail-
ability of unstable material (Thomas, 2004). In addition to mountain
regions, which are characterized by relatively frequent catastrophic
T. Pánek Earth-Science Reviews 196 (2019) 102871

Fig. 11. Distribution of giant landslides (> 106 m3) in North Africa (after Busche, 2001; Broeckx et al., 2018 and authors's unpublished data) and examples of
individual landslides depicted on Google Earth images. A and B show the reconstruction of North African vegetation and climate during the Eemian Green Sahara
Period (~128–122 ka) and present day conditions (Larrasoaña et al., 2013), respectively. C. Rock avalanche (Mount Uwaynat, WGS84 lat 21.8316° lon 24.8281°). D.
Lateral spread (Hamada el Homra, WGS84 lat 30.7753° lon 13.1421°). E. Rotational landslide (Messak Mellet escarpment, WGS84 lat 24.3749° lon 11.3803°). The
occurrence of many landslides in the central Sahara overlaps with the modern hyper-arid conditions (annual precipitation totals ~5 mm/yr), whereas the same areas
received hundreds of times more precipitation during the Quaternary pluvials. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is
referred to the web version of this article.)

slope failures (e.g., SE Brazil, Taiwan; Coelho Netto, 1999; Hsieh et al.,
2017), some intraplate tropical landscapes might reveal extremely long
intervals between major successive mass movement events. As ex-
emplified by Thomas and Murray (2001) on the large landslides from
the eastern Zambia, the landscape was not likely affected by climatic
events that could generate major slope failures over the last 200 ka.
6. Landslides in coastal areas
Coastal areas represent highly susceptible settings for climate-re-
lated mass movements. The stability of coastal cliffs is influenced by
both the first-order climate variability that encompasses glacial-inter-
glacial transitions and related water-level changes (Pánek et al., 2016a)
and short-term climate deteriorations, which increased the incidence of
severe storm events, wave action and coastal erosion (Hapke and Green,
2006).
According to the available datasets, enhanced mass movement ac-
tivity was correlated with transgressions of the sea and large lakes. The
coincidence of coastal-slope instability with periods of rapid postglacial
(< 12 ka) sea-level rise was recently inferred for the rotational slides in
Malta (Soldati et al., 2018) and the huge rock falls along the coastal
cliffs of Cassis in SE France (Recorbet et al., 2010). Similarly, Pánek
et al. (2018a) reported that the exposure ages of rock slide scarps that
flank the highly dissected SW coast of the Crimean Peninsula followed
the post-LGM rise of the Black Sea (~20–15 ka) and its rapid trans-
gression, which was dated to ~9–8 ka (Fig. 13). In western Kazakhstan,
dozens of enormous (≥108 m3) rotational slides, spreads and flows
originated during successive Caspian Sea transgressions in the Late
Glacial, when the Caspian Sea shoreline advanced several hundred
kilometres to the north and east from the current coastline position
(Fig. 14; Pánek et al., 2016a). Many slides that affected weak Neogene
sediments occurred during the Khvalynian transgressions, which were
probably caused by enhanced runoff in the Volga River basin after the
LGM (Tudryn et al., 2016). This case exemplifies how remote changes
in climate and hydrological balance might influence massive slope in-
stability in dry, low-gradient regions, which are otherwise not suscep-
tible to major landslide events (Pánek et al., 2016a).
Many landslides that trim modern coastlines may have evolved as a
response to global sea-level rise and the establishment of the current
shoreline at the end of the Holocene Climatic Optimum. Several ex-
amples of mid-Holocene (~5–3.5 ka) landslides were described from
the coastal areas of British Islands (Barlow et al., 2016; Ballantyne
et al., 2018). Although the precise mechanism of how sea transgression
affects slope instability is poorly understood, Ballantyne et al. (2018)
proposed that translational landslides along the Shetland archipelago
originated when the sea level approached the footslope of coastal cliffs,
allowing storm waves to undercut discontinuities that faced out of the
slope.

