Cultural Variations and Social Differences
a healer, an adviser, and a seer.
(Gender)
Gender and Gender Roles
People play different roles in society depending on age and
occupation. There are jobs that require a specific gender to
perform tasks while other jobs are open to both men and
women.
Gender
 Gender refers to social, cultural, and psychological
characteristics or traits related to males and females
based on certain social contexts.
 It is different from sex, which refers to the biological
characteristics that distinguish a male from a female.
 Thus, sex makes a person male or female, while gender
makes a person masculine or feminine.
Gender Roles
 Gender roles refer to attitudes and behaviors that the society
expects a person to exhibit based on his or her sex.
 For example, in traditional Philippine society, women are
expected to be plain housewives and take care of their
children, while men are expected to be professionals and
provide the needs of their family.
 Another example is that society expects women to be
more emotional and sensitive while men are expected to
be strong and capable of doing things that women cannot
do.
Gender Roles in Pre-colonial Philippine Society
In pre-colonial Philippines, males and females enjoyed the same
rights and privileges. Different social functions were assigned to
different members of society. There were functions that were
specifically given to males, females, or both.
Aside from being a priestess, the babaylan was also considered
Gender Roles in Philippine Society During the Colonial
Period
Gender roles during the colonial period changed drastically.
Women were restrained from other activities outside their
homes, while men were given more social functions. These
roles also changed as the Philippines was occupied by new
colonizers.
 With the coming of the Spaniards and the introduction of
Catholicism, the babaylan lost their role in the religious
life of the community. This role was taken over by
Catholic priests. Women were relegated to doing
household chores and taking care of children. More often
than not, young women were not sent to school but
instead trained to be good wives and mothers for their
future families. Some women were also forced to marry
for economic and political gain.
 During the American period, women had more freedom
in society. They were allowed to study and work in any
field they wanted. They also adopted American values.
Men and women became equal in the sense that it
became acceptable for both genders to have jobs and be
educated.
 Although men and women were able to maintain their
status in society during the Japanese period, women
were usually kept inside their houses to protect them
from abusive Japanese soldiers. Men also became busy
defending the country, with most of them serving as
soldiers.
  also called the group of the maginoo, raha, or gat

Timawa (Freemen)

 second or “middle” social class

 composed of all freemen living in the barangay
 consisted of workers, warriors, merchants, and others who
were not under debt bondage
 had their own properties such as houses and pieces of land to
cultivate

Alipin (Slaves)

Gender Roles in Current Philippine Society  third class

At present, Philippine society is more open to allowing  served another person or family as payment for debt
both men and women to perform different tasks not  became slaves when their families lost to a war with another
 were not bound to their masters for life
based solely on gender, but on an individual’s capabilities
 could go back to their previous status as soon as they pay off
and strengths. For example, fields like engineering, their debts, or if they marry a maharlika, who will then pay for
architecture, and medicine, which are often associated their debt
with men, have long been open to women. Likewise,
 had two kinds−−aliping saguiguilid and aliping namamahay
there are also lots of male teachers, nurses,chefs, and
hairdressers nowadays.
Aliping Namamahay

 had their own properties such as houses or pieces of land

Cultural Variations and Social Differences  often from the timawa class and became slaves because of
(Socioeconomic Class) debt or as punishment for a wrongdoing
 could go back to being part of the timawa class once they pay
Find out the answers in this lesson! off their debt

Socioeconomic Classes during the Pre-Colonial Period Aliping saguiguilid

Prior to the coming of the Spaniards, the community was called
 did not have the right to own any property
a barangay. It was headed by a datu or rajah. Our ancestors  often came from a family of slaves or were captives in war
were divided into three different groups−−maharlika, timawa,  could also be sold or exchanged for goods or other slaves
and alipin.
Maharlika (Leaders and Royals)

