Hochschule Worms

Fachbereich Wirtschaftswissenschaften
International Management

Cross-Cultural Differences

Introduction

Winter Semester 2019–2020

Michael Werle-Rutter

Michael Derek Werle-Rutter

Office: Building N, Room 108
Consultation Hours: Wednesdays, 09:00–12:00 hours
Telephone: +49 6241 509 106
Email: rutter@hs-worms.de
Skype: live:rutter_31
W hy Should a Business Student Want to Know
about Culture?

Business studies
1. Is business local or global? Explain.
2. What are the basic differences among human beings from a business point of
view? In other words, how does business distinguish one person from the other?
3. To what extent is the study of culture relevant to a business student? – What is
the benefit of studying culture?

Marketing and consumer research

1. Which business questions can the study of culture provide answers to?
2. What, if anything, can the study of culture tell us about the seller/salesperson?
3. What, if anything, can the study of culture tell us about the consumer?
4. To what extent does culture exert an influence on what we possess and what we
purchase?
5. How does culture affect communication style? Consider the Lebanese and the
English.
6. How does culture affect language style? Consider the Australians and the Eng-
lish.
7. Apart from the problem of language and translating, does culture have an effect
on advertising and other forms of promotion? If so, what are these influences?
8. What effect does culture have on a) the supply and b) the consumption of goods
and services? Consider the following products: i) bread, ii) firearms, iii) pornog-
raphy.
9. To what extent does culture affect a) shops, shopping streets and shopping cen-
tres and b) shopping and the shopping experience?
10. Explain why European high streets are looking more and more alike in what
they are selling and that it is becoming increasingly difficult to find something
special in a foreign country to take home?

Cross-cultural Differences in Business Culture 2

Human Nature
The Human

From what perspectives can we study human beings and their nature?

Perspectives of the human being in social sciences

As part of humankind As part of a particular As a single human being

group

Universal Collective Individual

All humans are the same. Humans can be divided All humans are different.
into groups with com-
mon characteristics.
E.g. in psychology E.g. in anthropology E.g. in business studies

In this course, we are not concerned with the first and third columns, but only with
the second column. This does not mean, however, that we can forget or ignore the
other columns.

What is the human made up of ?

Traditional humanistic view of human nature

The material side The rational side The non-material and non-rational side
of the human of the human of the human being
being being
The emotional The spiritual side
side of the human of the human
being being

Body Mind Heart Soul

Matter Reason Emotion Spirit

Material Rational Emotional Spiritual

Cross-cultural Differences in Business Culture 3

The Human and Consumption

Consider the consumption of food and drink, clothing and furnishings.

1. To what extent does the body play a role in consumption behaviour?

2. To what extent does the mind play a role in consumption behaviour?
3. To what extent does the heart play a role in consumption behaviour?
4. To what extent does the soul play a role in consumption behaviour?

The Human and the Marketplace

Shops, Markets, High Streets and Shopping Centres

Consider the local shops nearest to where you live.

1. What bodily needs are fulfilled by your local shops?

2. What rational needs are fulfilled by your local shops?
3. What emotional needs are fulfilled by your local shops?
4. What spiritual needs are fulfilled by your local shops?

Cross-cultural Differences in Business Culture 4

Self-Depiction of a Culture
Lithuania and Colombia

Having considered universal aspects of humans, I would like to move on to the real
topic of this seminar: cultural differences. In the Moodle course, you will find links
to videos in YouTube on both Lithuania and Colombia. Study the films and be pre-
pared to comment on what the film-makers are saying about the two countries and
their cultures. Comment on the differences between the depiction of Lithuania and
the depiction of Colombia. Use the spaces below for your notes.

Self-depiction of Lithuania

Self-depiction of Colombia

What is the relevance to business studies of knowing about these differences be-
tween Lithuania and Colombia?

Cross-cultural Differences in Business Culture 5

Definition of Terms
Culture

Brainstorming

What distinguishes human beings from animals?

Do we all have to have a culture?
What do we have a culture for? What is the use of a culture?
Is culture a help or a hindrance in life?

W hat is Culture?

Define what you mean by ‘culture’ and answer the three questions below.

1. What, if anything, is the difference between a country, a nation, a language com-

munity and a culture?
2. What are the differences between a European and an American or an Arab?
3. Are the Swedish speakers in Finland (or the Breton speakers in France) a sepa-
rate culture, a subculture or what?
• What about the Roma and Sinti?
• And Jews and Muslims?

