WILD EDIBLE PLANTS OF THE SIKKIM HIMALAYA:

MARKETING, VALUE ADDITION AND IMPLICATIONS

FOR MANAGEMENT 1

MANJU SUNDRIYAL AND R . C . SUNDRIYAL*

Sundriyal, Manju and R. C. Sundriyal (G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment &
Development North East Unit, Vivek Vihar, Itanagar-791 113, Arunachal Pradesh, India;
email: rcsundriyal@yahoo.com). WILD EDIBLE PLANTS OF THE SIKKIM HIMALAYA:MARKETING,
VALUEADDITIONANDIMPLICATIONSFORMANAGEMENT.Economic Botany 58(2):300-315, 2004.
This paper presents data on marketing, value addition and management concerns of the wild
edible plants of the Sikkim Himalaya. At least 23 weekly markets, locally called 'Hats', have
been identified in the state, and three markets, viz. Gangtok, Namchi and Singtam, were studied
in detail, for one year, with reference to the availability, quantity sold and retailers involved
with the marketing of wild edible species. A total of 44 wild edible species have been recorded
to be sold annually in the three markets. Among all the species, Spondias axillaris was sold in
highest quantity and more retailers were involved in its business than for any other wild edible
plant. Other important species were Machilus edulis, Diplazium esculentum, Eleagnus latifolia,
Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, Agaricus and Baccaurea sapida. The rural economics of wild edible
plants is estimated to be some 140 tons per annum, and the prices for various species have
increased over the years. At Gangtok, prices increased 3 to 6 times from 1981 to 1996-1997.
Analysis of the field data showed that the wild edible plants were an important source of income
to the plant dwellers and subsistence for farm families. Value addition was done to a few wild
edible species, and cost-benefit analysis showed that the income from the fruits could be in-
creased by at least 3-5 times after making pickles, squash and jam. It was recorded that plant
dwellers have open access for the collection of these plant resources, which often leads to their
over exploitation, and the local state government at present lacks policies and strategies for
protecting and promoting wild edible plants in any of its programs. It is suggested that suitable
conservation practices and policies need to be formulated to conserve these plants in the wild
habitats within the state.
Key Words: edible plants; marketing; Sikkim Himalaya; conservation.

Marketing plays an important role in the so-
cio-economic development of any area as it
helps serve the people and the region (Berry
1967). Local economic surveys of the biological
resources cannot be completed without studying
the plant and animal products sold in the local
markets (Bennett 1992; Wells and Brandon
1992). A large variety of wild edibles, medicinal
and ornamental plants, and various ethnobiol-
ogical utility items are often sold at a much
smaller level, probably at the local level only,
and very few items flow out of the region in
most of the areas (Jana 1997). Access to market
places and value of their goods, determined by
availability, supply and demand (Martin 1995),
Received 15 November 1999; accepted 11 October
2002.
govern the income of different communities.
Thus local markets play a prominent role in the
spatial and regional development of any region,
rural areas in particular. In space economy, the
prosperity of the market is dependent on its lo-
cation to the other markets (Hooder 1988). In
any market system, buyers, sellers and commod-
ities are three integral components, and total
business and prosperity of the market depends
on their number and the amount of the com-
modities available on market day (Jana 1998).
The livelihood of the rural people is not only
dependent on the agricultural and animal pro-
duce, but also on the forests and other natural
resources (Janaki Ammal 1955-56; Malhotra et
al. 1992a,b). In India nearly 50 million people
live in and around forests and are dependent
upon the non-timber forest products for their