 first social class

 composed of community leaders (datu) and their families
Socioeconomic Classes during the Spanish Colonial
Period
Upon the coming of the Spaniards, Philippine society changed
and a new set of socioeconomic classes was created. During
this period, the people were divided based on their ancestry—
peninsulares, insulares, mestizo, and indio.
Peninsulares
 Spaniards in the Philippines who were born in Spain
 came from the word “peninsula,” which was in direct reference
to the Spanish peninsula
Insulares
 Spaniards who were of Spanish descent but were born in the
Philippines
 came from the word “insular,” which means "from the islands"
Mestizos
 those of mixed ancestry
 usually children of Spanish and Chinese couples or of Spanish
and indio couples
 had economic and political power because of their mixed
heritage
Indios
 consisted of the natives
 the lowest class in society
 were stripped of their rights and freedom
 were forced to bow down to Spanish colonizers
This kind of system lasted for hundreds of years, until the time
when some insulares and mestizos were able to gain some form
of power. In the 19th century, the so-called “middle class”
emerged—the principalia and the ilustrados.
Principalia
 consisted of native leaders in the government and their
families
 were often educated and served as gobernadorcillo (town
mayor) or cabeza de barangay (barangay leader)
Ilustrados
 the children of the principalia who usually studied in Europe
 consisted mostly of the popular artists and scholars of the
period, including Jose Rizal
Modern Socioeconomic Classes
Socioeconomic classes changed when the Philippines gained
independence from Spain. The Americans introduced
democracy and did not impose any form of socioeconomic class
in the country.
At present, a person’s position in society is based mainly on his
or her family’s economic status. Social stratification or the
division of society based on occupation, income, wealth, or
power is simpler at present than in the past.
In 1987, the National Statistical Coordination Board
(NSCB) divided the population into high-income, middle-income,
and low-income classes.
High-income Class
 people earning an average of PhP 200,000 per month
 the “rich” class that accounts for merely one percent of the
country’s total population
Middle-income Class
 people earning an average of PhP 36,000 per month
 consists of professionals and small-scale entrepreneurs
Low-income Class Race

 people earning less than PhP 10,000 per month
 consists of laborers and minimum wage earners
Social Mobility
Unlike in other societies where persons born into a specific
class have no choice but to die as part of the same class,
people in the Philippines usually have the opportunity to transfer
from a lower socioeconomic class to a higher one.
This process, called social mobility, is:
 Race refers to a group of people that shares the same
physical attributes, such as skin color, height, and facial
features.
 People are grouped into different races based on their physical
appearance.
 Human beings are classified into three major races−
−Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid.
 These classifications are based on the color of the skin, the
shape of the face and eyes, texture of the hair, and other
prominent physical features.

 the movement of people or families within or between different

levels in society, and
 the opportunity to transfer from a lower socioeconomic class to
a higher one possibly through education or marriage.

Cultural Variations and Social Differences

(Ethnicity)
Two people belonging to the same race may be part of different
Ethnicity and Race ethnic groups. For example, Asians belong to the Mongoloid
Every society consists of people from different families, ethnic race but consists of different ethnic groups like the Japanese,
groups, and races. This makes society very diverse and unique. the Chinese, and the Malays. They all share the same physical
features but have different cultures, histories, and languages.
Ethnicity
Ethnolinguistic Groups in the Philippines
 Ethnicity refers to a group of people, also called the ethnic
group, who have a common or shared culture, language,
history, religion, and tradition. There are more than 180 ethnic or ethnolinguistic groups in the
 Here, people are divided into groups based on different social
Philippines, which are based on the language each group uses.
factors.

Examples: Filipinos, Malays, Anglo-Saxons, and Muslims.