Standardizations

Consider the definition of culture provided by “Kultur umfaßt Standardisierungen,

die in Kollektiven gelten.”1

1. What does he mean by this statement?

2. What does the word ‘Standardisierungen’ mean?
3. Do human beings really want standardizations? Why?
4. What, if anything, is attractive about this definition?
5. Provide examples demonstrating your understanding of what Hansen is saying.
6. Do you agree or disagree with this definition? Why?

1. Klaus P. Hansen, Kultur und Kulturwissenschaft, 2nd ed. (Tübingen & Basel: Francke, 2000), p. 39

Cross-cultural Differences in Business Culture 6

Remarks

• Culture distinguishes human beings from animals.

• Culture is that which humans have over and above their animal instincts. It is
that which they learn during their socialization as children. This recalls the na-
ture versus nurture debate.
• Culture provides a basis for cohesion. Culture is the instrument by which the
members bond together and is therefore the instrument by which the members
distinguish themselves from others.
• Culture is a signifying system. Humans have the need to make sense of their
surroundings and environment.
• Culture provides the means by which children can learn the appropriate be-
haviour. In this context, it is fruitful to consider the cases of ‘wild’ children who
were, for example, unable to learn language properly when re-integrated into
society.
• Culture does not always make life easier, however it does tell you what it expects
you to do.

In my opinion, the prerequisites of culture are 1) a group of persons that identifies

itself as a collective over a considerable period of time; 2) standardizations in mind-
set, behaviour patterns and material heritage.1

1. Although – in contrast to the view represented here – Hansen explicitly excludes material culture
from his account of culture (cf. Kultur und Kulturwissenschaft, pp. 146-148).

Cross-cultural Differences in Business Culture 7

Other Basic Terms

Define the terms below.

Universal Categories
Humanity, human nature, global culture

Supranational Categories
European culture, religion, (international) language community

National Categories
National culture, country, nation, society, (national) language community

Infranational Categories
National minority, regional culture, religious minority, subculture, parallel culture,
counterculture, class, caste

Group Categories
Corporate culture, institutional culture, occupational culture, youth culture

Other Terms
Cultural change, material culture

1. Can an individual have more than one culture?

2. What is the effect of each of the items listed above on individual behaviour?

Cross-cultural Differences in Business Culture 8

Keywords and Concepts

Consider the following list of some of the elements of culture and examples from
English culture. Please make sure that you understand each of the words and trans-
late it into your own language and can can find an example from your own national
culture. Write the translation and your own example under each item in the list.

• language community, e.g. the English speakers world wide, the Commonwealth

• mindset, mentality, e.g. democratic, law-abiding

• identity, e.g. rural orientation: England as a “green and pleasant land”

• language, jargon, slang, e.g. Geordie

• heroes, antiheroes, e.g. Robin Hood, Richard III

• symbols, e.g. the British bulldog, the Monarchy

• popular myths, e.g. bringing civilisation to the rest of the world

• values, norms, rules, e.g. politeness

• past national achievements, e.g. the Empire

• heritage, tradition, e.g. parliamentarism

• national characteristics, e.g. aggression, hooliganism, rioting

• way of life, e.g. urban dwellers, materialism, importance of social class

• rituals, practices, customs, e.g. Christmas

• aspirations, e.g. (in the past) to rule the waves, (in the present) to play an impor-

tant international role

Find examples for each keyword in the list above from the cultures that you have
been allocated.

Cross-cultural Differences in Business Culture 9

Theories of Culture

Read Chapter 2 of Allessandro Duranti, Linguistic Anthropology (Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. 23-50.

Duranti distinguishes various ways of looking at culture:

1. Culture as distinct from nature: Culture is ‘learned, transmitted, passed down
from one generation to the next’. It is not instinctive: no matter what their ge-
netic background may be, children will adopt the culture they are brought up in.
(pp. 24 ff.)
2. Culture as knowledge: Culture ‘can be thought of in terms of knowledge of the
world’. This includes not only knowledge about objects, but also shared ‘patterns
of thought, ways of understanding the world, making inferences and predic-
tions’. (pp. 27 ff.)
3. Culture as communication: Culture ‘is a representation of the world, a way of
making sense of reality by objectifying it in stories, myths, theories, proverbs,
artistic products and performances’. (pp. 33 ff.)
4. Culture as a system of mediation: Culture organises the use of the tools and ar-
tifacts of a society and thus organises the mediation between humans and their
social environment. (pp. 39 ff.)
5. Culture as a system of practices: Culture is regarded as a system of behaviour
patterns valid for its members. (pp. 43 ff.)
6. Culture as a system of participation: Culture organises the individual’s partici-
pation in social and collective interaction. (p. 46)

Remarks

The various theories listed above are not necessarily mutually exclusive, but they
do nevertheless indicate differences in focus and perspective on the part of the re-
searchers. For the purposes of our class, we should regard them all as being valid.