Economic Botany 58(2) pp. 300-315. 2004

9 2004 by The New York Botanical Garden Press, Bronx, NY 10458-5126 U.S.A.
2004] SUNDRIYAL
& SUNDRIYAL:MARKETING OF HIMALAYANWILD PLANTS
subsistence living (Arora and Pandey 1996).
Few reports are available on the forest-based
economy of the tribal people in India and other
parts of the globe (Bennett 1992; Ehrlich and
Ehrlich 1992; Kant and Mehta 1993; Malhotra
et al. 1992a,b; Martin 1995; Peters et al. 1989;
Uma Shankar et al. 1996; Wells and Brandon
1992). Due to massive deforestation during the
last few decades, lives of the people depending
on the forest have been affected severely. Dur-
ing recent years attempts have been made to-
wards the valuation of tropical forests, particu-
larly for plant and animal species that provide
food, fodder, fuel, medicine, housing material
and other products to people all over the world
(Ehrlich and Ehrlich 1992; Godoy and Bawa
1993; Prance et al. 1987). The study of non-
timber forest produce (NTFPs) offers an oppor-
tunity for ecologists, ethnobiologists, economists
and social scientists to integrate their respective
approaches so that the true value of forest prod-
ucts under various types of usage may be deter-
mined, and the present policies for land use pat-
terns be modified accordingly. Information
about availability, prices and market channels is
essential for assessing the importance of NTFPs
at local, regional and national levels (Hegde et
al. 1996). Such an assessment is essential for
complete valuation of forest and forest products
(Cunningham and Mbenkum 1993; Malhotra et
al. 1992a,b). To achieve higher returns from
wild edible plant parts, particularly fruits with
their low-keeping quality and cheap prices, per-
haps value addition is the best option to adopt,
with due care to avoid overexploitation (Dhyani
and Khali 1993; Maikhuri et al. 1994, 1998). No
such study is available in the Himalayan region
particularly with reference to wild edible plants.
Considering this, the present study was under-
taken to present data on the market flow and
availability, number of retailers involved, and
quantities sold for different wild edible plants of
the Sikkim Himalaya based on the weekly mar-
ket surveys. An attempt has also been made to
do value addition to some of the species to in-
crease the income/return. The conservation sta-
tus of various wild edible species is also pre-
sented. It is expected that the study will assist
in understanding the role of wild edible plants
in local economy and also to formulate the pol-
icies for better utilization and conservation of
these species.
301
METHODS
Details of the Sikkim state and its climate are
presented in a parallel paper of Sundriyal et al.
presented in this issue of Economic Botany. The
Sikkim state falls in the Eastern Himalayan zone
of India, and has an area of 7096 km 2. The state
represents a wide range of vegetation types due
to varied climatic conditions from an elevation
from 300-8500 m above mean sea level. The
state has very rich cultural and biological diver-
sity. Lepchas, Bhutias, Nepalese and Limbus are
the main ethnic groups of Sikkim state, differing
from each other in their food habits, dress and
lifestyles. Administratively the Sikkim state is
divisible into four districts, namely, North,
South, East and West. To meet the basic require-
ments of all the people, the state has the weekly
market system, operating on different days at
different places, and very popular among locals.
All the people of the state participate in the
weekly markets to meet their daily needs.
A brief survey was made of different weekly
markets throughout the state, and extensive in-
terviews were conducted with the locals, retail-
ers and other people involved. Based on prelim-
inary surveys, three weekly markets in the three
prominent towns (viz. Gangtok, Singtam and
Namchi) of the state were selected for detailed
study to estimate the total trade of different wild
edible plants in the Sikkim Himalaya. These
three towns play a major role in inflow and out-
flow of various commodities and thus are con-
sidered as the most important market centres of
the Sikkim state (Adhikari et al. 1993).
ASSESSING MARKETS, VALUE AND TOTAL
COSTS
Market surveys were done by visiting markets
for one whole year (1996--1997) in every alter-
nate week. Occasional visits were made to var-
ious other weekly markets as well. Data were
gathered with reference to availability, numbers
of retailers, quantity sold and gross income. The
three markets surveyed in detail have permanent
markets, however, the weekly 'Hat' was ob-
served on Sundays at Gangtok and on Fridays
at Singtam and Namchi. An inventory was made
with regard to different useful species, particu-
larly wild edibles, and estimation was done
based on the quantity available, place of collec-
tion, retailers involved and income generated.
Field/market observations were noted, and for-
302 ECONOMIC BOTANY
mal and informal interviews were conducted
with the sellers and buyers (Sundriyal 1999). All
the plant samples were collected and the prices
were noted for different wild edible species.
To supplement the market data, several non-
timber forest produce collectors were also inter-
viewed to clarify the source of wild edible plant
collection, their availability and demand. Fur-
thermore, inquiries were also made on the har-
vest levels, time of collection, labor involved,
transportation, processing if any, and market
sale of the different plants. The data thus col-
lected were interpreted for the whole year, and
total quantity sold and gross income from the
sale was determined. Further details of the var-
ious methods related to marketing of economic
plants applied in this study have already been
stated by Godoy and Bawa (1993), Godoy et al.
(1993), Martin (1995), and Phillips (1993).
VALUE ADDITION AND BY-PRODUCTS
To increase the return from the wild edible
species, their plant parts were subjected to value
addition on the trial basis. Pickles, jams, jellies,
squash and chutney were prepared, as these pop-
ular by-products have a ready market available
in the state. Rangana (1979) reports methods of
preparation of various by-products. Pickles were
prepared by washing the plant material (mainly
fruits and tender stems) with clean water, then
cutting these plant parts into pieces. Samples
were sun dried for a day or two. Dendrocalamus
hamiltonii tender shoots were first boiled before
sun drying. Fruits of Spondias axillaris were
soaked in hot water and dried without cutting.
These plant samples are then mixed thoroughly
with spices, salt and other ingredients and
poured in bottles with edible mustered oil. The
pickle is ready after 15-30 days for different
species. Squash was prepared from the fruits of
Baccaurea sapida by extracting juice through a
juicer and filtering it though muslin cloth. The
juice and sugar ratio was kept at 1:1.5 kg. The
1.5 kg sugar was boiled in 1 liter of water. One
liter of juice was boiled separately and 5 g of
citric acid was added as a preservative. Both the
solutions were mixed, boiled again and then left
to cool at room temperature. The solution thus
obtained is known as squash, which is filtered
again and packed in bottles for marketing.
Fruits of Diploknema butyracea were used for
making jam. Ripened fruits were thoroughly
washed and ground into small pieces without
[VOL. 58
skin. A small amount of water was added
(approx. 150 ml per kg of fruit) along with 5 g
of citric acid. It was then mixed with sugar
(approx. 750 g sugar per kg of fruit) and cooked
to create a slurry. The jam thus prepared was
packed and ready for marketing.
RESULTS
RURAL MARKETS IN SIKKIM
In Sikkim state, altogether 22 weekly rural
markets ('Hats') have been identified. These
market centres can be grouped into three differ-
ent categories, i.e., 'A', 'B' and 'C' based on the
infrastructure and other available facilities, such
as road communication/transport, health centres,
education centres, banking, post office, village
level worker centre, milk producer co-operative,
and 'Pachayatghar' (community hall). Five mar-
kets fall into the 'A' category with all the facil-
ities, seven fall in the 'B' category with mod-
erate facilities, while the remaining 11 fall in the
'C' category with very poor infrastructure and
minimum facilities (Table 1). All 23 market cen-
tres play an important role in the development
of rural and urban areas of Sikkim state. In the
South district of Sikkim, there were eight rural
markets, followed by seven in the West, five in
the East, and only two in the North. The markets
of 'A' category engaged a population of above
2000 persons, 'B' category between 500-2000,
and 'C' served less than 500. Only 'Malli' mar-
ket sits twice a week, while the remainder sit
once a week. Choice of market days depends on
the adjacent market days and nature of surplus.
The North district has just two market days,
while in the South nine market days are avail-
able (Table 1). Thus among all four districts of
the state, the South district is best served, fol-
lowed by the West and East districts. The North
district had poor infrastructure and was inacces-
sible and thinly populated, therefore only two
market days were available. The state govern-
ment provides facilities for the local markets at
different locations. Government officials were
also allowed to participate in the weekly mar-
kets, and the time schedules of offices is modi-
fied accordingly for the 'Hat' days. These mar-
kets deal with various commodities, including
food items, forest produce, animals and their by-
products, clothing and utensils, and various
kinds of implements.
2004] SUNDRIYAL & SUNDRIYAL: MARKETING OF HIMALAYAN WILD PLANTS 303