 There are eight major ethnolinguistic groups in the country:
 1. Ilokano,
2. Kapampangan,
3. Pangasinense,
4. Tagalog,
5. Bikolano,
6. Ilonggo,
7. Cebuano, and
8. Waray.
 Other smaller ethnolinguistic groups are
the Ibanag, Ivatan, Sambal, Subanon, Maguindanaoan,
and Zamboangueño.
There are also indigenous groups in the country that may
belong to the same ethnolingguistic groups, but have different
cultures or traditions. Some of them are the Mangyans of
Mindoro, the Igorots of the Mountain Province, and the Moros of
Mindanao.
Issues About Race and Ethnicity
Ethnicity and race are categories that divide people based on
their social affinities or physical similarities. However,
differences in ethnicity and race make some people believe that
one ethnic group is superior than others. This belief creates
discrimination and prejudice against people from minorities who
are perceived to be of “inferior” ethnicity or race.
There are different types of discrimination against one’s ethnicity
or race.
Racism
 Racism is discrimination or prejudice based on one’s race.
 In the 1970s, white Americans (Caucasoids) discriminated
black Americans (Negroids) who were descendants of
immigrants from African countries.
Ethnocentricism
 Ethnocentrism is discrimination or prejudice based on one’s
culture.
 Recently, Muslim extremists discriminate Christians and non-
Muslims in Muslim countries because of their religion.
 In the Philippines, Muslims experience prejudice and
discrimination in Christian-dominated regions like Metro
Manila. Because of the ongoing conflict in Mindanao between
the government and Islamic militants, Christians tend to think
that all Muslims are terrorists.
 On the other hand, some Christians and ethnic groups are
discriminated and prejudiced against in Muslim-dominated
areas.
Discrimination against one’s race or culture may cause crimes
against it.
Genocide
 Genocide is the elimination of a group of people from the
same race, ethnic group, religion, or nation.
 It is an extreme action against people from another ethnicity or
race.
 The Holocaust during the World War II, executed by the Nazis
of Germany led by Adolf Hitler, killed millions of Jews all over
Europe.
Ethnic cleansing
 Ethnic cleansing is the harassment, rape, or forced migration
of an ethnic group to banish them from a certain area or
territory.
 This happens in certain areas in Africa.
Cultural Variation and Social Differences
(Religion)
Religion as a Cultural Variation
 We live in a world with varying and diverse cultures.
 Cultural variation or differences take many forms within
and among societies, one of which is religion.
  Religion can be defined as a set of practices and
behaviors that relate to a group of people's belief in a god
or a group of gods.
 Sociologists studying religion consider it a part of
society's culture.
 In most cases, religion not only affects a person's belief,
but one's way of life.
Variety of Religion
 There are many religions around the world.
 Among the major religions in the world
are Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Taoism,
and Buddhism.
 Each of these religions has its own set of beliefs and
practices that must be followed by its believers.
 In a society, several religions may exist, and since
religion affects an individual’s way of life, we can observe
cultural variations in the form of different religions.
Religion in the Philippines
 The Philippines is a secular country, which means that
the government does not prescribe a specific set of
activities or laws based on religion. A citizen's right to
choose his or her own religion is protected by the
Philippine Constitution.
 In the Philippines, the majority of the population are
Christians, with a certain portion of the population
practicing Islam, particularly in the southern part of the
country.
 Buddhism, Taoism, and Hinduism are also practiced by a
small number of inhabitants in the archipelago.
 Different religions are being practiced in Philippine
society today. This variation in religion is a product of the
evolution of Philippine society across time.
Understanding Cultural Variation in the Form of
Religion
 Cultural variations do exist as exemplified through
different religions in the world, more so in Philippine
society.
 For example, Christians and Muslims believe in one God,
Hindus believe in many gods, and Buddhists do not.
 The sets of practices and beliefs of a particular religion
influence the behavior of its followers and their interaction
with other members of society.
Issues Surrounding Differences in Religion
Because people have different religions, issues and conflicts