14
T. Pánek
Fig. 12. Timing of late-Quaternary mass movements in Taiwan, Hong Kong and
NE Australia/Queensland (1 – Sewell et al., 2015 and references therein; 2 –
Hsieh et al., 2014; 3 – Hsieh and Chyi, 2010; 4 – Hsieh et al., 2017; 5 – Thomas
et al., 2007). The intensified summer monsoon phases for SE and S Asia are
inferred from the following: 6 – Guiot et al. (2008) and 7 – Fang (1991).
Unfortunately, the low number of dated coastal landslides limits our
understanding of how past climate changes and related water-level
changes influenced the frequency and magnitude of slope instabilities.
More extensive dating programs that focus on coastal mass movements
might reveal useful information for the prediction of slope instability in
relation to current and future sea-level rise.
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Earth-Science Reviews 196 (2019) 102871
7. Concluding remarks
7.1. Research gaps and future needs
Despite the considerable progress in landslide dating and the
availability of regional palaeoclimatic proxy data, the direct link be-
tween ancient landslides and Quaternary climate changes is still weak.
The main drawbacks can be seen in the i) rather limited regional re-
cords of dated landslides, ii) low temporal resolution of chronologically
constrained landslides, iii) geographic bias of catalogues of dated
landslides and iv) largely tentative correlation of ancient landslides
with past climate variability. Although linking palaeolandslides with
alternations of precipitation and temperature will always be more
elusive than for modern or historical events (Gariano and Guzzetti,
2016), the credibility of inferred causes and triggers of ancient slope
failures can still be improved; in this respect, we summarize future
research challenges and avenues in Table 3.
One approach is the extension and increasing sample size of re-
gional catalogues of dated landslides, i.e., improving the statistical re-
levance of landslides' time series. An especially promising possibility
seems to be the construction of coherent datasets of dated landslides
from spatially limited and homogenous areas, such as individual river
basins and/or geographically smaller areas of mountains. Although
containing a respectable number of chronologically constrained land-
slides, many of the presented datasets of dated landslides are spread
across very wide and geographically diverse regions, which complicates
the searching of common causes and triggers of slope instability (e.g.,
Blikra et al., 2006; Prager et al., 2008; Yuan et al., 2013; Ballantyne
et al., 2014; Hermanns et al., 2017; Ivy-Ochs et al., 2017). Only a few
hitherto published papers showed representative time series of land-
slide ages with respect to the size of the studied area (e.g., González-
Díez et al., 1996; Soldati et al., 2004; Borgatti et al., 2007; Booth et al.,
2017; Hilger et al., 2018; Leshchinsky et al., 2018; Ojala et al., 2018).
Furthermore, many hitherto published landslide ages might be chal-
lenged because of an insufficient sampling size, particularly for studies
that involved the TCN dating of landslide accumulations. Some of these
studies inferred landslide ages from three or fewer boulders per land-
slide (McIntosh and Barrows, 2011; Ballantyne et al., 2014; Hermanns
et al., 2017). Considering the serious risk of being affected by TCNs that
were produced in the rock prior to failure, such dating results should be
treated with caution. As exemplified on the timing of glacial stages in
the Himalayas, Owen and Dortch (2014) showed that the reliability of
TCN-dating results dramatically increases after including ≥5 dated
boulders or surface samples on a single glacial landform. Hilger et al.
(2019) focused on the TCN dating of rock slides and demonstrated that
more than three samples per rock slide deposit are required to minimize
the effect of pre-exposure inheritance on the resulting landslide age.
However, simply increasing the number of dated landslides and
improving their dating strategy may be insufficient to strengthen our
knowledge regarding the climatic triggers of ancient slope instabilities.
The major problem of hitherto published studies is that the climatic
conditioning of ancient landslides was inferred largely tentatively and
without any independent proofs. Most studies ascribed climatic forcing
to dated mass movements merely based on their chronological coin-
cidence with broadly (often globally) defined climatic fluctuations.
Such reconstructed climate changes are often based on proxy data from
natural archives that are located far from the studied landslide-affected
regions. As such, we suggest greater work with local sources of proxy
data. Promising high-resolution data for the palaeoclimatic and pa-
laeohydrologic conditions of time slices when given landslides origi-
nated have been obtained, e.g., by utilizing the floating den-
drochronology of buried trees within landslide bodies (Krąpiec and
Margielewski, 2003), pollen analyses of landslide-related peat bogs or
lacustrine sequences (Margielewski, 2006; Borgatti et al., 2007; Pánek
et al., 2010), the counting and geochemistry of varves within the de-
posits of landslide-dammed lakes (Trauth and Strecker, 1999; Trauth
T. Pánek Earth-Science Reviews 196 (2019) 102871