TABLE 1. NUMBER OF MARKETS, COMMAND AREA, COMMAND POPULATION PER MARKET, THEIR PERCENT-
AGES TO TOTAL REVENUE BLOCKS AND NUMBER OF WEEKLY MARKET DAYS IN DIFFERENT DISTRICTS OF
SIKKIM STATE.

No. of
markets
Command to total
No. of No. of area per Command revenue
mar market market population blocks
Districts kets days (km2) C000) (%) Market day* Name market centre-(Category)**

North 2 2 4.23 30.34 2.00 Sunday Mangan (A)

Tsungthang (B)
East 5 6 239 36.33 3.2 Wednesday--2, Friday--2, Singtam(A), Ch~achen (B), Rhenok
Sunday--2 (B), Kartok (C), Singbel (C)
South 8 7 125 16.15 4.2 Tuesday, Wednesday--3, Namchi (A), Jorethang (A), Rabong
Thursday, Friday--3, (B), Malli (C), Maniram (C),
Sunday. Kewzing (C), Lekssip (C), Nalam-
Kolbong (C)
West 7 7 194 16.16 5.0 Monday--2, Wednesday, Gyalshing (A), Soreng (B), Upper
Thursday, Friday, Sun- Fambong (B), Dhalam (B), Dentam
day--2 (C), Rishi (C), Yuksam (C)
* Number against the day shows total number of days for which market is commenced at different places.
** 'A' = well developed market centre with good facilities, 'B' = moderate facilities, 'C' = markets with poor facilities.

MARKET AVAILABILITY OF WILD EDIBLE large variety of vegetables and fruits, though the
SPECIES AND RETAILERS INVOLVED total number is relatively higher for the Gangtok
A comparative profile of three markets is pre- market. The number of cereals, pulses and spic-
sented in Table 2. All the markets received a es sold was nearly the same for the three studied
markets. A total of 44 wild edible species have
been recorded sold during 1996-1997 in the
TABLE 2. M A R K E T PROFILE SHOWING DIFFERENT
three studied markets. The total species of wild
TYPES OF PRODUCTS AND NUMBER OF ITEMS AVAIL-
edibles sold for fruits and vegetables was higher
ABLE IN THE THREE STUDIED WEEKLY MARKETS IN
in Gangtok markets than the Namchi and Sing-
THE SIKKIM STATE.
tam markets (Table 2). Besides commercial veg-
Markets (Hats) etables, cereals, pulses, spices, and wild edibles,
Products GangtokNamchi Singtam
a large number of wood/iron implements were
also sold (Table 2).
Agricultural items: Individually, the Gangtok, Namchi and Sing-
Vegetables 40 39 22 tam markets had 36, 24 and 17 wild edible spe-
Fruits 16 14 10 cies, respectively (Table 3 to 5). Twelve species,
Cereals 8 3 4
Pulses 8 8 6 viz. Agaricus, Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, Di-
Spices 8 6 6 plazium esculentum, Diploknema butyracea,
Tobacco/cannabis 5 2 3 Spondias axillaris, Emblica officinalis, Nastur-
Animals and their products:
tium officinale, Urtica dioica, Pentapanax les-
chenaultii, Terminalia chebula, Tamarindus
Animals/meat 7 4 4
Milk products 6 5 5
indica and Juglans regia were found in all three
Honey 1 1 1 markets. At least 15 species were common in
Gangtok and Namchi, which also includes
Wild edible plants:
Machilus edulis, Castanopsis hystrix, and Ber-
Fruits 15 7 7 genia ciliata. Singtam market was much closer
Vegetables 17 7 9
to Gangtok than the Namchi market and large
Medicinal plants 3 4 3
numbers of species were brought to Gangtok
Wood/iron implements: from Singtam. All 17 wild edible species that
Hand-made wooden items 15 9 7 occur in Singtam were also sold in Gangtok. Ten
Hand-made iron + wood 10 5 6
species were recorded common to Singtam and
304 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 58

