CHAPTER 2

Materials of Chemical
Equipments

1
 Raw material into material :

What is Materials Technology?

Materials technology is a relatively comprehensive discipline

that begins with the production of goods from raw materials to
processing of materials into the shapes and forms needed for
specific applications.

State changing Processing/Manufacturing

Raw material Material Equipment

Energy, Energy,
Additives Additives 2
Material Engineering : Material Science – Material Technology
Science :
•Material Structure
•Material Propeties
•Relationship between Internal Structure & Propeties

Technology :
– Processing from Raw Material into Material
– Application
– Design and new development.

3
4
5
 2.1 Metal and Alloy Metal

• Iron and Steel

• Steel structure
• Carbon Steel & Cast Iron
• Crystal Structure
• Mixture & Impurities
 Iron and steel

Applications:
Cutting tools, pressure vessels, bolts, hammers, gears, cutlery,
jet engine parts, car bodies, screws, concrete reinforcement, ‘tin’
cans, bridges...

Why?
• Ore is cheap and abundant
• Processing techniques are economical (extraction, refining,
alloying, fabrication)
• High strength
• Very versatile metallurgy - a wide range of mechanical and
physical properties can be achieved, and these can be tailored to
the application
 Iron and steel
Disadvantages:
• Low corrosion resistance (use e.g. titanium, brass instead)
• High density: 7.9 g cm-3 (use e.g. aluminium,
magnesium instead)

• High temperature strength could be better (use nickel instead)

Basic distinction between ferrous and

non-ferrous alloys:
• Ferrous metals are ‘all-purpose’ alloys
• Non-ferrous metals used for niche applications,
where properties of ferrous metals are inadequate
 Steel structure
• Ferrite : (Ferrum), soft, easy to be
processed at low temperature
• Austenite ( Roberts Austen), easy to be
processed, non magnetic
• Zementite Fe3C : hard
• Ledeburite ( A. Ledebur): Structure at
Eutectic point, hard to be processed
• Pearlite : Layer structure like pearl
layers
9
 Carbon Steel and Cast Iron
The Classification of Carbon Steel and Cast Iron
A. According to their Chemical Components :
Iron Carbon Alloy:
(>95%)Fe +(0.05% ~ 4%)C +(~1%)(impure steel and cast iron)
B. According to the Carbon Content:
Steel C%=0.02~2%
Cast Iron C%>2%
Engineering Pure Iron C%<0.02%

Pure Iron Steel Cast Iron

0 0.02 2 4 C%
 Isomeric Transformation of Pure Iron

Inhomogeneous
is the phenomenon that the crystal configuration
changes with the temperature in the state of solid.
 Classification
t < 910℃ Cubic Lattice in Bulk Center,
called “-Fe”
t > 910℃ Cubic Lattice in Face Center,
called “ -Fe”

The transformation accomplishes in 910℃

without temperatur changing.
 The structure of iron-carbon alloy steel
The structure of metal
The micro-structure of metal
Grain Boundary

Grain

micrograph
Different structure cause different
performance of materials.
 Steel metallurgy
Iron is allotropic / polymorphic i.e. exhibits different crystal
structures at different temperatures
Most importantly: bcc <-> fcc transformation at 912°C (for pure
iron)

Solubility of carbon in ferrite (α-iron, bcc): 0.02 wt%

austenite (γ-iron, fcc): 2.1 wt%
What happens to carbon when crystal structure transforms from
fcc to bcc?

Fundamental issue in metallurgy of low alloy

steels
 Pearlite
NB Pearlite is a MIXTURE of phases (on a very fine scale)
Alternating layers of ferrite and cementite formed
simultaneously from the remaining austenite when
temperature reaches 723qC
Fe 1.3 wt% C: Cementite precipitates at austenite grain
boundaries, remaining austenite is transformed into
pearlite
High mechanic performance if structure of grain are
homogeneous and „ tight“
24
Crystal of Ferrite Steel (-Fe)

Atom Carbon in the

structure Ferrite 25
 Crystal of Ferrite Steel (-Fe)

Atom chrom in the structure Ferrite

26
Crystal of Ferrite Steel (-Fe)

Atom silicium in the structure Ferrite

27
Crystal of Austenite Steel (-Fe)

Atom Carbon in the

structure Austenite
28
Structure of different metal crystal under microscope

Ferrit, low Ferrit+ Perlit : Perlit : 0,8% C,

mechanic 0,35% C, mold steel, by
endurance temper steel cooling of 29
Austenite
Structure of different metal crystal under microscope

Micrograph of Micrograph of
Perlite & Zementite Austenite steel
1,3%C , tool steel X10CrNi18.9 30
 The transformation

910℃
-Fe -Fe
Iron-iron carbide equilibrium diagram
 Iron-iron carbide equilibrium diagram

908
Austenite
Temperature ºC

Ferrite A3
+
Austenite
722 A1

Ferrite
+
Pearlite

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

Percent carbon of weight
• The lattice structure of steel varies from one form to
another as the temperature changes.
• This is illustrated in the above diagram. Between room
temperature and 722ºC, the steel consists of what is
known as “ferrite and pearlite”.
• Ferrite is a solid solution of a small amount of carbon
dissolved in iron. Pearlite, which is shown in the
diagram, is a mixture of ferrite and iron carbide. The
carbide is very hard and brittle.
• In the previous diagram between line A1 (lower critical
temperature) and A3 (upper critical temperature) the
carbide dissolves more readily into the lattice that is now
called “Ferrite and austenite”. Austenite is a solid
solution of carbon and iron that is denser than ferrite.
 Above line A3 the lattice is uniform in property with the
austenite the main structure. The actual temperature for
this austenite range is a function of the carbon content of
the steel as shown in the figure.
 Carbon and its existing form in steel

The basic types of C existing in iron-carbon alloy:

Dissolution
Chemical Combination
Blending
 Dissolution
• C dissolute in the lattice of Fe to form
Solid Solution
—— Fe-C Solid Solution.
Solvent —— the element without changing in
lattice，Fe is the solvent
Solute —— the element dissolving in solvent，C is
the solute
 Two kinds of common-used Solid Solution

Ferrite(F):
The solid solution formed by C dissolving in -Fe is called
Ferrite.
Characteristics:
Because the gap between atoms is small, the capacity to
dissolve C is weak.

Solubility of C
At room temperature 0.006 %
723 ℃ 0.02 %(maximum)
 Properties

 
Low strength
b 200~ 280
Low hardness
MP
,
a
s
90
~
17
Ma

HB 5.5~8.0MP


a
Good plasticity

30
~40
%
Good toughness
a
k1
.
8 ~
2.
5MJ
/
m 2
 Austenite(A)
The solid solution formed by C dissolving in -Fe is called
Austenite, it is denser than Ferrite.
The lattice of C keeps in that of -Fe, i.e. Cubic Lattice
in Face Center.
Characteristics:
Because the gap between atoms is large, the capacity
to dissolve C is strong.
Solubility of C
723 ℃ 0.8 %
1147 ℃ 2.06 %(maximum)
 Properties

High strength
High hardness
Good plasticity
Good toughness
No ironic magnetism
The transformation between F and A:
The irons that dissolve C will take the
transformation between -Fe and  -Fe in
different temperature.

723 ~ 910℃
Ferrite (F) Austenite (A)
Both F and A have good plasticity and they
are the structural basis of steels’ characteristic
of excellent plasticity.
 Cementite
Chemical Combination:
C and Fe form the metallic compound ——Iron Carbide
(Fe3C) whose crystal structure is called Cementite indicated
by “C”.

