City in Transition: Reorganization of Space, and

Planning Policy in Agra

Kapil Kumar Gavsker

Department of Applied Geography
Ravenshaw University (India)
Email: gavsker4@gmail.com
Abstract
City of historic importance, Agra is in transition. New urban development change is influenced by
its global connectivity as the home of the World Heritage Site and a growing importance in the regional
and national urban system. City space is being shaped by conventional urban planning which emphasizes
upon physical land use segregation. Now neoliberal effects are also visible in the present urban policy and
(heritage) planning. In fact, planning in Agra appears to have capitalized on one historical built monument-
the Taj- but in the process ignored the other aspects in urban development. The going ‘global’ has
appropriated the local (Taj Mahal), but locals seems to have been left out in this process.
Keywords: City, Heritage, Transition, Tourism, Urban Planning, Urban Space

Introduction
With emergence of modernist planning in the western urban situation, cities
became prime concern of adopting measures to combat various urban and regional
problems. Geography and space is interlinked and one is incomplete without the other.
There are two main types of ‘geographical planning’- physical planning and economic
planning. The former is concerned with physical developments such urban renewal,
urban planning and land use, whereas the latter is concerned with spatial aspects of
economic development. Both of these also shapes urban environment. Controlling
unplanned urban growth measures were taken to segregate land uses through
rationalization of space and planned city and regional development. Dominance of town
planning was undoubtedly strong and professionally it was believed to be universally
applicable irrespective of cultural context and complex social geographies. What was
recognized was that well organized and physically coherent cities grounded in the good
functional and aesthetic principles are better than those are not (Beauregard 2003: 109).
With the passage of time and experiments with newly accepted ideas, master plans based
development became a common practice to cope with and dealing with haphazard urban
growth, urban expansion and growing internal problems of cities. With this, urban areas
are spatially controlled and zoning directs the future growth and expansion of cities. For
long, Master Plan approach has remained a common practice not only in the west but
same is equally welcomed in developing regions of the world. Wide expansion of this
approach (i.e. Master Plan) was widespread during the colonial era in which major cities
were centres of power and played important role in growth of colonization. Even in the
postcolonial times the same planning practices and regulatory framework shapes urban
space. The fact is that urban context and circumstances have registered a sea change
transformed, however, urban planning operates, more or less, in the same manner.
Therefore, urban planning is an activity, process and a tool for reorganization of space by
which it shapes lives of those who inhabit urban space.

Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2710318

 For long urban planning had usually been a technical expert-driven exercise,
which drew on existing official data and had little connection with (real) environment for
which it is being prepared. Often, a technically prepared plan was a mismatch with the
local government’s will and financial capacity to implement it effectively within the
stipulated time period. This mismatch happens when plans did not reflect the ground
realities and for which the local populations felt no ownership (Sheikh and Rao 2007:
564). Therefore, planning of land use in any country and city is a recognized feature of
community life and public control. Land use is a better mechanism for use of land at
present and in the future. As per planning, certain activities and functions would take
place only in prescribed areas without an overlap and any sort of interruption.
Reorganizing of urban space aims at segregation of one activity area in relation to other
i.e. residential areas from manufacturing and high industries. However, these
conventional approaches are under critical scrutinizes in the west where they first came
into existence and are replaced by new urban strategies and planning methods. Urban
development approaches in India are still conventional based on ‘blue print’ planning
which remains inflexible and rigid. Ideology, practice and process of urban planning in
India has remained largely technocratic influenced by spatial fetishism and a top-down
approach. This undermines different needs of diverse segments of urban population and
in dealing with intra-urban inequalities and disparities in distribution of basic services
and civic amenities.

Focus of the Paper

The broader focus of this paper is to present an overview of urban planning of
Agra city. This study aims to critically examine the ‘nature’ of contemporary urban
planning and how it shapes urban places with special reference to Agra, the City of the
Taj. Present paper tries to connect reorganization of urban space and new spatial changes
taking place in the city with ‘heritage’ and how this heritage tag has influence on urban
development process. With changes in development priorities and aspiration, Agra is in
transition which has wider implications on city and its population. This study draws
attention to how heritage is commoditified, and how locals feel about these changes in
their locality. In a sense, this study argues that conventional urban planning provides an
inadequate framework to understand and deal with Indian cities. This study
acknowledges Nigel Taylor’s idea of town planning as a form of ‘social action’ or ‘social
practice’ which tends to embrace a sound judgement to intervene in urban space. This
sound judgemental thinking in planning practice is to do with what best to do in dealing
with and addressing urban issues and concerns. Taking into account the idea of planning
as social action in relation to urban and heritage planning in Agra would enable us to
critically understand the nature of contemporary planning and its objectives.