1. What do we have to know in order to appreciate a different culture?

2. How do we gain this knowledge?
3. How do we check that we have obtained the correct knowledge?
4. How does the knowledge of culture help us
a) to understand other people,
b) to interpret what they are doing and
c) to predict what they will probably do?

Cross-cultural Differences in Business Culture 10

Features of Cultures

Richard M. Hodgetts & Fred Luthens, International Management (Maidenhead:

McGraw-Hill, 1997), p. 96

Learned
Culture is not genetically inherited or biologically based, it is acquired by learning
and experience.

Shared
People, as members of a group, organisation or society, share culture. It is not spe-
cific to a single individual.

Transgenerational
Culture is cumulative, passed down from one generation to the next.

Symbolic
Culture is based on the human capacity to symbolise or to use one item to represent
another.

Patterned
Culture has structure and is integrated. A change in one part will bring changes to
another.

Adaptive
Culture is based on the human capacity to change or adapt.

Cross-cultural Differences in Business Culture 11

Questions on the Features of Cultures

Consider the following questions concerning the points on the previous page.

Why should we human beings want to have a culture? Speculate on how a culture
comes about – its genesis – and how the culture is held together, the cohesive force.

A Culture is Learned

1. How and where did you learn your culture? – Society as a whole? Religion?
School? Club? Peers? Family? Partner?
2. What had the most influence on you in your life?
3. Who had the most influence on you in your life?

A Culture is Shared

1. To what extent do you feel the same as the different individuals you have day-
to-day contact with?
2. To what extent do you wish to feel the same as the different individuals you have
day-to-day contact with?
3. To what extent do you feel the same as the various people who brought you up?
4. Do you share anything at all with the other people from your culture?
5. What exactly do you share with them?
6. What makes you different from the others in your culture?
7. To what extent is it necessary to have a shared language in order to have a shared
culture?

A Culture is Transgenerational

1. What did your parents and grandparents try to pass on to you?

2. What did you accept and what did you reject?
3. Did you learn anything from your parents other than that which they wanted
to pass on to you?
4. Which values, practices etc. that you received from your parents do you think
you will try to pass on to the next generation?
5. Which values, practices etc. that you received from your parents do you think
you will try not to pass on to the next generation?
6. Did you learn the same kind of things from your parents as your contemporaries
in your country did?

Cross-cultural Differences in Business Culture 12

A Culture is Symbolic

1. What symbols does your culture have and how are these symbols used a) on a
day-to-day basis and b) on special occasions?
2. To what extent are these symbols visual (e.g. a flag) and/or notional (e.g. ‘liberté,
fraternité, égalité’)?
3. What importance is attached to these symbols in your culture?
4. What penalties exist for desecrating these symbols (e.g. burning the flag)?
5. What meaning does your national flag have?

In history, newly civilized or newly formed nations created national legends or

myths concerning the founding of the nation, cf. the so-called Historical Books of
the Hebrew Bible, for example. Does your nation have such a legend concerning its
foundation or concerning, perhaps, a time of crisis (cf. the ‘Dunkirk spirit’)?

1. What role do formulated statements – myths, legends, mission statements, for

example – play in the process of binding the individuals together to form a co-
hesive unit?
2. Do people from outside the culture fully comprehend these symbols?

A Culture is Patterned.

Analyse the relationship between a particular value (e.g., for the English, politeness)
and the related behaviour in your culture.
1. What structures do you notice between the different values, and between values
and behaviour?
2. When one value (e.g. the working woman) changes, what happens to the other
values within the system?
3. Name some (apparent?) paradoxes in your culture. Explain how these paradoxes
came about.

A Culture is Adaptive.