Fig. 13. Rock slide scarps along the Crimean Mountains' coast that chronologically coincide with the post-LGM (~19–15 ka) and early Holocene (~10–5 ka) Black
Sea transgressions. The numbers denote the exposure (36Cl) ages of scarps according to Pánek et al. (2018a). A. Foros rock slide (WGS84 lat 44.4026° lon 33.7706°).
B. Complex rotational slides near Mount Shan Kaya (WGS84 lat 44.4359° lon 34.0194°). C. Scarp of the Morcheka rock slide (WGS84 lat 44.4212° lon 33.9112°).

et al., 2000, 2003), and mineralogical and geochemical analyses of
soils/palaeosoils that are related to landslide bodies (Gioia et al., 2010)
(Table 3).
Another avenue is the wider incorporation of the numerical mod-
eling of slope instability to landslide-dating studies. Despite the recent
boom in landslide modeling (Stead and Coggan, 2012), surprisingly few
studies have utilized numerical modeling for ancient landslide events.
As presented by Yenes et al. (2015), even the incorporation of simple
limit-equilibrium models might reveal if studied prehistoric landslides
were sensitive to high-rainfall episodes or required more complex
preconditioning. More advanced approaches, such as continuum and
discontinuum modeling, might reveal more complex relationships be-
tween slope instability and climate-induced processes, such as glacial
debuttressing (Crosta et al., 2013; Grämiger et al., 2017; Riva et al.,
2018), groundwater rise (Baroň et al., 2005; Baroň and Kašperáková,
2007) and drawdowns of lakes adjacent to coastal landslides (Boon
et al., 2015). Therefore, numerical models might help determine if
dated landslides were susceptible to changes in climate conditions,
especially in the absence of available palaeoclimatic proxies.
7.2. Role of landslides in the (last) glacial-interglacial cycle
Although the above-mentioned drawbacks prevent a strictly quan-
titative extraction of climate signals from time series of Quaternary
landslides (Korup et al., 2011), the inspection of available datasets re-
garding the timing of landslide events, insight into individual landslide
histories and the overall geomorphic and palaeoclimatic context of
various landslide-affected regions enables us to construct hypothesized
models that describes the role and relative importance of mass move-
ments in the generalized glacial-interglacial cycle (Fig. 15).
Quaternary terrestrial landslides were especially accentuated in i)
glacial-interglacial transitions, ii) the culmination phases of interglacial
climate optima, and iii) interstadials, although the number of dated
landslides in the last case is limited. Obviously, landslides are generally
connected with prolonged humid periods because of the availability of
water (Sidle and Ochiai, 2013). However, this simplified picture is
sometimes complicated with respect to the given setting and mass
movement specifics. In some situations, landslides were more frequent
during relatively dry periods of glacial-interglacial cycles because of a
lack of forest cover and apparent root cohesion. It pays especially for
shallow landslides and flows in temperate (Šilhán and Pánek, 2010) and
tropical areas (Nott et al., 2001; Sewell et al., 2015), which were largely

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T. Pánek Earth-Science Reviews 196 (2019) 102871

Fig. 14. Giant landslides in the NE coastal region of the Caspian Sea (Kazakhstan). Nearly 90% of large-scale lateral spreads and rotational slides line a cliff that was
cut by the Early Khvalynian transgression at 50 m a.s.l. (modified after Pánek et al., 2016a).

deforested during the culmination phases of glacials (Fig. 15). between glacial terminations and the first millennia of interglacials,
Late Pleistocene-Holocene mass movement records suggest that might be crucial for landslide intensification in most settings (Fig. 15).
widely defined glacial-interglacial transitions, i.e., time intervals However, the response time of slope failures with respect to climate

Table 3
Summary of major drawbacks and future research goals for the investigation of climate-related palaeolandslides.
Major drawbacks of landslide-dated time series/ Suggested approach Examples of studies
related problems

Lack of statistical reliability • Increasing the number of dated landslides through the searching
of new cost-effective dating strategies (e.g. surface-roughness
Booth et al. (2017); Leshchinsky et al. (2018)

• Uncertainty about the temporal clustering of dating)

landslides • Acomplete
focus on smaller regions with the possibility of obtaining more
time series of landslide events
Soldati et al. (2004); Ojala et al. (2018)

Insufficient dating accuracy • Increasing the

Increasing resolution of dating methods Akçar et al. (2012)
• A focus on the sample size of dated boulders per landslide Hilger et al. (2019)
• Low resolution of dating results • the exposure dating of landslide scarps Zerathe et al. (2014); Březný et al. (2018); Böhme
• Not reliable temporal correlations with
known palaeoclimatic events
et al. (2019)