between religious groups or denominations cannot be
prevented.
Problems or Conflicts
 Since differences in religion do not only mean worshipping
different gods, conflicts sometimes arise between believers.
 Some believers of a particular religion feel like they are being
marginalized, while some feel like those following other
religions are taking advantage of their number.
 It may be easy to be swayed by religious differences and start
a conflict. A believer or follower of a particular religion may
offend a follower of another religion if he or she imposes his or
her religious beliefs or practices.
 In history, bloody wars happened because of religious
differences, and unfortunately, conflicts continue until now due
to varying religions.
Solutions or Actions
 To prevent conflicts, the Philippine government, for example,
started recognizing some of the special days celebrated by
different religions.
 Employees are not required to work during Holy Week, when
Catholics commemorate the suffering and death of Jesus
Christ.
 The start and end of the Ramadan are also considered
holidays, just like when the Chinese celebrate the start of their
new year.
 This way, the government allows followers of different religions
to attend to their religious obligations without work getting in
the way.
  To those conflicts brought about by differences in religion, the
key word is respect. This entails a conscious effort to acquire
cultural knowledge and understand which this course is mainly
about.
Cultural Variations and Social Differences
(Exceptionality/Non-Exceptionality)
Exceptionality and the Exceptional People
People have different characteristics, needs, desires, lifestyles,
and challenges. However, there are people who, from one
Exceptional People
 differ from societal and community standards of normalcy
 have learning or behavioral problems and physical and sensory
disabilities
 are intellectually gifted
The characteristics that make a person exceptional may have
been acquired from birth, through a medical condition, or through
an accident.
reason or another, are described or categorized by the society
as exceptional.
knowledge and attitudes toward people with such labels and
differences?
Exceptionality
 a quality or a characteristic of a person that makes him or her
different from an established norm in a society
 various physical and mental interference or problems that
affect a person and which makes it difficult for him or her to
function properly in society
Exceptional People: Challenges and Problems
Exceptional people, the disabled, or the intellectually gifted,
encounter challenges and issues in dealing with other members of
the society.
Here are some common problems and challenges that
exceptional people experience.
Overcoming Challenges and Problems
In the Philippines, despite the passage of Republic Act 7277 or
the Magna Carta for People with Disabilities (PWDs) in 1991,
there are still significant barriers that keep exceptional people
from fully participating in society−−including the stigma
surrounding disability and society’s poor understanding of the
abilities and aspirations of exceptional people. However, the
government, private sectors, media, and some concerned groups
have been working together to solve these existing problems.
Here are some ways on how both private and public sectors have
been helping them.
The picture below shows the International Symbol of Access
(ISA). It is found in locations or spots that are designated for all
persons with disabilities.
Cultural Variations and Social Differences
(Nationality)
Nation, Nationality, and Citizenship
The line of distinction between the terms "nation" and "nationality"
is quite thin. Most of the time, "nationality" and "citizenship" are
used interchangeably. However, it is important to note that these
words do not mean the same thing and actually pertain to different
concepts.
Nation
A nation is a large aggregate of people united by common
descent, history, culture, language, and economic life through
inhabiting a particular country or territory.
Example:
The United Kingdom is a country inhabited mainly by people of
four nations: English, Irish, Scottish, and Welsh.
A nation emphasizes a particular group of people, and
a country emphasizes the physical dimensions and boundaries of
a geographical area. On the other hand, a state is a self-
governing legal and political entity.
Nationality
 It is a person’s instinctive membership to a specific nation
or country.
 It can be acquired by an individual from the country where
he or she was born (jus soli).
 It can be acquired by an individual through his or her