1. In what ways have increased education, prosperity and advances in technology

and communications changed your culture over the last 100 years?
2. How has your culture adapted to increased internationalization and globaliza-
tion?
3. I think it is fair to say that here is Western Europe we are living in post-Chris-
tian societies. How far has increased scepticism in religion (and eclecticism con-
cerning religious teaching) changed life in Western European cultures?

Cross-cultural Differences in Business Culture 13

The Three Levels of Culture

We will be distinguishing three levels of culture.

Level 3, Material Culture – The World, the Context

Directly observable from objects, even if/when the culture no longer exists
E.g. material heritage, patrimony, laws, institutions, monuments, language, heroes,
myths, technology etc.

Level 2, Surface Structure – The Behaviour Patterns

Directly observable from people’s actions

E.g. customs, norms, characteristic behaviour, way of life etc.

Level 1, Deep Structure – The Mindset

Not directly observable because it is internalized in people’s heads

E.g. mentality, values, attitudes, aspirations, identity, beliefs, opinion, preconcep-
tions, assumptions etc.

Do not forget that these levels are not flat but are bands and, furthermore, that the
borderlines between the one level and the next is not always easy to define – nor is
it necessarily useful.

Cross-cultural Differences in Business Culture 14

Remarks on the Three Levels of Culture

The conventions and assumptions contained in the deep structure are to a very
great extent learnt and absorbed in the early years of life, thus at a time before we
can consciously remember as adults. This means that the values may be very deeply
rooted in our individual consciousness and often prove difficult to adapt, change or
overcome, even if we reject them rationally, later in life.
Example: the English regard horses as pets and therefore place them in the
same category as dogs and cats; thus eating horse meat would arouse disgust or
at least estrangement among the majority of English people.

The surface structure consists of behaviour patterns that can be observed. These
behaviour patterns are governed on the one hand by the conventions dictated by
the deep structure and by laws that can be read and consulted and are part of the
context, or the world, if you like. Though the behaviour patterns are by no means
fixed rigidly, there will be strong tendencies within the culture to regard certain be-
haviour as acceptable or inacceptable, or even to regard something with indifference.
Similarly, the deep structure will tend to determine whether a particular behaviour
pattern is central to the system – a core value – or peripheral.
Example: the English do not eat horses (because horses are pets), the English
would generally not order horse meat if they saw it on the menu in France. If
they did order horse meat, it would have the air of a strange adventure that you
would do abroad but not at home. The consumption of horse meat might even
provide a topic of (heated?) conversation.

It should be noted that there are no fixed rules for these behaviour patterns on the
surface level, therefore I use the word “convention”. Furthermore, the conventions
from the deep level are subject to individual interpretation and to their realisation
in the concrete situation, in other words the surface level can only be observed in
concrete situations where the behaviour may be influenced by many competing and
even contradictory factors.
Example: the English believe in politeness (diplomatic behaviour, so as not
to hurt or offend other people) and they believe in honesty. However, if they
are asked their opinion about something, for instance a lady’s new dress, there
will be a strong tendency for the politeness principle to have priority over the
honesty principle. Nevertheless, we should not forget that certain behaviour
patterns are governed more by laws (which I would place on the cultural con-
text level, see below) and here there is less tolerance for idiosyncratic behaviour.

The context is the world as we can observe and analyse it. The elements on this level
are generally regarded as less fleeting and more permanent than individual actions
or situations. In other words, though constantly subject to change and progress, this

Cross-cultural Differences in Business Culture 15

level is considered less ephemeral and is usually thought of as the culture per se. This
is the level on which we can observe the paraphernalia of the culture: the artefacts
and monuments that the culture has built for itself; and these are the elements with
which the members of the culture identify themselves, the Union Jack for the Brit-
ish, the Eiffel Tower for the French, the sauna for the Finns, the oak tree for the
Germans.
Example: the English do not eat horse meat, therefore you cannot find horse
butchers in England as you would find in France, la boucherie chevaline.