Temporal bias • Looking for the dating methods with the longer time-range Ryb et al. (2013); Szczygieł et al. (2019)
• Alandscape
focus on the large landslides which are more persistent in the Korup et al. (2011); Korup (2012)
• Decreasing the number of dated landslides
back in the time • More utilizing coring into the multi-generation landslide bodies Bertolini (2007); Ojala et al. (2018)
• Information only for the last glacial-
interglacial cycle
• Using sedimentary records for the retrieving information about
the timing of landslides
Bøe et al. (2003, 2004); Starnberger et al. (2013);
Pánek et al. (2014)

Geographic bias • More landslide-dating studies should be performed in the arid,

tropical and coastal regions
Thomas et al. (2007); Sewell et al. (2015); Hsieh et al.
(2014, 2017); Pánek et al. (2016a, 2018a); Zerathe
• Lack of dated landslides outside the
temperate and alpine regions
et al. (2017)

Tentative assignment of landslide triggers
• Dated palaeolandslides might also be
attributed to other (non-climatic) triggers
• Utilizing local isotopic, pelaeolimnological, pelaeoecological, and
geochemical proxies
• Incorporation of the numerical modeling of slope stability
Krąpiec and Margielewski (2003); Trauth et al.
(2003); Borgatti et al. (2007); Gioia et al. (2010)
Baroň et al. (2005); Crosta et al. (2013); Boon et al.
(2015); Yenes et al. (2015); Grämiger et al. (2017)

17
T. Pánek
Fig. 15. Conceptual model of the possible relative importance of mass movements for the generalized glacial-interglacial cycle.
changes differs in various settings and depends on the landslide type
and magnitude. Mass movements in non-glaciated temperate mountain
ranges, arid areas, tropical regions, and coastal areas largely intensified
soon after the onset of the Holocene. Somewhat controversial data
originated from the glaciated regions. In high mountains, the timing of
large slope failures (> > 106 m3) seldom coincides with ice with-
drawal, possibly because of prolonged stress relaxation within the rock
mass after ice retreat (Riva et al., 2018), which is more accentuated for
voluminous landslides than smaller RSFs (Fig. 15). Although the time
series of landslides in glaciated regions cover nearly exclusively only
the post-glacial period, a growing body of literature suggest that mass
movements cannot be fully excluded during glaciations (McColl and
Davies, 2013; Starnberger et al., 2013), and a lack of dated pre-LGM
landslides is largely attributed to the effective sequestration of landslide
debris by glaciers (Dunning et al., 2015).
The incidence of landslides was ubiquitous throughout the
Holocene, but the mid- to late-Holocene transition (~5–4 ka) was
especially favourable for the origin or reactivation of landslides across
distinct types of landscapes and climate zones, indicating a strength-
ened role of mass movements during the culmination phases of inter-
glacial climate optima (Fig. 15). We hypothesize that the activity of
large landslides culminated in high mountain areas during this time and
the frequency of coastal landslides peaked because of the establishment
of interglacial seal-level highstands (Fig. 15). In addition to humid
conditions, interglacial thermal maxima are suitable periods for en-
hanced mass movements in high-latitude and alpine settings because of
permafrost degradation. Although the vast majority of landslide ages
originated from the Holocene, some studies found a temporal coin-
cidence between landslide activity and warm and humid intervals in
older interglacials (Thomas and Murray, 2001; Balescu et al., 2007; Li
et al., 2008; Lomoschitz et al., 2008; Zerathe et al., 2017; Szczygieł
et al., 2019).
One major problem is determining the importance of mass move-
ments under interstadial/interpleniglacial conditions. The morpholo-
gical signatures of pre-LGM landslides are largely removed from the
landscape of glaciated regions and temperate mountain belts because of
glacial action and strong periglacial mass wasting. In such circum-
stances, landslides are mostly apparent only from sedimentary archives
(Pánek et al., 2014; Jankovská et al., 2018). However, the much better
preservation of landslides within arid regions reveals that distinct slope
instability occurred during Quaternary “pluvials”, which often
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Earth-Science Reviews 196 (2019) 102871
coincided with interstadial conditions that were related to global in-
solation maxima (Fig. 15).
The future expansion and qualitative improvement of landslide-
dating studies should refine and verify this conceptual model on a
quantitative basis and evaluate if this approach is valid for only the last
glacial-interglacial cycle or across Quaternary timescales.
Acknowledgments
This study was conducted within the framework of the Czech
Science Foundation, project 17-17712S. Supportive comments from an
anonymous reviewer substantially improved the original manuscript.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.05.015.
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