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Namchi markets. Species restricted to the Gang-
tok market were Baccaurea sapida, Calamus
spp., Arisaema utile, Chenopodium album, Por-
tulacca oleracea and Morus laevigata (Table 3).
Elaeocarpus sikkimensis, Ficus benjamina, Her-
acleum wallichii, Rumex nepalensis, Swertia
chirata, Viscum articulatum, Terminalia beleri-
ca and Mangifera sylvetica were found only in
the Namchi market (Table 3).
Interviews with the collectors and sellers re-
vealed that most of the wild edible species were
collected directly from the forest areas. Dipla-
zium esculentum, Agaricus sp., Dioscorea bul-
bifera, Emblica officinalis, Machilus edulis,
Zanthoxylum rhetsa, Castanopsis hystrix, Elaeo-
carpus sikkimensis, Terminalia chebula, Termin-
alia belerica and Mangifera sylvetica were col-
lected from all forest stands including the re-
serve forests. Dendrocalamus hamiltonii was ei-
ther collected from the government forests or
from the private forests. Other bamboo species
were collected from bamboo forests. Diplokne-
ma butyracea, Eriolobus indica, Eleagnus lati-
folia, Spondias axillaris, Ficus benjamina and
Morus laevigata were collected either from the
community forests, the private forests, or the
natural forests. Urtica dioica and Girardiana
palmata are collected from wastelands, while
Nasturtium officinale, PortuIacca oleracea and
Rumax nepalensis were collected from unculti-
vable and marshy lands.
Market surveys revealed that at least a few
species of wild edible plants were available all
months during the year. At Gangtok 6-16 spe-
cies were recorded in different months with the
maximum number of species present in April-
May. At Namchi market 5-14 species were re-
corded in different months with maximum spe-
cies recorded during January-March. For Nam-
chi market 3-8 wild edible species were avail-
able in different months, with the number of
species higher in February and July-August.
Generally Diplazium esculentum, Nasturtium of-
ficinale and Urtica dioica were available
throughout the year. Higher quantities of D. es-
culentum were sold from March to August, of
N. officinalis during February-April, and U.
dioica in March-June. In the remaining months
the quantifies were very low. Other most com-
monly used vegetables were fruiting bodies of
Agaricus, root tubers of Dioscorea bulbifera,
leaves of Pantapanax leschenaultii and Cheno-
podium album, and tender shoots of Polygonum
307
molle and Arisaema utile. Market surveys re-
vealed that the wild edible plants are consumed
in large quantities during the period of scarcity
of commercial vegetables. Diplazium esculen-
tum, Nasturtium officinale, Spondias axillaris,
Machilus edulis, Dendrocalamus hamiltonii
were sold in relatively high quantities, therefore
higher numbers of retailers were involved in
their sale. These species also yielded higher in-
come on a yearly basis.
The average numbers of retailers selling wild
edible species were 2-10 per week in different
markets. Maximum numbers of retailers were
involved with the business of those species that
occur throughout the year. For example, retailers
involved annually with the selling of Diplazium
esculentum, Nasturtium officinale and Urtica
dioica were recorded as 308, 178 and 190, re-
spectively, at Gangtok, Namchi and Singtam,
however the quantity of each species was much
less on an individual retailer basis. Other species
that comprised higher numbers of retailers were
Spondias axillaris, Machilus edulis, Agaricus,
Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, Zanthoxyllum, Pan-
tapanax and Calamus at the Gangtok market
(Table 3). The species used for medicinal pur-
poses were sold frequently throughout the year
in all the studied markets, i.e., Bergenia ciliata,
Heracleum wallichii and Viscum articulatum,
though very few retailers were involved with
them.
MARKET RATES AND QUANTITY SOLD
Out of 43 species sold in the three markets,
Spondias axillaris was sold in highest quantity
and for a short duration only. During the study
year (1996-1997) nearly 4995 kg of Spondias
axillaris was recorded sold at Gangtok market
at a rate of Rs. 10-12 per kg, followed by Mach-
ilus edulis (2290 kg @ Rs. 12-15 kg-1), Dipla-
zium esculentum (2290 kg @ Rs. 2-4 bundle-X),
Urtica dioica (2222 kg @ Rs. 2-3 bundle-X),
Eleagnus latifolia (1240 kg @ Rs. 8-12 kg-X),
Dendrocalamus hamiltonii (1050 kg @ Rs. 10-
20 kg-l), Agaricus sp. (638 kg @ Rs. 30-48
kg -1) and Baccaurea sapida (400 kg @ Rs. 16-
20 kg -1) (Table 3).
Quantifies and market rates for various wild
edible species were relatively less at Singtam
and Namchi than the Gangtok markets (Table 3
and 5). At Namchi also the highest quantity of
Spondias axillaris was sold (1760 kg @ Rs. 6.00
kg-l). Other prominently sold species were Di-
308 ECONOMIC BOTANY
plazium esculentum (720 kg @ Rs. 4 - 6 bun-
dle 1), Urtica dioica (700 kg @ Rs. 5.00 bun-
die-X), Dioscorea bulbifera (450 kg @ Rs. 10
kg 1), Emblica officinaUs (330 kg @ Rs. 8 kg-1),
Dendrocalamus hamiltonii (310 kg @ Rs. 15.00
kg x), and Diploknema butyracea (300 kg @ Rs.
10.0 kg 1) (Table 3). At Singtam market 2978
kg of Spondias axillaris was sold (@ Rs. 8-12
kg-~), followed by Diplazium esculentum (2719
kg @ Rs. 2-4 bundle 1), Dendrocalamus ham-
iltonii (1800 kg @ Rs. 8-12 kg-1), Emblica of-
ficinalis (650 kg @ Rs. 6-11 kg-1), Nasturtium
officinale (365 kg @ Rs. 2-3 bundle-a), Diplok-
nema butyracea (340 kg @ Rs. 15 kg-~), Urtica
dioica (308 kg @ Rs. 2-4 bundle-X), and Eleag-
nus latifolia (288 kg @ Rs. 6-10 kg -1) (Table
3).
LABOR INVOLVED, EXTRACTION AND GROSS
INCOME
It was noticed that the plant dwellers directly
sold most of the wild edible plants in the market.
At Gangtok market, however, at times small
quantities of the product were sold to a few per-
manent retailers known by the sellers. Generally
people with subsistence economy among lower
income groups were involved with the collection
of such species. For others the activity was as-
sociated with the collection of fuel and fodder,
and was for house consumption only. The Ne-
pali community was prominently involved in the
collection of wild edible species and selling
them in the local markets. The wild edible fruits,
such as Spondias axillaris, Machilus edulis, Di-
ploknema butyracea, Eleagnus latifolia were
available in bulk as each tree produced a good
quantity of fruits requiring less labor. Thus they
were always brought in large quantities to week-
ly market. Also, the fruits were perishable and
people wanted to sell them immediately. Con-
trarily, Diplazium esculentum, Urtica dioica,
Nasturtium officinale, Pantapanax leschenaultii
were brought in medium to low quantities as
their collection was more time consuming, and
they were available for longer duration. Shoots
of the bamboo (Dendrocalamus hamiltonii)
were generally brought in fairly large quantities.
For most of the wild edible vegetables (except
for bamboos), only small quantities were
brought to the market to assure sale of all the
material. A few other species, particularly the
medicinal ones, were sold in much smaller quan-
tities every week (Table 3). Most of the wild
[VOL. 58
edible species are sold from the temporary stalls