Important Points

The various levels influence each other. This influence can be reciprocal and cyclical,
constantly proceeding from one level to the next and then back. Consider how, in
Western Europe and in the Nordic countries, attitudes to women and homosexuals
have developed and changed over the last hundred years and how these changes in
attitudes have affected behaviour and how laws have been changed and repealed in
the wake of these developments.
A specific level (deep, surface, context) should not be regarded as flat: certain
values are deeper than others; certain behaviour patterns are more determined by
the deep structure than by the context, and vice versa; sometimes it is difficult to say
whether a certain phenomenon is part of the context or part of the surface structure.
Each level has its own stucture, own interconnections and own interdependencies:
certain points are more central to the system and more resistent to change; others are
less important and can be more easily modified. A change in one part of the system
will normally entail changes in other parts of the system. This will have an effect
throughout the whole system.
Moreover, we have to remember that there are very often historical hangovers:
phenomena which cannot be explained with reference to present-day values, but rather
with reference to past values; an example for this would be the role of the Christian
churches in Western Europe. Such hangovers are sometimes consciously cultivated
as part of national or corporate identity, e.g. the role of state religion in irreligious
societies, the constitutional monarchy.
A phenomenon may indicate the existence not of a value but of the existence
of the opposite value. The existence of Draconian penalties for driving offences in
France does not indicate that the French regard the highway code with great esteem
but the reverse – as any driver on French roads could tell you. The repeated “Buy
British” campaigns since the Industrial Revolution are not an indicator of xeno-
phobia (though it is true that the Britsh are in fact sceptical, to say the least, about
foreigners), but rather an indicator of the fact that the British will buy what they
want (liberty, freedom of choice, personal advantage, competition), no matter where
it comes from. What is very interesting here is the fact that, traditionally, the Brit-
ish buy so many foreign goods and suffer serious economic harm and losses of jobs

Cross-cultural Differences in Business Culture 16

through this despite the fact that they are supposed to be so xenophobic. This tells us
a great deal about the relative importance of the two values in the British mindset.

Cross-cultural Differences in Business Culture 17

The Components of Culture
Level 1 – Deep Structure

The deep structure is the level which is inside the heads of those belonging to the
culture. This level is not directly observable, thus the investigator has to make de-
ductions on the basis of that which s/he can observe and on the basis of enquiry.

Category Characteristic Values and Examples from England

Attitudes

Fundamental Values and Attitudes

U p b r i n g i n g , Concepts of socialisation and “Spare the rod, spoil the child.”

education of schooling
the child

Systems of ide- Religion Broad Church

as Concepts of societal order Class pride
Philosophy Pragmatism

Regulatory sys- Values Fairness

tems Moral standards and principles “Honesty is the best policy.”
Concepts of sanctions and “Short, sharp shock”, “law and
penalties order”

Semiotic sys- Ethos Meaning of freedom

tems Concepts, semantic system Meaning of democracy
Denotative meanings, conno- Concept of rural life
tations, associations
Rules of grammar

Values and Attitudes concerning the Material World

Environment World view World = manageable

Concepts of space No overstatement
Concepts of world order Supremacy, superiority
Concepts of time and of time Nostalgia
use

Cross-cultural Differences in Business Culture 18

Economy Attitudes towards the means
of production
Technological orientation
Attitudes towards wealth and
the acquisition of wealth
Attitudes towards consump-
tion and abstention
Not getting your hands dirty
Acquiring a house in the coun-
try
Status of manufacturing
Status of banking and financial
services

Objects Aesthetics Understatement

Taste Ordinariness
Attractiveness
Utility

Values and Attitudes concerning Behaviour

Behaviour and Mindset, mentality Practical orientation

actions Way of thinking

Self and others Concepts of human nature Self-reliance and potency

Concepts of self
Concepts of national identity
Concepts of others
Concepts of interpersonal re-
lationships and of social inter-
course
“Britons never shall be slaves.”
“Wogs begin at Calais.”
Level playing field
Old school tie

Values and Attitudes concerning Achievements

Achievements National pride Battle of Britain

National shame Colonial massacres
Aspirations UK should play a “fitting” role
in world politics

What does the packaging of Yorkshire Tea tell us about the values and attitudes of
the English? What do we learn about English values and attitudes from English
packaging?

Cross-cultural Differences in Business Culture 19

Level 2 – Surface Structure

The surface structure of a culture is, on the one hand, the level on which the material
culture is utilised by the members of the culture; on the other hand, it is the level on
which the concepts from the deep level are applied in practical, everyday living. This
is the level of use and application, in other words: of behaviour.
Note that specific items on one level exert an influence on other levels. Take the
example of the treament of women: changes in values and attitudes (deep) can lead
to changes in the behaviour towards women (surface) and this, in turn, can lead to
changes in the law (material culture).