C + 3Fe Fe3C
•Characteristics:
a)The carbon content of Cementite is high, the mass
proportion is 6.67%.
b)Hard and brittle (HB=78.4MPa)
c)Almost no plasticity and toughness
 Cementite
a) Low break-down strength (b≈35 MPa )
b) The Cementite is semi-stable compound, it will
decompose into Fe and C at certain conditions, the
extricated C exists in the form of graphite.

Fe3C C + 3Fe
 Mechanical Blending (Mixture)
The alloy whose components are blending together
in the state of liquid can solidify into two types of
mechanical mixtures:
a) Mixture formed by two solid solutions;
b) Mixture formed by a solid solution and
metallic compound.
For example:
Pearlite (P),Ledeburite (L) is a kind of Mechanical Mixture.

Pearlite (P) = Ferrite (F) + Cementite (C)

Ledeburite (L) = Austenite (A) + Cementite (C)
Damascus sword:
which Westerners first encountered during the Crusades
against the Muslim nations 46
 What Is Real Damascus Steel?
Genuine Damascus blades are known to have been made in that
city— and later elsewhere in the Muslim Middle East and Orient—
from small ingots made of steel (a mix of iron and carbon) shipped
from India; those starting materials have been called wootz ingots or
wootz cakes since around 1800.
The steel contains around 1.5 percent carbon by weight, plus low
levels of other impurities such as silicon, manganese, phosphorus and
sulfur.
DAMASCUS STEEL SWORD from the 17th century shows a classic
damascene pattern of swirling light and dark bands. The inscription
tells us that this excellent blade was made in 1691 or 1692 by Assad
Allah, the most renowned Persian sword smith of his time.
Assemble the ingredients to load into the
crucible, including high-purity iron, Sorel iron,
charcoal, glass chips and green leaves. The
quantity of carbon and impurity elements that
end up in the ingot is controlled by the
proportions of iron, Sorel iron and charcoal
added to the mix.

Heat the crucible. During this process, the

glass melts, forming a slag that protects the
ingot from oxidizing. The leaves generate
hydrogen, which is known to accelerate
carburization of iron. The carbon content of the
iron is raised to 1.5 percent, a good proportion
for forming the hard iron carbide particles
whose accretion into bands gives Damascus
blades their characteristic wavy surface
pattern. The leaves and glass can be left out,
but ingots made without them are more prone
to cracking during hammering.
When the crucible has cooled, remove the
ingot, which bears a resemblance to the
wootz cakes used by the ancients.

Heat the ingot to a precise temperature.

Pendray is using a gas-fired furnace with
the propane-to-air ratio adjusted to
minimize the formation of oxide scale
during forging. Typically, a surface oxide
layer of about half a millimeter in thickness
forms, and the final grinding operation must
be sufficient to remove it.
Forge the ingot (deform it slightly with hammer
blows while it is still hot). When the ingot gets
too cold to deform without cracking, heat it up
and
forge again. Four separate stages of the ingot are
shown here; each stage is the result of several
cycles of heating and forging. A total of about 50
cycles may be needed to bang out the blade
shape from the ingot—a highly labor-intensive
process. Pendray uses a modern air hammer. A
handheld hammer works, too, but it takes longer.

Cut the blade to final shape and hand-forge

to add finer details.
Remove the excess steel and the
decarburized surface metal. Pendray is
using an electric belt grinder for this step.

Cut grooves and drill holes into the

surface of the blade to create
Mohammed's ladder and rose
patterns, if desired. Forge the blade
flat again and polish the surface to
give the blade its near final form.
Etch blade surface with an acid to
bring out the pattern; the softer steel
darkens, and the harder steel appears as
brighter lines.
 The impure elements
The main impure elements are:
Mn is useful element.
Si is useful element.
S is harmful element.
P is harmful element.
O is harmful element.
N is harmful element.
H is harmful element.
 Manganese (Mn):
 Mn < 0.8% (the common existing impure element)
 Coming from the deoxidizing and desulfurizing
agent in the process of smelting.
 Function: eliminating S and O2.
• They won’t effect the properties of steels if the
content of both are little.

 Mn > 0.8% ( the alloy element intentionally)

 Function: Mn can disolve in the ferrite to form
the solid solution strengthening the effect of
ferrite.
 Silicon (Si):
Si < 0.5% (common existing impure element)
 Coming from the deoxidizing agent and ore.
 Function:
Ability of deoxidation is stronger than Mn.
2FeO + Si  2 Fe + SiO2
Si can dissolve in the Ferrite and improve the
strength and hardness of steels.
 The existing form:
Forming solid solution with Ferrite.
or Remaining in the steels in the form of
deoxidation product (SiO2)
 Sulphur (S):
• Originating in the fuels in ore or which are used in the
process of smelting (Coke).
• The existing form: FeS (S doesn’t dissolve in Fe)
• Function:
The low-melting-pointed compound (985ºC) formed by
FeS and Fe makes the steel unit crack in the process of
hot-working, this phenomenon is called “Hot Brittle”.

 Controlling of the content of S:

Common Steel : S＜0.055～ 0.07%
High Grade Steel : S＜0.03～ 0.045%
Super High Grade Steel : S＜0.02～ 0.03%
 Phosphorus (P):
• Originating in the ore.
• Function:
P in steels can dissolves in -Fe and improves the
strength of steels in normal atmospheric temperature
& brittleness, but dramatically reduces their plasticity
and toughness, this phenomenon is called “Cold
Brittle”.

• When the content of P in the steel is P=0.3%, the

impact toughness ak = 0.

• Controlling of the content of P: P ＜ 0.06%

 Oxygen (O2)
• Originating in the air.
• Existing form:
O2 always exists in the steels in the form of non-metallic
inclusion, such as FeO, SiO2 , MnO, MgO, Al2O3, etc.
• Function:
These oxidations is in the steels as solid grains which
are hard but brittle and damage the continuity of basic
structure of steels sharply reducing the mechanical
property of steels.

• Eliminating the O2 in the process of smelting.

 Nitrogen (N)
• Originating in the air.
• Function:
– Low Carbon Steels with high-content of N2 are
particularly lack of resistance to corrosion.
– Easy to form the air bubble to be loose.
– Cause the phenomenon of “Age-hardening”.
• Methods:
Adding Al and Ti to form AlN and TiN as if making the
N fix in the steels (called N-fixed Treatment), this will
eliminate the age-hardening.
 Hydrogen (H2)
 Originating in moist feed in steel-melting stove, pouring
system and the moist air, etc.
 Function:
– Making the steels to be brittle (H-Brittle)
– Making the steels to be seriously defective (Fish-eye)
 Methods:
 Improve the environment of smelting.
 Clear up the moisture content in the feed.
 Purify the steel liquid.
2.2 Properties of Materials
Mechanical Properties
Physical Properties
Chemical Properties
Manufacturing Properties

61
 Mechanical Properties:
Definition:
The capability of materials to resist external forces, but
does not deformation beyond allowance or wreck.
Main Performance Index:
Five Index:
Elasticity,
Plasticity,
Strength,
Hardness,
Toughness

62
 Mechanical properties

Ferrite: soft and ductile Cementite: hard and

brittle
 Mechanical Properties:
Elasticity
Elastic State(curve o-b)
1.proportional limit:

b
2.elastic limit: a

o ε
Tensile curve of Low Carbon steel

64
Mechanical Properties:
Elasticity
 Strength
• ultimate tensile stress σb
• yielding point σs,
• creep limit σn
• creep rupture strength σD
• fatigue limit (strength) σ-1

shrinkage
P
Stress= (MPa)
p Ao
do
lo l
p Ao= πdo2 Strain= lo
4

66
 Mechanical Properties:
When it is stretched to a certain degree,
there will be shrinkage ,and then break.
Conditional Yielding

P
1. Yielding State (near point c) 0.2 0.2
F o

2. Intensification State (curve c-d) Ps

s 
T. S. (Tensile Strength) Fo
Pb
3. Shrink Neck State (after d) b 
Fo
 Mechanical Properties:
Yielding Point σs (MPa)
- minimum value in yielding state
- plastic deformation appears.