on retail basis. A few species (particularly Bac-
caurea sapida and Spondias axillaris), which
are maintained by a few people in private for-
ests, were sometimes contracted to the commis-
sion agents on an annual basis. Most of the time
the middlemen were from local society only.
New shoots of bamboos were collected on a
whole day basis (8 AM to 5 PM). It was re-
corded that one person can collect on average at
least 25-30 kg shoots (fresh weight), though the
dwellers reported that on a good collection day
they may collect up to 40-50 kg shoots/day. An
acre of bamboo forest produced 10-12 mounds
of bamboo shoots as observed in the forests of
Kalimpong Division. For Machilus edulis, Bac-
caurea sapida, Diploknema butyracea, Elaeo-
carpus sikkimensis, and various other fruit spe-
cies maximum possible collections were made
by the fruit dwellers. Often large and inacces-
sible branches were lopped for maximum fruit
collection within a short time. Such erratic col-
lection of fruits leads to a decrease in yields in
the next season. For vegetables, however, quan-
tities were collected considering the possibility
of total sale in the markets.
Among all wild edible species sold in the
three markets, maximum return was recorded
from Spondias axillaris in Gangtok and Singtam
(Table 3). At Gangtok Machilus edulis, Agari-
cus, Arundinaria and Diplazium esculentum
were the other species that yielded high income.
At Namchi highest gross income on an annual
basis was recorded for Diplazium esculentum,
followed by Spondias axillaris and Urtica dioi-
ca. At Singtam market, besides S. axillaris, Den-
drocalamus hamiltonii, Diplazium esculentum,
Diploknema butyracea and Agaricus species
provided high gross return. Our assessment of
availability of wild edible plants was mainly
based on the investigation of the three markets
in the 'A' category. A participatory rural ap-
praisal (PRA) survey revealed that the medium
size market ('B' category) annually represents
about 45-55% of the quantities of the wild ed-
ible plants available in large markets. The 'C'
category markets represent only 20-30% of wild
edible plants available in large markets. If the
total wild edible plants selling in the three stud-
ied markets is extrapolated based on the above
assessment, the approximate quantity sold
through different rural markets comes to 140
tons per annum, which involves Rs 15 lakhs an-
2004] SUNDRIYAL & SUNDRIYAL: MARKETING OF HIMALAYAN WILD PLANTS
nually. It is, however, to be noted that this esti-
mate did not include many revenue blocks,
which will ultimately increase the extent of the
total wild edible plants' business.
Some ethnic groups have their own way of
collecting and conserving these wild edible spe-
cies. The 'Pipin' system in the North district of
Sikkim collects the wild edible species in an or-
ganized way. 'Pipin', the village head, announc-
es a date and selects an area to collect a few
wild edible species (e.g., Arisaema utile), and
interested persons from all the families of the
village move simultaneously to collect the spe-
cies from the demarcated areas. The next year a
new area is opened, and after species collection,
the demarcated areas are banned for next 3 - 4
years. Interviews with the villagers revealed that
they are willing to raise a number of wild edible
plants, particularly trees, on their farms, viz.,
Spondias axillaris, Bassia butyracea, Elaeagnus
latifoIia, Baccaurea sapida, etc. A few farmers
have already started growing some of these spe-
cies but supply of seedling/saplings is a real
problem.
CHANGES IN THE MARKET RATES/PRICES
Hajra and Chakravorty (1981) have presented
market rates of some of the species of ethno-
botanical importance, which also includes a few
wild edible species sold at Gangtok market in
1981. A continuous increase in the costs of var-
ious wild edible species was observed from
1981 to 1996-1997 (Table 4). The prices have
gone up by three to six times for most of the
species. In the case of Diploknema butyracea
and Emblica officinalis the prices are five to six
times higher in a span of 16 years. Similarly, the
unit cost of Tupistra nutans, Machilus edulis,
Juglans regia has also gone up by four times
from 1981 to 1996-1997. This increase was
three to six times for shoots of different bamboo
species (Table 4). Interviews with the collectors
and sellers/retailers revealed that the quantities
available for different species have gone down
over the years, except for bamboo species.
Therefore conservation of wild edible species in
forest areas needs special attention.
VALUE ADDITION AND BY-PRODUCTS
A few wild edible species were used for mak-
ing pickles, chutney, jam, jelly and squash
through value addition to ensure high returns in
comparison to selling of raw materials (Table 5).
309
A few local residents already used Spondias ax-
illaris, Mangifera sylvatica, Ficus benjamina
and Dendrocalamus hamiltonii for pickle prep-
aration. Eleagnus latifolia was used for making
chutney. Efforts were made to analyze cost-ben-
efits of making various by-products (Table 6 and
7). Seven species were tried for pickle making
by taking 5 kg of raw material. It was recorded
that Mangifera sylvatica yielded maximum re-
turn, to the extent of Rs. 33 kg 1, followed by
Spondias axillaris (Rs. 31 kg 1), Emblica offi-
cinalis (Rs. 26 kg-l), and Dendrocalamus ham-
iltonii (Rs. 25.80 kg-1). Other species yielded
less profit (Table 6).
Table 7 reveals data on the cost-benefit anal-
ysis of squash, jam, chuk and chutney from
some wild edible species. The squash making
increased the cost of fruits of Baccaurea sapida
from Rs. 10 kg -t to 17.40 kg -1 with a net profit
of Rs. 7.40 kg -1. The profit was relatively higher
for Diploknema butyracea, which increased by
more than the twice the cost of raw fruits after
jam making. Fruit of Eriolobus indica were used
for making chuk, a semi-solid/sour 'Chyvan-
prash' type concentrate. About 15-17 kg of fruit
was needed to make 1 kg of chuk for Eriolobus
indica. Rhus succedanea was also used for mak-
ing chuk, and only 3 - 4 kg of fruit is needed for
1 kg of chuk. The chuk of Eriolobus indica was
sold in local markets as medicine for treating
stomach pains and dysentery. It was also used
to make chutney. The chuk can be kept for a
longer duration, reducing the labor for selling
fruit within a short period. Chutney of Eleagnus
latifolia was sold in markets and can yield a net
profit of Rs. 17.00 kg ~ (compare to the low
prices of fruits, Rs. 6-10 kg-~). It can be con-
cluded that value addition to wild edible plants
in any form of product is a profitable option,
which yields high returns to the rural people and
increases the keeping quality of different spe-
cies.
DISCUSSION
In the Sikkim Himalaya all the trade and com-
merce activities mainly in the rural areas are
conducted at a common place, known as a mar-
ket. In rural markets the demand for the goods
is less due to low purchasing power of the rural
dwellers (Shanna et al. 1992). Therefore the
numbers of markets are few and they generally
sit on a selected and defined day each week,
known as "weekly markets," locally called
310 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 58