Physical Designing of Urban Space

Urban planning is about constructing urban spaces to create synergy among long
term economic needs of people, requirements of housing and basic infrastructure and
preservation of natural environment (Landman and Ntombela 2006: 2). In fact, in Europe
the most impressive results of formal town planning were achieved in the so-called
Baroque Era of the seventeenth and eighteenth and centuries. Therefore, urban or town
planning has developed from the industrial and colonial age to the modern age through

Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2710318

scientific and technological inventions, art, and architectural movements, social reforms,
planning laws, urban growth management strategy, growing ecological and
environmental awareness, and also changing emphasis in planning and development of
new planning tools (Das 2007: 41). This tool is required to overcome socio-economic
crisis of the city by introducing reorganization of urban spaces. Since beginning the city
planning has been more interested in shaping the geographical layout and undermining
the social needs of the community at local level. For the physical space, town planning
stressed more on the segregated land uses, a distance between one field of functions to
another, new street patterns, public spaces for the community, clearance of congested
central areas of the city, promoting economic activities for the growth, traffic circulation,
parking, sewer, drainage, water supply, electricity etc. Planning remained concerned with
making public/political decisions more rational, though utopian in practice. This
‘rationalist-cum-scientific’ model of planning coincides with ‘to-down’ normative model
of planning action (Landman and Ntombela op cit: 12). Both in idea and practice,
planning heavily relied on comprehensive measures for overall or ‘total’ development of
urban centres that to in the public interest. Planners’ decisions played significant role in
the city design, management and land use planning. Such initiatives were based on the
earlier initiatives started during the early twentieth century which focused on the
decentralization of urban functions, population and industry (see Howard, 1898, Le
Corbusier, 1920). Secondly, a variety of planning methods is used to improve
environmental conditions in the cities themselves. However, universal applicability of
such motives, in a sense, undermines the local societal contexts and cultural space.
In most of the emerging and developing countries like India urban planning
initiatives were, and still, driven by the borrowed planning from the other contexts. Cities
of the developing world are being shaped by strong faith in land-use ‘master plans’. In
the post-liberalised period, global economic factors and cultural exchange is affecting and
shaping urban space at local level. In the present global order, new urban spaces are
being created and older ones are disconnected and marginalized. Later on, these cities
have emerged as centres of global investments and are competing one another. Therefore,
the role of master planning in the globally interconnected local spaces instead of losing,
its importance is reviving in managing urban areas and facilitating corporate-oriented
urban development. In close association with sectors of economy, the conventional (built)
heritage and heritage sites are other important drivers of attracting tourism and new
spatial changes in urban space in offering best facilities to the global tourists. The Taj of
Agra is an important example of commodification of heritage and its high consumption
by heavy tourists flow which also shapes overall urban development priorities in the city
and its region as well.
In post-independence India an emphasis was on reorganizing of urban space
through rational planning. Reasons were an undesirable mixing of land uses almost
everywhere, residential with shopping and industry; whole sale with retail; business with
service industry. Delhi Development Authority was set up in 1957 to prepare a master
plan for the city. A master plan was brought into public which encouraged segregated
land use and development of six ring towns around the city to check the migration and
reduce population growth in the city. According to one view in India emphasize is given
to physical plan without including goals, objectives, and policies. In the United States,
emphasize is given to policy plan which includes goals, objectives and policies and deals

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with physical plan on the basis of the policy plan. Actually, physical plan should be
supported by policy plan (Das op. cit.: 74-75).

New Developments
With more or less inadequacy and incapability of conventional urban planning
due to avoidance of cultural, social, economic, political, institutional and environmental
factors, several other approaches and strategies are developed. New urban discourses
have been put forth by different scholars and new theories proposed by others. There is a
growing enchantment with the outcomes of urban planning. Partly this is due to the trend
of an increasingly politicized population challenging government and partly because it is
clear that planning has lost its way (Allmendinger 2001: 1). The society has been shifting
to new times and plurality of decisions making should be adopted instead of imposing
one particular view and justify it over others. The utopian thinking and ideas were
infused with and colonized by modernist notions of technical and scientific rationality.
Thus visionary thinking was pushed down for the possible alternatives in conventional
planning.
Some of the new approaches are communicative or collaborative planning
(Herbarmas, 1984) which is thought to be interactive, diverse in character, participatory
and inclusive in nature. Hall (2002) adds that planning should be exploratory and
instructive instead of claming unique expertise. Sustainable urban planning aims at the
inclusion of social, economic and environmental aspects for the better future of the cities.
Eco-city planning has emerged to cope with complex urban problems at local or regional
level. New urbanism (a design based approach) and just city approaches have been being
applied for planned and equitable urban development, distribution of resources and
management.