parents (jus sanguinis)
 An individual is a national of a particular country by birth.
Nationality is acquired through inheritance from his or her
parents.
 People with the same nationality often share the same
language, culture, territory, and in some cases, ancestry.
They share the same rights and are protected by the same
laws.
Citizenship
 It is a person’s legal and political status in a city or state,
which means that an individual has been registered with
the government in some country.
 An individual becomes a citizen of a country only when he
or she is accepted into that country’s political framework
through legal terms.
Examples:
 An individual born in the Philippines has a Filipino
nationality. He may, however, apply for citizenship in
another country, should he wish to (e.g. a Filipino national
applying for citizenship in Mexico).
 Some people from European Union member countries may
have European citizenships that are different from their
 nationalities (e.g. an Italian national who is registered as a
German citizen).
 No one will be able to change his nationality, but one can
have a different citizenship.
Filipino Nationality
 The Philippine Nationality Law is based on the principles
of jus sanguinis or "right of blood." Therefore, anyone with
a parent who is a citizen or national of the Republic of the
Philippines can acquire Philippine citizenship. This is the
primary method of acquiring citizenship.
 For people born in the Philippines to non-Filipino parents,
the Administrative Naturalization Law of 2000 (R.A.
9139) provides an avenue for administrative naturalization.
Issues Regarding Nationality and Statelessness
What are some issues concerning nationality and statelessness?
Right to a Nationality
 Every person has a right to a nationality.
 The right to a nationality is a fundamental human right. It is an
individual’s right to acquire, change, or retain his or her
nationality. Thus, a country’s law cannot deprive a person the
right to gain a nationality, in case he or she loses it.
Statelessness
 People who do not have a nationality are considered
as stateless people.
 According to Article 1 of the 1954 Convention relating to
the Status of Stateless Persons of the United Nations High
Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), "a stateless person
is someone who is not considered as a national by any
State under the operation of its law."
 Most stateless people are considered "refugees," while
others lose their nationalities due to war or conflict, or if
their country is annexed by another country and loses its
sovereignty.
Case Study: Statelessness in Sabah
Most Filipinos living in Sabah, Malaysia are considered
"stateless." Thus, they are not recognized as people with a
nationality. They do not belong to any country or nation.
Since Sabah is a contested territory between Malaysia and the
Philippines, the people in Sabah experience problems in securing
their nationalities. Filipinos from nearby Sulu and Tawi-tawi, even
those who are born in Sabah, are not recognized by the
Malaysian government as Malaysians. They are also denied of
their Filipino nationality since they are not properly registered in
the Philippines. As a result, they do not enjoy the rights and
privileges that citizens of either country enjoy.
This concern is also true in areas and territories under war and
conflict.
The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
(UNHCR) handles all issues regarding refugees and stateless
people. The role of UNHCR is to identify stateless people and
protect their rights, as well as prevent statelessness from
happening all over the world. They also aid stateless people in
acquiring new citizenship in other countries.
Social, Political, and Cultural Behavior and
Phenomena
Social Behavior and Phenomena
Social behavior and phenomena are broad and complicated
sociological concepts. These involve every event between at least
two individuals and include all knowledge and experiences a
person acquires in the entirety of his or her lifetime.
Social phenomena are the individual, external, and social
constructions that influence a person’s life and development.
The table below shows some examples of social behavior and
phenomena.
Political Behavior and Phenomena
In sociology, political behavior and phenomena include events
through which authority, governance, and public opinion are put
into practice.
A political behavior of a person or a group may be influenced by
their political views, ideologies, and levels of political participation.
An example of an act of political behavior is the act of voting.
Political phenomena are not only limited to public offices as