Yielding point σ0.2

have no apparent yielding phenomena and :

σ0.2 = stress in 0.2% of residue elongation

The stress of any point in the pressure vessel caused by pressure

from medium should be below the elastic limit and cannot happen the
plastic deformation.
 Mechanical Properties:
Ultimate Tensile Stress σb (MPa)

The maximum value of stress from the

beginning of being stressed to the end of
fracture.
 Ultimate Tensile Stress σb (MPa)
Normal or low temperature:
considering: yield [yield/tensile] ratio: σs / σb
σ

σb Yielding point
Generally speaking, σs <σb
σs
σs/ σb ↓ , Plasticity ↑, Deformation ↑
σs/ σb ↑ , Plasticity↓, Deformation ↓
Strength Usage ↑
Elastic Plastic ξ
 Mechanical Properties:
Creep Rate
Elevated temperature:
considering: σn and σD as well as the previous

0
Temperature( C)
1Cr18Ni9Ti
Creep Rate
mm/mm*h(P con.)
425 475 520 550

10-6 176 91 33 6
 Mechanical Properties:
Creep Limit σ n

Creep phenomena:
When the materials is in high temperature and in
certain stress, the stress increases as the time is
going.

The temperature in which metals creep

0
Carbon steel > 420 C
0
Alloy steel > 450 C
0
Light metal and alloy > 50-150 C
Pt, Sn Normal Temperature
 Mechanical Properties:
Creep Curve
ε

o τ

τ
 Mechanical Properties:
Creep limit σ (MPa)
n

Definition: The ability of materials to resist the

slowly plastic deformation under high temperature.

Under certain temperature, the creep speed does not

excess the stress stipulated.

Stipulated creep speed: 10-7 mm / mm . H

10-6 mm / mm . H

1% straining within 105 hours

1% straining within 104 hours
 Mechanical Properties:
Creep Rupture Strength σD (MPa)
Definition: Rupture strength under certain temperature,
the material cracks in a stress after a period of
stipulated time. This stress is called creep rupture
strength.

 Stipulated time: 105 hours

Because the designed life time of chemical equipments is commonly 105
hours, the stress under which material cracks is said to be rupture strength.
 Creep rupture strength is the ability to resist cracking under certain
temperature and load. The stronger the ability is, the longer it will
endure under the same conditions.
 Mechanical Properties:
Fatigue limit (Strength) σ-1(MPa)
Fatigue phenomenon: the constructional elements
destruct under the alternate load action.

Fatigue strength: the maximum stress, under which

the materials do not happen fatigue destruction or
failure after infinite times of alternate load action.

Times of Fatigue Test: 106 ~ 108

 Mechanical Properties:
Plastic Deformation
1)Definition: the ability of plastic deformation
but not destructing under external force.
2)Commonly used Index:
 Percentage Elongation
 Shrinkage of Sectional Area
 Cold Bending Property
 Elongation
After the unit of structure is cracked by tensile
force, the ratio of the total stretched length and the
origin length is called Percentage Elongation,
described by δ%
Mechanical Properties:
Plastic Deformation
 
Mechanical Properties:


l
l
l




k
0
k
1
%
1
%
l
l
0
0

lk — the gauge length after

cracking, mm
l0— the origin gauge length,
mm
△lk—the absolute length after
cracking, mm
 Mechanical Properties:
The meaning of Percentage Elongation:
i) The value of  reflects the degree of the
plastic deformation before the material
cracks.
ii) The larger , the better the plasticity of
material.
iii) Plastic material  > 5%; Low carbon
steel  = 20~30%
iv) Hard brittle material  < 5%; Cast iron 
= 1%
 Mechanical Properties:
SHRINKAGE SECTION（）
After the unit of structure is cracked, the ratio
of the reduced area of the cross-section and the
original (cross) sectional area is called Shrinkage
of Sectional Area which is described by ψ%.

FF
 k
ψθ

100
%
Fθ

Fk—the minimum As after cracking ，mm2

F0—original sectional area As，mm2
 Mechanical Properties:
The larger the , the better the plasticity
of the material.
The  of Low Carbon Steel is about 60%.
Cold Bending Property

Welding joint

With R increasing, the plasticity of

R materials will be better and better.
 Mechanical Properties:
The real meaning of the Plastic Index:

i) Forming handling(process) and welding ease,

such as bending and rolling、forging press
cold impacting、welding and etc.
ii) Make the unit of structure to avoid cracking
for deformation after bearing load.
iii) The Pressure Vessels and their spare parts
should have the characteristic.
 Mechanical Properties:
Hardness
I. Definition: when something which is
harder than material itself is pressed on the surface
of it, it will resist the pressure by deformation or be
damaged, such abilities are called Hardness.

I. The Hardness Index:

 Brinell Hardness (HB)
 Rochwell Hardness (HR)
 Vickers Hardness (HV)
 Mechanical Properties:
The test of HB:
P
p ——Pressure, N
D——The diameter of
the rigid ball, mm
d ——The diameter of
the indent, mm
F ——The area of the Indent, mm2
d

p 2
p

HB
FD(
DD
2 2
d)
(
MP
a

)
 Mechanical Properties:
The relationship of Hardness and Strength:

Generally, good Hardness leads to good

Strength and good resistance to wear and tear.
Experimental Value (MPa):
 Low Carbon Steel b ≈ 36 HB
 High Carbon Steel b ≈ 34 HB
 Gray Cast Iron b ≈ 10 HB

•Application of Hardness in Engineering

 Mechanical Properties:
Impact toughness ak
Definition:
The ability of materials to resist the impact
load, i.e., the ability of materials that will make
plastic deformation immediately and rapidly
when suddenly attacked by dynamic loading.
88
Mechanical Properties:
Impact Toughness
 Mechanical Properties:
The larger is a k , the better is the ability of
materials to resist the impact load.

Hard Brittle Materials’ a k ＜＜

Plastic Materials’ a k
The relationship between Toughness and
Plasticity:
Generally, stronger toughness makes stronger
plasticity; but strong plasticity may not make strong
toughness .

For Mediate and Low Pressure Vessels,

a k≥30～35J/cm2 , commonly a k＞60 J/cm2.
PLASTIC (PERMANENT) DEFORMATION
(at lower temperatures: T < T /3)

91
 Physical Properties:
a. Modulus of elasticity (E)
 Tensile stress
E
 Tensile strain
Nature of E:
1) It’s the index of materials’ ability to resist
elastic deformation. E↑ , ability to resist
deformation↑. E of steel is about 2.105
（M Pa） .
2) For the same material, T ↑ , E↓ .
 Physical Properties:
b. Poisson’s Ratio 

'


(For steel:  ≈ 0.3)

′—— transverse stress

 —— longitudinal stress
 

Physical Properties:
c. Thermal Expansion Coefficient ()


l



l
lt
）
(
1
/
C

l
t
•Physical Meaning of :
When T increases by 1℃, the increasing
length per unit length is called Thermal
Expansion Coefficient.
•Application of  in Engineering.
 Chemical Properties:
Definition: It’s the chemical stability of
materials in medium, i.e. , it’s the nature that
whether the materials react with medium
chemically or electro-chemically leading to
corrosion.