Uttar Pradesh: Urban Management & Planning

Uttar Pradesh is the most populous state in the country which accounts for 16.4
percent of the country’s population. Agra city is one of important urban centres of state.
Postcolonial Uttar Pradesh is the second largest economy in India after Maharashtra,
contributing 8.17% to country’s total GDP. Level of urbanization in Uttar Pradesh was
20.78, which lower than the Indian national average 27.78% in 2001. At present 22.28%
population of the State lives in urban areas as per census 2011. State has about 628 urban
local bodies ULBs). Out these, twelve are the Municipal Corporations, 193 Nagar Palika
Parishads and 423 Nagar Panchayats. Task of improving urban services lies with ULBs
and at the same time they face severe challenges. As per census, 2001, the most populous
cities in the state were Kanpur (2.7m), Lucknow (2.3m), Ghaziabad (1.8m), Agra (1.5m)
and Meerut (1.4). Urban centres are growing rapidly and expanding out loosely defined
as the peri-urban areas. Over the last three decades, highest decadal growth is recorded in
Lucknow and Agra of KAVAL cities.
Since beginning major towns are paid more attention in terms of urban
management and planning rather than other small and medium towns of the state. Pre-
independence urban management and development was directed several rules, Acts and
ordinances- Mussoorie and Nainital towns (now in Uttarakhand). Later, Act VI of 1868;
Lucknow Municipal Act 1864; U.P. Water Works Act, 1899; U.P. Sewerage and
Drainage Act, 1894 and U.P. Municipalities Act 1900. The United Provinces Town Area

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Act, 1914 can be seen as a beginning for town planning and comprehensive city
development. Uttar Pradesh Urban Planning and Development Act, 1973 enacted by the
Legislative Council (1978) aimed at controlling haphazard urban growth and setting a
direction for future growth. This Act extends to the whole of Uttar Pradesh excluding
Cantonment areas and lands owned, requisitioned or taken on lease by the Central
Government for the purpose of defence (UP Urban Planning Act 1973). To ensure
planned development and expansion of major towns based on proper planning, various
planning and housing agencies have been constituted under the provisions of above
mentioned Acts. Now, urban and town planning and preparation of Master Plans is
carried out by the State Town and Country Planning Department along with the
Development Authorities. However, there is lack of coordination between planning units
of the Development Authorities and the Municipal Corporations. This gap in coordination
and planning mechanism needs to be bridged in order to have a sound process of city
development and urban affairs management.

Modernizing Agra: Spatial Rearrangement

Agra was founded after the Mughal Victory to serve as a permanent headquarters
of the Mughal Suba. Agra gained momentum and soon developed into one of the
important cities of the Hindustan along the river Yamuna. Its ecology and environment
was very well preserved by the rulers. Different kinds of improvement works were
carried out during different regimes of Mughal Empire. The imprints of Mughal Era are
still prominent and remain long lasting in and around Agra Landscape. At dawn of
nineteenth century, after Lord Lake’s victory, Agra was under the domain of British rule.
Present Agra is district headquarters city and this urban agglomeration consists of the
Municipal Corporation, the Cantonment Board in the south, Swamibagh and Dayalbagh
Towns areas in the north. City of Agra, as we see it today, is a conglomeration of
numerous localities that came into existence at different times due to the (natural) process
of expansion (Mahendra 1971: 42). Population of the city as per Census 2001 was 1.21
million inhabiting an area of 141.0 sqkm and 1.5 million by 2011. Trends in city
population, Town Panchayats and Cantonment areas over past decades are provided in
the below given Table 1. City’s decadal growth rate shows a declining trend including in
its town Panchayats. There is population growth in the cantonment area. About 25%
population of Agra city is directly or indirectly earning their livelihood through shoe-
making industry. Agra is now the most populous and fastest growing city of Uttar
Pradesh. It has a population of 1.6 million (Census 2011) of which more than 50% are
estimated to live in low-income settlements where water is in short supply, electricity is
sporadic and livelihoods are haphazard. Agra Municipal Corporation is subdivided into
ninety electoral wards. With this city has experienced many spatial changes in its urban
space. Since the Medieval to the British and then post-independence period, city
remained as the melting pot of diverse social and cultural milieu. If city is viewed from
the ‘morphological’ angle, the bazaar or the central business district is located in the old
part around the fort accommodates different types of central functions. Living conditions
in inner city are highly apprehensive as a result of increasing concentration of population
and economic activities (Bedi 2000). Being established during the medieval period, the
city still retains narrow roads and streets that cause congestion in different mohallas.

5
Spatial organization of the city includes old areas built during the Mughals a new urban
zone produced by the colonizers occupied, and the construction and growth of the new
city with influx of population. Each of these spaces have their own distinct everyday life,
social character and functional organization. Shelter and housing was considered as one
of the acute problems in the city.