these also include how institutions like schools, churches, or
companies are ran and governed.
The table below shows some examples of political behavior and
phenomena.
Cultural Behavior and Phenomena
Also known as the bandwagon effect, a cultural behavior is an
event where certain individuals behave a certain way merely
because other persons do as well.
A cultural phenomenon happens when something or someone
gains widespread popularity. However, it is noteworthy that it is
not the subject that is the cultural phenomenon but rather the
process of becoming famous.
The table below shows some examples of cultural behavior and
phenomena.
Interactions within Society
Social, political, and cultural behaviors and phenomena in the
society are results of interactions within society. People talk and
share stories. People share ways of living among other things.
People do things together and work for the attainment of the
common good and social order. These behaviors, be they usual
or not, are natural responses to changes and ideologies
developing within society as a result of constant interactions
between its members.
Social, Political, and Cultural Change
Social and Cultural Changes
Social change is the transformation of social institutions over
time. Cultural change, on the other hand, is the transformation of
culture or the way people live.
Communication
 Communication is a vital human process. Through
communication, people exchange information and
thoughts.
 Nowadays, communication is made easier.
 Nowadays, people can share information in just a click.
New media−−social networking, text messaging, e-mail,
and the like−−have defied time and distance.
 While it makes the world seem borderless, this form of
communication may produce individuals who lack the basic
understanding of direct and personal connections.
Transnational Families
 A transnational family is where one or both parents live
and work in another country while the children remain in
their country of origin.
 While these families remain secured financially, their
members are also exposed to setbacks.
 Children who become overly unsupervised find themselves
facing peer pressure, too much independence, and lack of
family orientation. These may result in alcohol or drug
abuse, unwanted pregnancy, mood swings, or early
marriage.
Political Changes
Political change happens when the rulers of a country lose
power or when the type of governance in the country changes.
Governance is the kind of system or ideology used to express
authority in a country. It may be a democracy, monarchy,
oligarchy, and others.
Local Public Services
Local public services are provided by the government to people
living within its jurisdiction, either directly (through the public
sector) or by financing the provision of services.
Youth Volunteerism
Volunteerism is the use or involvement of a volunteer or free
labor in community services.
Mechanisms of Changes
There are different mechanisms or tools involved in social and
cultural changes.
Diffusion
Diffusion is the process through which the cultural traits of one
society are borrowed, transmitted, and adopted by another and
considered as its own.
Examples:
 Migration
 Globalization
Invention
Invention is the process where new cultural elements are created
to solve social and cultural problems.
Example: Internet
Discovery
Discovery is the process where people recognize or gain a better
understanding of already existing elements present in the
environment.
Example: Scientific research
Changes within Society
Change is said to be constant. It is inevitable. It is expected to
happen. The big question, however, is what makes it happen? Of
course, there are many factors—social, political, or cultural.
Along with time, persons, environments, and ideologies change.
People move in and move out. People live and die. People's
stories and experiences change. People make discoveries and
innovations.
The goal of having these disciplines is to prepare people for active
and responsible civic engagement through the development of
critical thought. Exposure to these areas of discipline exposes its
learners to the following:
 social diversity and inequality,
 self-reflective knowledge and practice,
 appreciation of complexity, and
 advocacy for social change and order.
Anthropology
Anthropology is the study of humans and their society in the past
and present. Dealing with what makes us human, anthropology
delves into objects and materials we have created, our
interconnectedness and adaptability with environment, our
lifestyle, our modes of communication, and our understanding of
the world around us.