Two index:
• Corrosion Resistance
• Resistance to Oxidation
 Chemical Properties:
a. Corrosion resistance
the ability of metal materials to resist the corrosion
caused by the medium (such as atmosphere, water
vapor, electrolyte).

b. Oxidation resistance
1）Resist to high temperature oxidation;
2）Resist to oxide etch by other gaseous
medium, such as water vapor, CO2 , SO2 , etc.
 Manufacturing Properties
A. Definition: Proterties ( mechanical, physical &
chemical) are technical / processing properties of
material.
B.Classification:
Casting
Forging
Welding
Machining
Heat treatment
Cold – Warm forming
 Manufacturing Properties

 Casting Property : Fluidity, Congealing Shrinkage Rate

 Forging Property : Resistance to Thermal Fragment,
Resistance to Oxidation, Thermo-plasticity.
 Welding Property : Fluidity of parent material and
welding flux in the melting state, Congealing,
Shrinkage Rate, Thermo-plasticity.
 Machining Property : Hardness, Brittleness.
 Heat Treatment Property : Heat Treatment Feasibility.
 Cold & Warm forming Property: Plasticity, Toughness.
 Classification and
designation of the equipments
1. According to the content of carbon (C%):
Low Carbon Steel
Medium Carbon Steel
High Carbon Steel
2.According to the smelting methods:
Full Killed Steel
Rimmed Steel
Semi-killed Steel
3.According to the quality:
Common Steel
High Grade Steel
Super High Grade Steel
 According to the content of carbon (C%)

 1. Low-carbon steel (C<0.25%) : Low strength and good

plasticity, used in chemical vessels in welding and
mechanical units with low loads.

 2. Medium Carbon Steel (C=0.25%~0.6%) : Medium

strength and plasticity, used as the important units of shaft,
gear, top cap of high pressure equipments and so on.

 3. High Carbon Steel (C>0.6%) : High strength and

hardness, poor plasticity, used as string, wire line and so on.
 According to the smelting methods
Full Killed Steel:
deoxidized with a strong deoxidizing agent(silicon or aluminum)
to reduce the oxygen content during solidification of the molten
steel in the ingot.
Rimmed Steel ( boiled steel):
A low-carbon steel containing sufficient iron oxide to give a
continuous evolution of carbon monoxide while the ingot is
solidifying, resulting in a case or rim of metal virtually free of
voids. Sheet and strip products made from rimmed steel ingots
have very good surface quality.
Semi-killed Steel:
A commonly used grade of steel manufactured for low carbon
bars and structural. A steel is considered semi killed so that it is
incompletely deoxidized and it contains sufficient dissolved
oxygen to react with the carbon to form carbon monoxide to
offset st in the ingot.
 According to the quality

Common Steel
High Grade Steel
Super High Grade Steel
 What happens during rapid cooling?
• Phase diagrams only show stable phases that are formed
during slow cooling
• If cooling is rapid, the phase diagram becomes
invalid and metastable phases may form
• In the case of steel, the formation of ferrite and cementite
requires the diffusion of carbon out of the ferrite phase. What
happens if cooling is too rapid to allow this?

The crystal lattice tries to switch from fcc

(austenite) to bcc (ferrite). Excess carbon ->
distorted body-centred lattice MARTENSITE
 Martensite (α’)
• Distorted bcc lattice
• Non-equilibrium carbon content
• Forms plate-like or needle-shaped
grains

Fe, C 2, Mn 0.7 (wt%)

 Martensite
• Hard and brittle
• Applications: crankshafts, spanners, high-tension bolts
• In general too brittle to be useful, BUT if tempered can be used
to produce optimum steel microstructure

Tempering

Heat treatment of martensite carried out at 200-600 °C -> allows C atoms

to diffuse out of martensite
Result: α’ α +Fe3C
Fe3C present as uniform distribution of fine, round precipitates high
strength and toughness

Qquenched & tempered steels

 Producing quenched and tempered steels
• Critical cooling rate for martensite formation depends on
concentration of alloying elements (e.g. C, Mn, Cr, Ni). Alloying elements
delay the formation of ferrite and pearlite -> increase chances for
martensite formation
• Critical cooling rate defines concept of HARDENABILITY (i.e. ease of
martensite formation)
• Component thickness is an important parameter

Medium carbon steels generally used in quenched and tempered

condition, high-carbon steels almost always.
Applications: chisels, hammers, drills, cutting tools, springs...
□ Quenching and tempering not possible for low carbon steels ->
microstructure = ferrite + pearlite
Applications: car panels, bridges, pipes.
Corrosion
2.3. Corrosion & Protection of Chemical
Equipments

 Harm of corrosion
 Chemical Corrosion
 Electrochemical Corrosion
 Inter-crystalline corrosion
 Stress corrosion
 Harm of corrosion
1.weight changing:

pp
 1 g/m
K0 2
h
Ft

K — Corrosion Rate g/cm2·h

p0 — WT before corrosion g
p1 — WT after corrosion g
Contact Area of corrosive
F — media and test piece m2
t — Time of corrosion action h
 Harm of corrosion

2.corrosion degree:

Ka—Thickness variation per year mm/year

 —Metallic density g/cm3

P

V
F
h _
and
_
V



p F


h h
F
 Harm of corrosion
3.Three Grades’ Standard of Metallic Resistance
to Corrosion:
Grade I: Ka < 0.1 mm/year (corrosion resistant)
Grade II: Ka = 0.1 ~ 1.0 mm/year (available)
Grade III: Ka > 1.0 mm/year (unavailable)
Types of metallic corrosion

1.Uniform (General) Corrosion:

i. Corrosion is over the whole metallic
surface
ii. Effect and danger are small
iii. Remaining enough corrosion allowance
in designation can still assure the strength
and expected life of equipments
2.Local Corrosion:

i. Corrosion is at the local region in

metals
ii. Very dangerous
iii. Remaining the corrosion allowance in
designation has no effect.
2.Local Corrosion:

iv. Categories of Local Corrosion

(1)Seam Corrosion
(2)Pitting Corrosion
For example:
the pitting corrosion of Cr-Ni stainless
steel in the media containing [Cl- ]
2.Local Corrosion:
(3)Stress Corrosion

(4)Inter-crystalline Corrosion
For example:
the inter-crystalline corrosion of
Cr-Ni stainless steel under certain conditions
 Chemical Corrosion

1.Definition:
The corrosion caused by chemical
reactions between metals and drying gas or non-
electrolyte solution is called Chemical
Corrosion.
 Chemical Corrosion
2.Characteristics:
i. Corrosion products are on the metallic
surface
ii. No electric current in the cause of
corrosion
iii. The two natures of the products from
chemical reactions:
(1)Stability —— Passivation
(2)Unstability —— Activation
 Chemical Corrosion
i. Metallic high temperature oxidation

(1)Oxidation resistance:
oxidized rapidly at high T

forming oxidation film

stopping oxidation
 Chemical Corrosion
(2)High temperature oxidation of carbon steel and cast iron:
T > 300 ℃ oxidation surface appears

T < 570 ℃ oxidation layer forms

inner layer Fe3O4 Stable

outer layer Fe2O3

T > 570 ℃ oxidation layer forms

layer I: Fe2O3 Stable
layer II: Fe3O4
layer III: FeO Unstable
 Fe2O3
Fe3O4

FeO

Fe

T < 570 ℃ T > 570℃

Composition of ironic oxidation layer
 Chemical Corrosion
(3)Solutions:
Adding some Cr Si Al to form stable
oxidation film of Cr2O3 SiO2 Al2O3 which
can prohibit the oxidation reaction from
proceeding.
 Chemical Corrosion
ii. High temperature decarburization
(1) T > 700 ℃
oxidation and decarburization both exist
Fe3C + O2  3Fe + CO2
Fe3C + CO2  3Fe + 2CO
Fe3C + H2O  3Fe + CO + H2
 Chemical Corrosion
(2)Result
*Cementite Ferrite
with Strength, hardness and Fatigue
Strength all decreasing.
*Forming the air bubble which is the crack
initiation point.
(3)Prevention
Adding Al or W
 Chemical Corrosion
iii. Hydrogen corrosion (hydrogen brittleness)
At relevant low temperature and pressure
(T≤200 ℃, P ≤5MPa), H2 won’t
corrode the carbon and alloy steels
apparently.
At high T and P, the corrosion actions of
H2 to steels are obvious.
 Chemical Corrosion
Mechanism of hydrogen corrosion:

Stage I —— “Hydrogen brittleness stage”

H disperses inward and dissolves.
Stage II —— “Hydrogen attack stage”
Chemical reaction vary the
structure of steels:
Fe3C + 2H2  3Fe + CH4
 Electrochemical Corrosion

1.Definition:
The corrosion caused by electrochemical
reactions between metals and electrolytes is
called Chemical Corrosion.
Electrochemical Corrosion
2.Mechanism:
Anode reaction —— Me Me+ + e
Electron movement —— eanode ecathode
Cathode reaction —— D + ecathode [D
e]
 Electrochemical Corrosion
3.Conditions of electrochemical
corrosion:
•There is potential difference on the parts of metallic
surface or between different metals.
•The parts which have potential difference are
connected with each other or the anode is
connected with cathode.
•The metal with potential difference is in the
electrolyte or the electrolyte where the anode and
cathode are connected with each other.
 Inter-crystalline corrosion

 Definition
It is the phenomenon that the corrosion occurs
between two crystalline surfaces and causes the
grain boundary continuously damaged.
 Nature

It’s a kind of local and selective corrosive damage.

 Inter-crystalline corrosion

Occurring in
Austenitic stainless steels
Reason

Lack of Cr element in the grain boundary

Austenitic stainless steels (C<0.14%)

 *At high temperature (1050ºC)

 C distributes completely in whole alloy.
 *Between 400~850℃
C + Cr + Fe (Cr . Fe)23C6
Separate out along the grain boundary
Cr%
Grain Grain
boundary
(Cr . Fe)23C6 Cr＜12.5%
Cr lacking region

Cr lacking
Cr lacking
Corroding region — Anode Inter-crystalline
minicell Corrosion occurs
Grain — Cathode
 Stress corrosion

i. Definition
The destruction is caused by both corrosive
media and the tensile stress action, this kind of
damage is called Stress Corrosion.
 Stress corrosion

ii. Initiation Circumstances

Carbon steel and various kinds of Alloy steel (such
as austenitic stainless steel) are in the media listed as
following:
(1)High concentrated chloride solution above
80℃
(2)High temperature and pressure water at
150~300 ℃
(3)High temperature and concentrated caustic
solution
 Stress corrosion

iii. Mechanism
Stage I: Breeding stage
The primary destruction (mechanical crack) is
formed in metallic surface under the co-action
of corrosion and tensile stress.
 Stress corrosion

Stage II: Corrosion crack’s extension stage

Corrosive media dissolve the passivation film in
the cracks to form anode with the film becoming
cathode, the electrochemical corrosion therefore
occurs.
The crack extents rapidly under the co-action of
this corrosion and tensile stress.
 Stress corrosion

Stage III: Breaking stage

 Stress corrosion

iv. Prevention measure

(1)Decrease or clear up the stress concentration
(2)Select the stress corrosion resistant materials:
Two-phase stainless steel ——
austenite + small amount (about 5%) of Ferrite
such as: 1Cr18Mn10Ni5Mo3N
 0Cr17Mn13Mo2N
 0Cr21Ni5Ti
 Mechanism of cathodic protection:

The protected metallic devises are

polarized into cathodes by the direct current
(DC) from outer electrical power supply
taking the auxiliary electrode as the anode.
When the potential of cathode < that
of anode, the corrosion will be prohibited.
Improving features of the
materials
 Corrosion Resistant Measures in Metallic
Equipments

1.Selecting materials reasonably

2.Adding the lined protection
Adding the lined protection

i. Metallic lining: stainless steel,

other metals(Cu Al Ti Cr Ni)
ii. Nonmetallic lining: plastics,
rubbers, enamelware, etc.
 - +

iii. Coating
iv. Adding corrosion
buffering agents
v. Electrochemical
protection
such as:
cathodic protection
Cathodic Protection
Apparatuses
 Heat Treatment
1.Definition of heat treatment
Heat treatment is the technical process or treatments
to steels in solid state according to the scheduled
requirements like heating, keeping warm and cooling,
their aims are to vary the internal structure and gain the
desired properties.

2.Basic Theories of heat treatment:

•When the basic components of steels (Fe) is heated to a

certain degree, its lattice structure of steel will vary from
one form to another as the temperature.

•Ferrite (F) and Austenite (A) are both the solid solution of
Fe, so they have the lattice structure of iron.
 Heat Treatment
3.Bring forward the problem:
Find out the method and path of altering the properties of
steels
4.Purpose of heat treatment
Eliminating some shortages of steels
Improving some properties of steels
5.Advantages of heat treatment
Intensifying the metallic materials, fully developing
the potential of materials, lightening the mass of
equipments and guaranteeing the security and expected
life of equipments.
 Processing steps of heat treatment:

Heating Keeping warm Cooling

Keeping warm

Cooling
Heating

Time
 Cooling media and way of cooling

Cooling in furnace
Cooling in still air
Cooling in oil Cooling Capacity
Cooling in water Cooling Speed
Cooling in brine
Heat Treating Process of steels:

Annealing
Normalizing
Quenching
Tempering
 i. Annealing & Normalizing

*Lowering hardness, improving plasticity,

making steels apt to the cold-work.

*Homogenizing the steel structure, refining

the grain, developing the mechanical properties.

*Clearing up the internal stress, resisting

the deformation of workpieces.
 Quench

(1)Process :
Heating the steel pieces to the quenching temperature, cool them quickly
in the quenching agents after the warm-keeping treatment, then the
Austenite changes into the Matensite.
(2)Quenching Temperature
*Hypo-eutectoid Steel (C<0.8%) heating above the A3 line 30~50ºC
*Hyper-eutectoid Steel (C>0.8%) heating above the A1 line 30~50ºC
(3)Quenching Agent
*Mineral Oil, Water, and Brine.
*Generally speaking:
 Carbon Steel, cooling in water and brine.
 Alloy Steel, cooling in oil.
 Quench

(4)Quenching Function
developing the hardness, strength and wear (abrasion)
resistance.
*The emergency cooling in quenching is apt to
make flaw in the steel pieces, so the tempering is
commonly needed to clear up the stress after
quenching.
*Quenching and Tempering are always combined
to the technical process.
 iii. Tempering
(1)Process
Heat the steel pieces which are already quenched to the certain
temperature (T<Tcritical), cool them quickly in still air after the warm-keeping
treatment.
(2)Purpose
Reduce or clear up the internal stress of workpieces after quenching,
stabilize the internal structure and gain the different mechanical properties.
(3)Types of Tempering
*Tempering at low temperature
after quenching, tempering between 150~250ºC.
Function——reduces the internal stress and brittleness of quenching
steels, and at the same time keeps the high hardness and high wear
resistance.
Usage ——in spares of various tools and ball bearing after carburation.
*Tempering at medium temperature
——after quenching, tempering between 300~450ºC.
Function——reduce the internal stress, reach the limit of high strength
and high elasticity.
Usage——in the treatment of various spring.