Category Behaviour Examples from England

Behaviour Arising from System of Ideas

U p b r i n g i n g , Socialisation of children Saying please and thank you

education of Schooling School uniform
the child

Systems of ide- Religious behaviour Agonising about paedophilia

as Social issues Debate on inclusion

Regulatory sys- Customs, practices Sending Christmas cards

tems Sanctions, penalties Striking people off the Christ-
mas card list

Semiotic sys- Use of national symbols Waving the flag

tems Communication style
Language use
Conversation style
Use of prestige symbols
Display (design, style)
Reservation, diffidence
Speaking with an RP accent
Using tentative language
Buying the right label
Wearing Barbour

Behaviour concerning the Material World

Environment Space: shaping the environ- Preserving traditional land-

ment scape
Using time Sunday shopping

Cross-cultural Differences in Business Culture 20

Economy Working from a living Working from nine to five
Creating wealth and prosperity Indian take-away
Consuming
Using technology

Objects Use of heritage Visiting stately homes

Use of institutions Writing to MPs
Use of heroes, antiheroes and Voting for Boris Johnson and
role models Nigel Farage
Possessing Buying own house
Appearance, dress Wearing suits and ties

Practices and Interpersonal Behaviour

Behaviour and Customs, practices Sunday breakfast

actions Way of living Spending, not saving
Characteristic behaviour Aggression, hooliganism, riot-
Typical daily behaviour ing
Cooperation and solution of Reading national newspapers
conflict Agreeing to differ

Self and others Treatment of others Helpfulness

Social stratification Snobbery, deferrence
Social participation Queueing
Social intercourse Requesting rather than order-
Etiquette, manners ing

Achievements Past national achievements Anglocentrism

Cultural achievements Playing/watching sports
Economic and social achieve- Standing up for the welfare
ments state
Scientific and technological Ready acceptance of techno-
achievements logical progress
Ideological and political Exercising democratic rights
achievements

Assuming we have a culture that drinks tea (behaviour) what objects (material cul-
ture) will the people in that culture need, want, prefer, aspire to?

Describe the behaviour patterns within the cultures that you have been allocated.

Cross-cultural Differences in Business Culture 21

Material Culture

The name ‘material culture’ suggests that this is the level of physical objects. How-
ever, we have to remember that – from my point of view, at least – this level includes
thoughts and ideas when they have been physically recorded (e.g. in writing) and
actions when the rules for these actions have been formally prescribed, because they
then take on material form and can be verified by future generations.
The table starts with the upbringing and education of the child as I assume that
this is basis of culture.

Category Component Example

Material Codification of Ideas

Upbringing, ed- Education system Comprehensive schools

ucation of the
child

Systems of ideas Religion Anglican Church, Methodism

Philosophy Pragmatism

Regulatory sys- Codes of human rights Habeas Corpus Act

tems Laws, rules, norms Prisons and probationary sys-
Sanctions, penalties tem

Semiotic sys- National symbols British bulldog

tems Language, jargon, slang Received pronunciation
National history 1066
National myths, legends King Arthur
Prestige symbols Rolls-Royce, Bentley, Morgan
Display (design, style) Barbour

Material World

Environment Space: landscaping, town plan- Dry stone walls, suburbia,

ning, housing housing estates
Time: work, leisure Weekend

Cross-cultural Differences in Business Culture 22

Economy Means of production The City
Technology Provision of credit and debt
Means of acquisition of wealth facilities
Means of consumption Fortnum & Mason

Objects Heritage, patrimony Castles, stately homes, gardens

Institutions The House of Lords
Monuments Nelson’s Column, Big Ben
Heroes, antiheroes, role mod- Winston Churchill, Robin
els Hood
Possessions Heirlooms

Material Codification of Behaviour

Behaviour and Rituals, customs Trooping of the Colour

actions Consumption Markets, shops, supermarkets

Self and others Social stratification Private schools

Social participation Grassroots activism
Social intercourse Clubs and associations
Etiquette and manners Etiquette books

Material Achievements

Achievements Past national achievements The Commonwealth

Cultural achievements Pop and rock music
Economic and social achieve- Football, rugby, tennis
ments The welfare state, Lloyd’s of
Scientific and technological London
achievements Steam engine, Spinning Jenny
Ideological and political Nonconformism, Democracy
achievements

Describe the material culture of the cultures that you have been allocated.

Cross-cultural Differences in Business Culture 23