The environment changes as well—nature, water, earth, minerals,

climate, seasons, sources of raw materials, and energy.

New knowledge replaces old ones. Slavery has been banned.

Civil rights were granted to those who were once deprived of
them. Same-sex marriage is on its way to worldwide recognition.
Nothing is permanent but change, so they say.

All these contribute significantly to changes people experience

socially, politically, and culturally.

The Study of Culture, Society, and Politics

Goals of Anthropology
Culture is the focus of anthropology, society is for sociology,
while politics is for political science. These are disciplines of the  to describe and analyze the biological evolution of mankind
social sciences.  to describe and assess the cultural development of our species
  to explain and analyze present-day human cultural similarities
and differences
 to describe and explain human biological diversity today
Sociology
Sociology is the study of human social relationships and
institutions. This discipline mainly focuses on society—its
functions, its members, and its diversity.
Specifically, sociology tackles the basic unit of the society—the
family, the functionality and relevance of state as an important
human institution, social issues on religion, crime, race, social
class, and the stability and instability of societies.
Goals of Sociology
 to guide in understanding intrapersonal factors
 to build a better understanding of mankind
 to aid in decision-making in the micro and macro level
 to gather systematic information from which to make a
decision, provide insights into what is going on in a
situation, and present alternatives
Anthropological and Sociological Perspectives
on Culture and Society
Anthropology and Sociology
Humans are interesting subjects to study. The human story has a
lot to say from their way of living to the associations they form.
The two interrelated scientific studies of society colloquially known
as the twin social sciences are anthropology and sociology.
Anthropology
 Anthropology is the study of people throughout the world,
their evolutionary history, how they behave, adapt to
different environments, communicate, and socialize with
one another.
 Anthropology provides us with a big picture of what it
means to be human.
 The study of anthropology is concerned with the biological
features that make us human (such as physiology, genetic
makeup, nutritional history, and evolution) and their social
aspects (such as language, culture, politics, family, and
religion).
Sociology
 Sociology is the study of human institutions and their
relationships. This discipline examines how human actions
in modern societies are shaped by social groups and by
wider social, economic, and political pressures.
 Sociology’s subject matter is diverse, ranging from crime to
religion, from the family to the state, from the divisions of
race and social class to the shared beliefs of a common
culture, and from social stability to radical change in whole
societies.
Anthropological and Sociological
Perspectives on Culture and Society
In sociology, society is the leading concept while culture is
subordinate. In anthropology, on the other hand, culture comes
first as a subject matter followed by society.
Let us put the two concepts this way.
 When talking about culture, we are mostly talking about
tangible factors which include language, technology, and
institutions−−like our churches, schools, or houses.
 However, culture also has intangible aspects such as our
values and behaviors. It also includes norms, the standards
or rules of acceptable behavior.
 Culture is what makes society a collective whole. It gives
the community its form, shape, and identity.
 A society, in terms of sociology, is a group of people living
and interacting with one another to create a culture. Its
population is bound by a shared culture−−beliefs,
attitudes, languages, and institutions.
Society and Culture as a Complex Whole
Edward B. Tylor defined culture as "that complex whole which
includes knowledge, art, belief, law, morals, custom, and any
other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of
society."
 With this premise, it can be said that culture is a product of
society. These two exist dependently on each other.
 Culture , just like every person in society, is susceptible to
change or death.
 Society is not constant. Its members change from time to
time. As a result, culture changes along. New trends exist.
New technologies are invented and new means of
interaction have been created.
 People evolve over time as a result of their exposure to
renewed or changed laws, values, and standards of
society.
Aspects of Culture and Society I (Dynamic, Flexible,
& Adaptive; and Shared & Contested)
Culture and Society
Culture and society are two different concepts. Each has its own
meaning and function.
Culture
 According to Edward B. Tylor, culture is "that complex
whole which encompasses beliefs, practices, values,
attitudes, laws, norms, artifacts, symbols, knowledge, and
everything that a person learns and shares as a member of
society."
 Culture also encompasses social institutions like the family,
church, school, and government.
 Our culture defines who we are.
 Whatever it is that we do is part of our culture.
Society
 Society can be defined as the interaction among people
where a common culture can be shared.
 Society can also refer to people from a particular place that
shares the same culture.
 A common location may not just develop a common
culture. It can also be formed by gender, shared beliefs,
values, norms, or activities.
For example, people from Bicol love spicy food while people from
Iloilo are known to be sweet and caring.
Can you identify a common cultural practice in your society?
The Relationship of Culture and Society
Culture and society are two closely related concepts. For culture
to exist and to be developed, it needs human interaction. It needs
people to interact with one another, and it needs people to
practice it continuously. Without a society practicing their common
culture, the culture may cease to exist.
Culture is also essential to society because, without culture,
society will be dull and will not continue to thrive. A society without
culture is like a body without a soul and vice versa. Culture and
society need each other so they can both develop and prosper.
Aspects of Culture: Dynamic, Flexible, and Adaptive