*Tempering at high temperature

——after quenching, tempering between 500~680ºC.
Function——gain the certain strength, have higher plasticity and
impact toughness, i.e. excellent overall mechanical properties.
Quenching + Tempering ——Thermal Refining
Usage——important spares, such as gear, rod, crank shaft, etc.
Common used materials
 Common carbon steel

Vietnamese Standard
Code Items
TCVN 3600-81 Roofing steel sheet. Galvanized, acid-pickled.
TCVN3601-81 Roofing steel sheet
TCVN 3779-83 Thin acid-pickled sheet steels
TCVN 3780-83 Tinplate. Size, dimensions
TCVN 3781-83 Zincplate steel sheet. Technical requirements
TCVN 6525-99 Hot-dip zinc-coated carbon steel sheet
TCVN 471:2004 Coated metal products, used in internal and external
construction works. Technical properties
TCVN 470:2005 Aluminium coated and hot dip galvanised steel strip
and sheets
TCVN 1765:75 Carbon steel
 Common carbon steel
- TCVN 1765-75 : 3 groups A, B, C.
Group A : according to mechanical property
Symbol : CTXX
CT : means carbon steel
XX : ultimate tensile stress σb (N/mm2)
example : CT38
Group A
Giíi h¹n bÒn (σb = 380N/mm2)
 Common carbon steel
Grad (N/mm 2)

CT31 <310

CT33 s 310- 400

CT33 n CT33 320- 420

CT34 s 330-420

CT34 n CT34 340- 440

CT38 s 370-470

CT38 n CT38 380- 490

CT42 s 410- 520

CT42 n CT42 420- 540

CT51 n CT51 510- 640

CT61 n CT61 <610

 Symbols of different Standards
TCVN GOCT GB UNS AISI/SAE JIS AFNOR DIN BS
C45 45 45 G10450 1045 S45C X45 C45 06A45
40Cr 40X 40Cr G51400 5140 SCr440 42C4 42C4 530A40
OL100Cr2 X15 GCr15 G52986 42100 SUJ2 100C6 100C6 535A99
20Cr13 20X13 2X13 S42000 420 SUS420J1 Z20C13 X20Cr13 420S29
08Cr18Ni10
08X18H90
0Cr18Ni9 S30200 304 SUS304 Z7CN18.09 X15Cr-Ni18
304S31
CD100 Y10 T10 T72301 W109 SK4 Y1-90 10 -
210Cr12 X12 Cr12 T30403 D3 SKD1 Z200C12 C105W1 BD3
80Ư18Cr4V P18 W18Cr4V T12001 T1 SKH2 Z80WCV X210C12 BT1
----------- 18-04-01 S 18-0-1
ASTM
-----------
CT34 CT2 A2 - 36 SS330 F3360 Fe360 Fe360
GX28-48 C130 HT300 F12803 No40 FC300 FGL300 GG30 260
GC50-2 B150 QT500-7 F33800 8055-06 FCD500 FGS500-7 GGG50 B500/7
 Common carbon steel
The content of the harmful elements S & P can be a little more :
(S≤0.055%, P≤0.045%)
Carbon steel Standard
Designations
France: AFNORXC 68
Germany: DIN 1.1231
Sweden: SS 1770 , SS 1778
United States: AMS 5115 , AMS 5115C , ASTM A29 , ASTM A510 , ASTM A576 ,
ASTM A682 , MIL SPEC MIL-S-11713 (2) , SAE J403 , SAE J412 , SAE J414 , UNS G10700

Element Weight %
c 0.65-0.75
Mn 0.60-0.90
p 0.04 (max)
s 0.05 (max)
 Rimmed Carbon Steel
 Suitable under the condition of P≤0.6MPa, t=0~250ºC,
S≤12mm.
 a clean surface low in carbon content.
 known as drawing quality steel.
 the steel is partially deoxidized. Carbon content is less
than 0.25% and manganese content is less than 0.6%.
 do not retain any significant percentage of highly
oxidizable elements such as Aluminum, silicon or titanium.
 especially where ease of forming and surface finish are
major considerations.
 ideal for rolling, large number of applications, and is
adapted to cold-bending, cold-forming and cold header
applications.
 High-quality carbon steel

– Content of S & P to be (S & P≤0.04%)

– Uniform texture, good surface quality, superior
properties than Common Steels.
– The number in designation indicates the percentage of
the average content of C=0.08% & C=0.2%
– Steels that commonly contain Mn (without indicating
Mn), if Mn < 0,7%
– Steels that contain Mn=0.7~1.2% (indicating Mn)
Super high-quality carbon steel

 S & P≤0.03%

 Both the texture and properties of this

kind of steels’ are superior to that of
High Grade Steel.
 Stainless steels

• Definition: > 11 wt% Cr. Ni, Mn may also be

present
• Cr -> adherent Cr2O3 film -> protection against
corrosion and oxidation
• Most stainless steels are austenitic (alloying
elements stabilise γ phase down to room T)
• Austenitic stainless steel is non-magnetic ->
useful as quick test
• Ferritic and martensitic stainless steels also
available -> increases range of mechanical
properties available for specific applications
(Corrosion resistance not as good as for austenitic
stainless steel)
 Cast Iron

1.The chemical components of

commonly used cast iron:
95% Fe + (2.5% ~ 4%) C + ( ~1%) Purities
2.Structure:
Pealite + Cementite + Ladeburite +
Graphite
 Cast Iron
High carbon content low melting point
 Cast Iron
• Cheap
• can produce complex parts quickly and easily
through sand casting
• BUT brittle Two types:
• Grey iron: Fe + C (graphite)
Formation of graphite rather than cementite promoted
through high C and Si content, slow solidification rate
• White iron: Fe + Fe3C
 Properties and Characteristics

Excellent casting property

Good machinability
Good wear resistance
Excellent property to reduce vibration
Low plasticity and brittleness
Low tensile strength and high (ultimate)
compression strength
 i. Gray cast iron

(1)Properties and characteristics

*C exists in the form of plate-like graphite
*Gray fracture
*Low mechanical properties
*Excellent corrosion resistance in H2SO4
and NaOH
 Grey cast iron

• Among least expensive metallic materials

• High fluidity -> can cast complex shapes
• Graphite flakes -> high damping capacity and good machineability ->
used e.g. as base structure for machines and heavy equipment
• BUT brittle due to shape of graphite flakes -> nodular iron better

Fe, C 3.52, Si 3.26, Mn 0.47 (wt%)

 Spherical graphite cast iron
(1)Properties and characteristics
*C exists in the form of spherical graphite
*Have better strength and a certain
plasticity and toughness, its overall
mechanical properties are close to
that of steels.
*Better corrosion resistance than that of
Gray Cast Iron except when it is in the
acid solution.
 Ductile / Nodular cast iron

• Addition of Mg / Ce to grey iron -> graphite forms as spheres rather

than flakes -> improved toughness
• Applications: valves, pump bodies, gears, crankshafts

Fe, C 3.2, Si 2.5, Mg 0.05 (wt%)

 iii. High-silicon cast iron (G)

(1)Properties and characteristics

*Adding amount of Si (14.5~18%) to improve the
corrosion resistance of the cast iron.
 White cast iron

• Exceptionally hard, but brittle and almost impossible to

machine used in very few applications e.g. rollers in rolling
mills
• Used as intermediary in production of malleable iron: heat
treatment at 800-900°C causes decomposition of cementite ->
graphite clusters. Resulting microstructure and properties
similar to nodular iron. Typical applications: connecting rods,
transmission gears, pipe fittings, flanges
 High-silicon cast iron (G)
Highly corrosion resistant media:
nitric acid, sulfuric acid, phosphorus acid,
acetic acid

Medium corrosion resistant media:

hydrochloric acid, Oxalic acid , formic acid

 Corrosive media: caustic soda,

hydrofluoric acid
4.Properties and Designation of
commonly used cast iron:
Gray cast iron :