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2004] SUNDRIYAL & SUNDRIYAL: MARKETING OF HIMALAYAN WILD PLANTS 311

TABLE 5. VALUEADDITIONTO THE IMPORTANTWILD EDIBLE SPECIES AND THEIR MARKETRATES.

Product and Sold at market

Species Plant part used product name rate (Rs)

Eleagnus latifolia Fruit Raw fruits 6-10 kg -1

Pickle 40 kg 1
Chutney 25 kg -1
Jelly 40-50 kg -l
Baccaurea sapida Fruit Raw 16-20 kg 1
Squash 30 kg i
Dendrocalamus hamiltonii Tender shoots Raw 10-12 kg -1
Pickle 45 kg -1
Diploknema butyracea Fruit Raw 12-16 kg -1
Jam 40 kg -1
Emblica officinalis Fruit Raw 10 kg -1
Pickle 50 kg -1
Eriolobus indica Fruit Raw fruit 10-12 kg-t
Chuk 200 kg -1
Pickle 35 kg -I
Ficus benjamina Leaf buds Pickle 35 kg -1
Mangifera sylvatica Fruit Raw 10-15 kg -1
Pickle 50 kg i
Spondias axillaris Fruit Raw 10-12 kg -l
Pickle 80 kg -1
1 US $ = Rs. 42.00.

"Hats." These markets serve as the collecting
points of local products as well as distributing
centres of the consumer goods (Jana 1997). The
frequency of the market days and demands of
the goods are dependent on the socio-economic
conditions of the people and inhabitants of the
area. A large variety of items that includes veg-
etables, grains and other agricultural produce,
animals and their by-products, utensils and other
useful items are sold, along with the wide vari-
ety of wild edible and medicinal plants collected
from natural habitats. The local govemment pro-
motes such markets and provides basic facilities.
In the Sikkim Himalaya, out of 190 wild edible
species that are consumed as food (Sundriyal
1999), nearly 24% are brought to the local mar-
kets, which is a fairly high number considering
many species are consumed either at the house-
hold levels or at their growing sites only. Of the
total 44 wild edible species that are sold in all
the markets, 36 species were recorded in the
Gangtok market, 24 in Namchi and 17 in Sing-
tam, of which 54% species were used as vege-
tables. Nearly five to six wild edible species
were always available in the markets, showing
the high diversity of the plant species consumed

TABLE 6. COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS (IN R S ) FOR PICKLES PREPARED FROM DIFFERENT WILD EDIBLE PLANTS
OF THE SIKKIM H I M A L A Y A (BASED ON 5 KG SAMPLE OF EACH SPECIES).