There are different aspects of culture like art, music, language,
food, daily life, clothing, and religion to name a few. These
aspects of culture show us that culture is dynamic, flexible,
and adaptive.
Culture constantly changes and adapts to the current state of
society. It continuously restores itself whenever customs do not fit
in the current situation anymore. It does not remain stagnant.
Examples:
 In the aspect of music, we can see that music may change
from time to time. The traditional music during the 1920s
was mostly jazz, ragtime, and broadway music while the
popular music during the 1970s was disco music.
 Because we are now more inclined to use computers and
tablets especially when playing games, some children are
not able to play street games anymore. This pushed some
game developers to introduce Filipino street games as
video games.
 When it comes to language, we can also see how culture
adapts to changing times. We have already developed new
words related to the internet like memes, netizens, vines,
and others.
Aspects of Culture: Shared and Contested
Culture is learned and acquired through different interactions with
people. Culture is a shared learning experience. Because culture
constantly changes, we get to share the learning process with
other people.
If culture is learned and shared, it is also contested in various
ways and situations. Because of diversity, culture is subjected to
debate and analysis.
Aspects of Culture and Society II (Learned
Through Socialization/Enculturation and
Transmitted Through
Socialization/Enculturation)
Aspects of Culture
There are different aspects of culture such as art, music,
language, food, daily life, clothing, and religion.
Dynamic, Flexible, and Adaptive
Culture constantly changes and adapts to the current state of
society. It continuously restores itself whenever customs do not fit
in the current situation anymore. It does not remain stagnant.
Shared and Contested
 Culture is learned and acquired through different
interactions with people. Culture is a shared learning
experience. Because culture constantly changes, we get to
share the learning process with other people.
 If culture is learned and shared, it is also contested in
different ways and situations. Because of diversity, culture
is always subjected to debate and analysis.
Socialization and Enculturation
Society is different from culture. Within a society are many diverse
cultures. While the members of society share many of the same
expectations and experiences, the cultural groups create some
that differentiate them from others in the community.
Socialization
Socialization is the process through which people learn to
understand societal norms or expectations and societal values as
members of society.
Enculturation
Enculturation is the process by which an individual adopts the
behavior patterns of the culture he or she is immersed in.
Agents of Socialization
There are different agents of socialization −−the family,
community, mass media, and religion.
Family
 The family is the first social group that we all have. It is
considered as the most important social group that a
person has. It is also the principal agent of socialization.
 We first start to learn things with the help of our parents
and family. They are the main source of our traits and
behaviors, the values, norms or rules that we follow, and
the ideas we initially believe in.
Community
 Outside our homes, we get to interact with people and
institutions from our community. One them is the school. In
schools, we become exposed to ideas, values, norms, and
behaviors that may be different from what we learn from
our family.
 We also get to interact with other people from our
community who become our peers. Research shows that
since children and teenagers spend most of their time with
peers, peer groups can create youth sub-culture (Mondal,
2015).
 Our peers can also influence us with the different norms,
values, and behaviors that they got from their families.
Mass Media
 One of the biggest influences in our culture is mass
media which come in the form of television, movies, books,
magazines, and social networking sites. Mass media plays
a major role in shaping the culture and behavior of an
individual (Mondal, 2015).
 Unfortunately, both good and bad behaviors can be
learned through mass media. It is important that the the
youth remain supervised whenever they are accessing all
forms of media.
Religion
Another social agent is religion. Through the family, one is
immediately exposed to the teachings of religion. It helps shape
and equip individuals with the attitudes and behaviors that are
deemed appropriate.
Aspects of Culture
We have learned that culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive. It
is also shared and contested in various ways and situations.
learned their culture by socializing with them through the church
and the schools they established.
Aspects of Culture and Society III (Patterned Social
Interaction, Integrated and at Times Unstable,
Requires Language, and Other Forms of
Communication)

Aside from these characteristics, there are also other aspects of

culture as discussed below.

Learned through Socialization or Enculturation

Socialization is an ongoing process of learning languages,
behaviors, customs, values, norms to acquire a personal identity.
It helps us learn culture. Socialization also allows us to interact
with others and helps us develop the behaviors that we think are
inborn or part of human nature. It is an essential part of building
our character and preserving, spreading, and strengthening our
culture.

Another way of learning other cultures is

called enculturation. For example, your friend migrated to
America with her family. You noticed on her Facebook that after
three months of being in America, she started to act and look
differently and she is using some slang words you only hear
Americans say. This is the process of enculturation. Your friend is
slowly starting to adapt to the American culture because it is
necessary so she would fit in.

Transmitted through Socialization or Enculturation

Culture can also be transmitted from one person to another, and
even from one society to another. One good example of this is the
transmission of a culture of the Spanish to the Filipinos during the
Spanish colonization. The transfer of Spanish culture to the
Filipinos is done through both socialization and enculturation. We