Spherical graphite cast iron:

High-silicon cast iron

Common Material used in
Chemical Equipments
 Objectives

Select suitable material of construction

Specify design temperature and

pressure
Calculate wall thickness

01/09/12
 Material of Construction

Mechanical and physical properties

Corrosion resistance

Ease of fabrication

Availability in standard sizes

Cost

01/09/12
 Material of Construction

Preliminary Selection

 Selection Charts
 Literature
 Previous experience
 Advise from materials supplier
 Advise from equipment manufacturer
 Advise from consultants

01/09/12
 Material of Construction

Final Selection
Based on economic analysis which

would include
Material cost
Maintenance cost

01/09/12
 Commonly Used Materials

Metals
Polymers or Plastics

Ceramic Materials

01/09/12
 Metals

 Carbon steels

 Stainless steels

 Specialty alloys

01/09/12
 Carbon Steels

Most common engineering material

Advantages
 Inexpensive
 Good tensile strength and ductility
 Available in a wide range of
standard forms and sizes
 Easily worked and welded
01/09/12
 Carbon Steels
Limitations
• Corrosion resistance not good
• External surface need painting to prevent atmospheric
corrosion
Suitable for use with:
 Most organic solvents
 Steam, air, cooling water, boiler feed water
 Concentrated sulfuric acid and caustic alkalies

01/09/12
 Stainless Steels
Most frequently used corrosion resistant
materials in the chemical industry
High chromium or high nickel-chromium

alloys of iron
 chromium content must be > 12%

 Nickel added to improve weldability and

corrosion resistance in non-oxidizing env.

01/09/12
 Stainless Steels
Main Types of Stainless Steel
 Type 304 – 18% Cr & 8% Ni
 Type 304L – low carbon version to
improve welding of thick plates
 Type 316 – Mo added to improve
corrosion resistance in reducing
conditions and at high temperature.

01/09/12
 Stainless Steels
Limitations
– Intergranular corrosion or weld
decay possible in reducing
environment
– Stress cracking can be caused by a
few ppm of chloride ions

01/09/12
 Special Alloys
 Monel – 67% Ni, 33% Cu
 Better corrosion resistance than SS
 No stress-corrosion cracking in chloride

solutions
o
 Temp. up to 500 C

 Inconel - 76% Ni, 15% Cr, 7% Fe

 High temperature acidic service
o
 Temp. up to 900 C

01/09/12
 Plastics

Provide corrosion resistance at low cost.

Main advantages:
Excellent resistance to weak mineral acids
Tolerate small changes in pH, minor
impurities or oxygen content
Light weight, easy to fabricate and install

01/09/12
 Plastics

Major Limitations:
• Moderate tempeature and pressure
applications (T < 100oC; P < 5 atm.)
• Low mechanical strength
• Only fair resistance to solvents

01/09/12
 Plastics

Main Classes:
1. Thermoplastic – can be reshaped
2. Thermosetting – cannot be remoulded
Thermoplastic
• Polyethylenes (low cost; T < 50oC)
• Polypropylene ( T up to 120oC)
• Polyvinyl chloride ( T  60oC)
01/09/12
 Plastics
Thermosetting
- good mechanical properties (T  95oC)
- good chemical resistance (except strong alkalies)
Examples:
• Phenolic resins –filled with carbon, graphite, silica
• Polyester resins – reinforced with glass or carbon fibre to
improve strength

01/09/12
 Plastics
Polytetrafloroethylene
(PTFE)
 Known under the trade names of Teflon
and Fluon
Can be used up to 250oC – highest for all
plastics
Resistant to all chemicals except fluorine
and molten alkalies
01/09/12
 Rubber Lining
Metal surface lined with rubber to provide;
 Cost effective solution for corrosion control and
abrasion resistance e.g. acid storage, steel
pickling
 Why rubber?
• Able to bond strongly to various surfaces
• Good combination of elasticity and
tensile strength

01/09/12
 Ceramic Materials

Provide high temperature corrosion

resistance and/or thermal protection (up to
2000oC)
Ceramic or refractory materials – metal

oxides, carbides and nitrides

Used as either solid bodies or coatings

Glass – mostly used in glass lining

01/09/12
 1.4.2 Effect of Alloy Elements to the
properties of steels

1.Alloy elements:
i. Definition
The elements that are added on
purpose to develop the structure and
characteristics of steels.
ii. Main alloy elements
Cr Ni Mn Si Al Mo
V Ti Cu B Nb W Re
 2.Alloy Steel

Definition
Alloy steels are those steels that
contain the alloy elements which develop
the properties of steels.
Characteristics of the main alloy
elements:
i. Cr
(1)Cr>13%, corrosion resistance
dramatically
(2)Strength, hardness, wear resistance,
oxidation resistance and hardenability
all
(3)Plasticity and toughness
(4)Adds strength at high temperature
 ii. Ni
(1)Enlarge the range of corrosion resistance
of stainless steel, especially improve the
resistance to base.
(2)Broad the -phase region as to be the
element that form the austenite.
(3)Develop the strength as well as keep
excellent properties of plasticity and
toughness.
(4)Improves strength at high T
 iii. Mn

(1)Develop the strength and impact

toughness at low temperature.
(2)Broad the -phase region.
(3) Counteracts sulfur brittleness.
(4)Increases hardenability.
 iv. Si
(1)Develops strength and fatigue
durability at high temperature.
(2)Improve heat resistance
(3)Resistant to the corrosion of such media
as H2S and so on.
(4)If amount of Si is too much,
plasticity and impact toughness both
(5)Strengthens steel
(6)Increases hardenability
 v. Mo
(1)Develop the resistance of stainless
steels to the chloride anion Cl-.
(2)Enhances H corrosion resistance.
(3)Improve the heat resistance.
(4)Raises grain-coarsening temperature.
(5)Mo<0.6%, plasticity .
(6)Counteracts tendency toward temper
brittleness.
 vi. Al

(1)Restricts grain growth.

(2)Develops the impact toughness.
(3)Resistant to the corrosion caused by H2S.
(4)Improves the oxidation and heat resistance.
(5)Cheap, common substitute for Cr among
heat-resistant steels.
 vii. Ti
(1)Restricts grain growth.
(2)Develops strength and toughness.
(3)Improves the oxidation and heat
resistance.
(4)Stablizes C to prevent the
“inter-crystalline corrosion”.
(5)Prevents formation of austenite in high
chromium steels; prevents localized
depletion of chromium in stainless steel
during long heating.
 viii. V

(1)Developes high-temperature strength.

(2)Increases hardenability.
(3)Restricts grain growth.
(4)Keeps the strength and improve the
plasticity.
(5)Resists tempering
AE S P H/WR IT CR OR HR FD GR H

Cr

Ni

Mn P

Si H2S

Mo Mo<0.6% HCl

Al H2S

Ti in-c

Re
 Interpretation:
AE——alloy element
S ——strength
P ——plasticity
H/WR ——hardness and wear resistance
IT ——impact toughness
CR ——corrosion resistance
OR ——oxidation resistance
HR ——heat resistance
FD ——fatigue durability
GR ——grain refining
H ——hardability
in-c ——inter-crystalline
 Common Low Alloy Steel
1.Definition:
They are the steels that are formed by adding a few
alloy elements at the basis of Common Low Carbon
Steel.
2.Composition:
(1)C<0.2%
(2)Alloy elements
*Mn 1~1.5%
*Si Cr Ti V Nb Ni Al… 0.015 ~
0.6%

3.Structure:
Ferrite + Pearlite
4.Properties and characteristics:
i. High strength and large yield ratio
ii. Excellent welding property
iii. Good resistance to the corrosion of
atmosphere
iv. Perfect properties at low temperature
 5.Designation (GB1591-88)
(New Designation GB/T1591-94)

16Mn 16MnR 16Mng 15MnV

15MnVR
15MnVg 09Mn2V 18MnMoNbR
The number ahead is the percentage of
the C content, such as 16Mn (C = 0.16%).
 Indicate the main alloy elements, the
number thereafter is the percentage of that
element. If it is less than 1.5%, it can be
omitted.