Eleagnus Eriolobus Spondias Mangifera Ficus Dendrocalamus Emblica

Costs and income latifolia indica axiUaris sylvatica benjamina hamiltonii officinalis

Cost of fruits 50.00 55.00 55.00 55.00 40.00 60.00 40.00

Labor charges 20.00 20.00 20.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00
Edible oil 20.00 20.00 30.00 30.00 15.00 20.00 25.00
Ingredients 10.00 12.00 14.00 25.00 12.00 15.00 20.00
Container 25.00 25.00 25.00 25.00 25.00 25.00 25.00
Total cost (Rs) 125.00 132.00 144.00 145.00 102.00 130.00 120.00
Total output (Rs) 220.00 195.00 300.00 310.00 192.00 259.00 250.00
Net return (Rs) 95.00 63.00 156.00 165.00 90.00 129.00 130.00
1 US $ = Rs. 42.00.
312 ECONOMIC BOTANY
T A B L E 7. COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS FOR SQUASH~ JAM, CHUK AND CHUTNEY MADE FROM DIFFERENT WILD
EDIBLE SPECIES.
Baccaurea
Cost and benefit sapida
Products made Squash
Cost of fruits & labor (Rs.) 40.00
Sugar (Rs.) 23.00
Preservatives/ingredients (Rs.) 5.00
Bottles and miscellaneous (Rs.) 25.00
Total cost (Rs.) 93.00
Output (Rs.) 140.00
Net return (Rs.) 47.00
Miscellaneous cost includes fuel cost for chuk preparation from the fruits of E. indica. For chutney preparation jaggery is used instead of sugar.
1 US $ = Rs. 42.00.
in the state. The maximum number and quanti-
ties of different wild edible species were record-
ed from January to May in different markets, the
lean period of vegetable availability for Sikkim
(Adhikari et al. 1993). The availability of wild
edible plants, during lean season for vegetable
availability, satisfies market demands. Similar
reports are available for other areas also (Hari-
dasan et al. 1990; Maheshwari and Singh 1984;
Maikhuri et al. 1994; Mao 1993; Negi et al.
1985; Negi and Gaur 1994; Pandey et al. 1993;
Singh 1989, 1995).
Weekly market surveys revealed the simulta-
neous availability of most of the species at Nam-
chi, Singtam and Gangtok markets, however,
market prices and quantity varied at different
places. Generally the Gangtok market had high-
er prices for each species, which may be attri-
buted to excessive labor costs, greater demand/
consumption, as well as higher income of the
people in this town. Generally the local plant
dwellers collect wild plants from the forest areas
and directly sell them, however at times they
deal with some pre-fixed sellers. A few other
people collect wild edible plants in forest areas
during fuel and fodder collection as well as
while grazing animals. A similar method of
NTFPs collection is also reported in Brazilian
Amazonian (Fearnside 1989) and Peru Amazo-
nian areas (Phillips 1993). The knowledge about
wild edible plants is spread from one generation
to the next through practical collection; most of
the children collect a number of species from
natural habitats and taste them for fun. For most
of the wild vegetables, the collectors sell small
quantities to different retailers in the markets in
order to sell them easily. Generally retailers keep
[VOL. 58
Diploknema Eriolobus Eleagnus
butyracea indica latifolia
Jam Chuk Chutney
60.00 220.00 50.00
56.00 -- 60.00
5.00 -- 12.00
50.00 50.00 40.00
171.00 270.00 164.00
320.00 800.00 250.00
149.00 530.00 86.00
small quantities of different wild edible species,
as they are well aware of market demands. It
was recorded that in collection of wild edible
plants, level of harvest per unit area is not given
any significance; however collection (yield) per
unit labor is very important, as it is directly re-
lated to the returns. Collection of wild edible
plants was considered as free access items and
the government has no fee structure for their col-
lection. Generally the collection of wild edible
species is done on an individual basis and sus-
tainable harvests are not given due consider-
ation. For plant dwellers, perhaps return to labor
per unit time is the most important criteria, thus
the level of extraction is not given due impor-
tance (Phillips 1993; Uma Shankar et al. 1996).
Therefore, most of the areas are over-exploited
by collecting large volumes of plant material
within a shorter time (Cunningham and Mbenk-
um 1993). In Sikkim, no serious effort has been
made to determine their potential or the quanti-
ties available in wild habitats; therefore no strat-
egy for conservation of this important group of
plants has been developed.
It was noted that the plants sold in large quan-
tities were species in high demand. Primarily the
residents of low economic profile are involved
with the collection and selling of various wild
edible species. Similar reports are available for
Amazonian forests (Browder 1990; Phillips
1993). Wild edible plant collectors mainly visit
forest locations in search of those species that
have market potential. The local state govern-
ment charges a nominal fee for collection of me-
dicinal plants from forest habitats (Rai and Shar-
ma 1995). However, the wild edible plants are
collected without paying any royalty to the state
2004] SUNDRIYAL & SUNDRIYAL: MARKETING OF HIMALAYAN WILD PLANTS
government, providing opportunities for over-
exploitation of these species.
It was recorded that the market availability
and quantities have decreased over the years for
most of the wild edible species (Hajra and Chak-
ravorty 1981), particularly for Dioscorea, Elaeo-
carpus lanceaefolius, Juglans regia, Machilus
edulis, Rhus semialata. At the same time the
price of each species has gone up. At Gangtok
market, only availability and quantities of bam-
boo species have increased over the years, due
to higher demand for these species in local mar-
kets. In Puerto Rico also the quantities of wild
edible fruits coming to the markets have de-
creased over the years because more expensive
commercial temperate and citrus fruits have re-
placed the markets (Ramis 1993). Similar ob-
servation has been made for Phyllanthus embli-
ca in the Biligiri Rangan hills (Uma Shankar et
al. 1996). The local people get most of their
food from traditional agriculture and only a
small portion from collection of wild edible
plants. In northeast India a few lesser known
edible plants are grown by the tribals for food
grain needs (Gangwar and Ramakrishnan 1989),
though most of the food requirement is met from
slash and burn agriculture (Ramakrishnan 1993).
The value addition to different wild edible
plants as well as cost-benefit analysis revealed
that the income can be increased by three to four
times if products like pickles, jam, jelly and
squash are made from different species. How-
ever, at present most of the fruits and other plant
parts are either consumed raw or as vegetables.
For example, Gangtok, Namchi and Singtam
markets together sold 10 731 kg fruits of Spon-
dias axillaris at a price of Rs. 8-12 kg -1 and
thus yielded a gross income of Rs. 1,07,310/-.
The same quantity of fruit yields Rs. 3,34,810/-
if simply converted to pickle. Similarly, for
Eleagnus latifolia, 1528 kg of fruit would have
yielded 2.5 times the benefit of their current
market income if simply converted to pickles.
For other species also the benefits can be in-
creased through simple value addition. Further-
more, in this investigation the cost-benefit from
various by-products was analyzed on a test basis
only. It is, however, expected that undertaking
this program on a large scale will reduce the cost
of labor and other inputs, thus increasing the
profit. The commercial processing of some wild
edible species has already been adopted in other
areas and reported highly remunerative (Dhyani
313
and Dhar 1993; Dhyani and Khali 1993; Lu and
Rongson 1992; Maikhuri et al. 1994, 1998).
IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGEMENT
The Sikkim agriculture system is a composite
system of agriculture, horticulture, animal hus-
bandry and agroforestry (Sharma et al. 1992).
The main emphasis in agricultural production is
on securing home consumption, but small sur-
plus quantities are regularly sold to meet the
household needs. The farming system of Sikkim
is in the process of transition and local govern-
ment is increasing road networks and other fa-
cilities to link the rural areas with urban centres.
To meet the cash needs farmers are increasingly
adopting cash crops, growing spices, vegetables
and fruits (Tarnutzer and Battig 1994). The state
receives high volumes of imported vegetables
and fruits from the Siliguri (West Bengal) mar-
ket (Adhikary et al. 1993). Under specific con-
ditions, however, off-farm income plays an im-
portant role. Among the off-farm income sourc-
es, government jobs and employment during
lean periods are crucial (Sharma et al. 1998). For
the poorer section of people, collection of wild
edible plants and medicinal plants along with
fuel, fodder and timber collection is an impor-
tant source of income. During the lean period,
wild edible plants also fill the need created by
vegetable scarcity, and many subsistence fami-
lies are involved in this business. They also
serve as an important source of nutrients to the
local residents (Sundriyal and Sundriyal 2001),
particularly in remote areas. Furthermore, the
poor section of the society, which often cannot
afford to purchase cost intensive vegetables and
fruits from the markets, mainly collects them.
Wild edible species have been collected since
time immemorial, however their large-scale col-
lection for selling in the market has led to their
over-exploitation. Most productive and high
priced wild edible plants are seasonal in distri-
bution, which make attractive options for a few
months only. Therefore the wild edible species
deserve special attention for conservation, due
to their possible role in increasing food produc-
tion, particularly for rural and subsistence farm-
ers of the remote areas in Sikkim state. As col-
lection of wild edible plants from wild habitats
requires considerable time, maintaining them at
farm or private forest areas would be very re-
munerative. Though the value addition increases
profits for the locals, it may also lead to further
314 ECONOMIC BOTANY
increase in the exploitation level of these species
in their natural areas. Therefore, a strong strat-
egy is needed for their multiplication and adop-
tion into the agroforestry systems (Sundriyal
1999). Due to market demands, a few progres-
sive farmers have started rearing a few species
that are still found in wild habitats. These spe-
cies are at a semi-domesticated stage, e.g. Eleag-
nus latifolia, Spondias axillaris, Baccaurea sap-
ida, Eriolobus indica, Diploknema butyracea,
Emblica officinalis, Ficus benjamina and Pas-
siflora indica, and are maintained in the private
forests. Fortunately there has been an increasing
demand for the planting materials of various
useful species during recent years (Sundriyal
1999; Sundriyal and Sharma 1996). Such change
in the attitudes of farmers must be utilized for
conservation of various wild edible species. If
properly planned and suitable strategies are de-
veloped, a few selected wild edible species may
be adopted in traditional agroforestry systems,
which will not only increase the income for
farmers but also conserve these species in nat-
ural habitats.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Dr. L. M. S. Palni, Director, G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan
Environment & Development for providing facilities, and A. N. Purohit
and E. Sharma for suggestions and technical help. Prof. E S. Ramakrishan
is thanked for constructive criticism on the draft of the paper. This re-
search w a s sponsored by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Re-
search, Government of India, New Delhi through grant no. 38(886)95-
ERR-II.
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