Content of alloy elements:

1.5 ~ 2.49% Sign as “2” 2.5 ~ 3.49%
Sign as “3” 3.5 ~ 4.49% Sign as “4”
Boiler Steel & Vessel Steel

1.Steels specially used in the

manufacture of boilers and vessels.
2.There are some special requirements
for boiler steel and vessel steel.
 Commonly-used Designation:
i. Boiler Steel
20g 22g 12Mng 16Mng 15MnVg
14MnMoVg 18MnMoNbg
ii. Vessel Steel
Q235-AR 20R 16MnR 15MnVR
09MnVR 18MnMoNbR
Stainless Steel and Corrosion
(Acid) Resistant Steel

 Stainless Steels are the kind of alloy

steels which are resistant to the
corrosion caused by atmosphere,
water or other soft caustic media.
 Stainless Steel and Corrosion
(Acid) Resistant Steel
Acid Resistant steels are the kind of alloy
steels which are resistant to the corrosion
caused by acid or strong caustic media.
As a rule, we called them both “Stainless
Steel”.
Examples:
*Chromium Stainless Steel
*Chromium-nickel Stainless Steel
 1.Chromium Stainless Steel:

i. Component
< 0.2% C + (13 ~ 28%) Cr + Fe
ii. Construction
Ferrite or Martensite
(no Austenite even at high
temperature)
iii. Theories of corrosion resistance
(1)In the oxidizing medium, a oxide skin
Cr2O3 which is stable and tight will be
formed, it has an effect on passivation,
i.e. there is a passivation layer on the
surface of the steels.
(2)The degree of corrosion resistance
depends on the content of C and Cr.
The more Cr, the better the resistance
The less C, the better the resistance
iv. Commonly-used Chromium Stainless Steel
1Cr13 2Cr13 0Cr13 0Cr17 0Cr17Ti
v. Designation
(1)The first number:
Average C content Average with C
amount of 1000 points
0：C < 0.1% 1: C≤0.15% 2: C≈0.2%
(2)The second number:
percentage of the average content of Cr
2.Chromium-nickel Stainless Steel:
i. Component
≤ 0.14% C + ( 17~19% ) Cr + ( 8 ~11%) Ni
+ Fe
Briefly called “18 — 8” Steel
Typical Designation: 1Cr18Ni9Ti
ii. Construction
Single austenite structure at normal
temperature
 iii. Characteristics
(1)High strength and good plasticity
& toughness
(2)Large range of suitable temperature
-196℃ ~ 800 ℃
(3)Excellent technical properties
(4)Good corrosion resistance
ΘNon-corrosive media:
cold phosphorus acid, nitric acid, acetic acid,
hydrogen sulfide, sulfate, nitride, base liquid,
petroleum chemicals, etc.
ΘCorrosive media:
hydrochloric acid, dilute sulfuric acid (<10%),
hot phosphorus acid, oxalic acid ,
melting caustic potassium, melting caustic
alkali, Cl-, bromine (Br), iodine (I), etc.
(5)Inter-crystalline corrosion easily occurs between
400~800 ℃

Θ Definition of inter-crystalline corrosion:

It is the phenomenon that the corrosion occurs
between two crystalline surfaces and causes the grain
boundary continuously damaged.

ΘNature:
It’s a kind of local and selective corrosive damage.
ΘOccurring in:
Austenitic stainless steels
ΘReason:
Lack of Cr element in the grain boundary
ΘAustenitic stainless steels (C<0.14%):
*At high temperature (1050ºC)
C distributes completely in whole alloy.
 *Between 400~800℃
C + Cr + Fe (Cr . Fe)23C6
Separate out along the grain boundary
Cr%
Grain Grain
boundary
(Cr . Fe)23C6
Cr＜12.5%
Cr lacking region

Cr lacking
Cr lacking
Corroding region — Anode Inter-crystalline
minicell Corrosion occurs
Grain — Cathode
ΘDamage:
To be brittle, even softly beating can makes
it break into dust. Have very low strength.
ΘPreventive measures:
*Solution heat treatment ——
quenching again (1100~1150ºC) to
dissolve C and Cr into the austenite.
*Reduce the content of C ——
preventing C to combine with Cr, then less
Cr will be separated out.
For example: 0Cr18Ni9 (C ≤ 0.08%)
00Cr18Ni9 (C ＜ 0.03%)
*C stabilization treatment ——
adding Ti or Nb to form TiC or NbC to
stabilize C.
For example: 1Cr18Ni9Ti 1Cr19Ni11Nb
*Add microelement ——
adding B can vary the nature of grain
boundary to prevent (Cr . Fe)23C6 to be
separated out.
(6) Pitting corrosion occurs in the media
containing [Cl-]
ΘMechanism:
[Cl-] intrudes into the flaw of passivation
film (Cr2 O3) and reacts with metallic ion to
form strong acidic salts ([M+] + [Cl-] → MCl)
which can dissolve the passivation film ——
the locally corroded film becomes a “passive-
active” minicell —— with corrosion taking
place.
ΘDamage:
Fast corrosion speed easily perforates the
thin (only several mini-meter thick) stainless
steel by corrosion.
ΘPreventive measures:
*Adding some alloy elements
The most effective elements to improve the
pitting corrosion resistance: Cr, Mo
Secondarily effective elements: Ni, Si, N, Re
*Cr≥25%, pitting corrosion won’t occur.
2%Mo improve pitting corrosion
resistance dramatically, Mo and [Cl-]
form the protective film (MoOCl2) which
can prevent the passivation film being
perforated.
*Materials resistant to the corrosion of [Cl-]:
high Cr-Ni stainless steel containing Mo
such as: 1Cr18Ni12Mo2Ti
00Cr20Ni30Mo2Nb
000Cr30Mo2
Heat-resisting Steel and Low-
temperature Steel
1.Heat-resisting Steel:
i. Characteristics
(1)Excellent high-temperature
oxidation
resistance (excellent high-T
chemical
stability)
(2)Good high-T mechanical properties
(strength at high T)
ii. Elements added
Cr Mo V Ti W Si Ni Al
iii. Commonly-used heat-resisting steel
(a)Oxidation resistant steel——
*mainly resistant to oxidation, but has
low strength.
*used in the parts that are heated directly
(800~1000℃) but small loaded.
such as: heating tube support, nozzle, etc.
*commonly used steels’ designation:
Cr13SiAl Cr25Ti Cr17Ti Cr25Ni12
(b)Refractory steel
*mainly resistant to creep but also resistant
to oxidation.
*used in the parts that are loaded at high T.
such as: heating tube, reactor, etc.
*commonly used steels’ designation:
12CrMo Cr5Mo 1Cr18Ni9Ti Cr25Ni20
 2.Low-temperature Steel:
i. Working temperature
< -20℃ Low temperature
-20 ~-40 ℃ Non-cryogenic
temperature
< -40 ℃ Cryogenic temperature
ii. Characteristics
(1)Excellent low-temperature toughness
(2)Excellent processing workability and
weldability
iii. Requirements of structure
(1)Low content of C (0.08~0.18%) ——
form homogeneous ferritic structure.
(2)Homogeneous austenitic structure is
desirable at cryogenic temperature.
iv. Elements added
Mn Al Ti Nb Cu V N