Table 1 Trends in Population and Growth, Agra Metropolitan City

Unit Component Population and Decadal Growth Rate

1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011
Agra
Municipal Population 333,530 462,020 591,917 694,191 948,063 1,275,134 1,576,138
Corporation Growth (%) 29.59 38.52 28.11 17.27 36.57 34.49 23.61
Density - 7476 9563 5563 6936 9043 11178
Area (sqk) - 61.8 61.8 141 141 141 141

Dayalbagh Population - 4,110 4,301 4,070 4,871 3,326 2,830

Growth (%) - - 4.65 -5.37 19.68 -31.72 -14.91

Swamibagh Population - 1,210 1,330 1,433 1,647 1,911 2,039

Growth (%) - - 9.82 7.74 14.93 16.03 6.69

Cantonment Population 42,135 41,340 37,074 47,624 49,755 50,968 53,053

Growth (%) 57.33 -1.89 -10.32 28.46 4.4 2.44 4.09

Source: Census of India 2001, 2011, UP Census Division 2011

To combat these urban problems, state constituted Agra Development Authority

in 1974. It functions under Uttar Pradesh Urban Planning & Development Act, 1973. The
first Master Plan (for 2001) for the city was prepared by the department of Town and
Country Planning and Agra Municipality and approved by the Government in July, 1975.
Afterwards the focus of the authority remained to shape growth of city. Plan envisaged
the existing and present structures to be improved and future development will not affect
them. With the realization that the centre of the city is congested and crowded city was
directed to grow out in the north, north-western and south-east direction. The river
Yamuna on the eastern side imposed geographical constraint.

First master plan had seven categories of land use: residential, commercial,
community facilities, governmental use, industries, open place and transport. Master Plan
was influenced by the “dynapolis theory” which states a city is to grow out in the
parabolic manner along the main transport corridors. Based on morphology and future
urban growth, whole city was divided into two zones. Zone I (red patch) included parts of
the old city, the built up area during Mughals Era and the Colonial periods. The “central
functions” of the city were classified such as industries, commercial, community
facilities, government offices etc. The existing polluting industries (i.e. foundries and
petha manufacturing units) were allocated space in the Zone II (blue patch). Shifting their
locations was planned on the fringe areas: the Trans-Yamuna river areas on the west of
Agra-Aligarh road; south of Agra-Kanpur road; and along the Agra-Mathura road. New

6
residential developments were planned in the north, western, southern fringe areas and
off to Trans-Yamuna area. In addition, land use zonal regulations with the development
controls were put into practice and authorities were to enforce them effectively. Zone II
aimed at segregation of land use, land development and controlled future growth (Master
Plan 2001). This zone was further sub-divided into two sub zones: zone II (a) covering
only urban or urbanizable area, and II (b) the areas consisting of rural areas or village
avadis surrounded by a green belts. In sub-Zone II (a) major urban functions proposed
were: mixed functions; sectoral functions consisting of Residential areas and central
functions of lower order; and central functions of higher and lower order. Figure 1 shows
land use pattern as presented in the first Master Plan of the city.

Figure 1 Agra City Master Plan, 1971-2001

Source: City Master Plan, 1971-2001

This was the first attempt to direct city growth. By 1971, the population of Agra
Urban Agglomeration was 6.34 lakh and on the basis of past growth trends population for
2001 was estimated to be 12 lakh. Table 2 shows, for the future urban growth of the city a
total 8360 hact. land was estimated to be used for different requirements. The lion’s share
was given to the residential land use followed by community facilities, transport,
industrial and open spaces. Agra Development Authority was the responsible body to
prepare plan for the residential areas, acquisition and distribution of land. U.P. Urban
Planning and Development Act, 1973 made it clear that development authority has to
provide basic infrastructure on the land well before its public ownership.

For Cantonment area, a cantonment board was set up for providing basic
amenities, facilities and infrastructure and planned urban growth and maintenance of built
environment. If one compare with the existing land use ratio in 2001, as shown in Table

7
3, it reveals the limited role of land use policy in planned growth of the city. The
residential proposed land use for 2001, had crossed more than sixty percent. It shows that
city grew rapidly with the natural growth of city population in-migration. Commercial,
community facility, transport and industrial land ratio could not meet the proposed
estimations of planning. Official purpose land use crossed its estimated share. Concept of
open space could not take place in congested zones of the city as per the planning policy.

Table 2 Agra City Proposed Land Use for 1971-2001 (Area in Hectares)

Zone 1 Zone 2
Sl (Existing ) percentage Proposed Land Use percentage
No. Land use
1 Residential 1148 41.66 3254 39.0
2 Industrial 229.6 10.18 1040 12.4
3 Central Functions 344.4 12.49 300 3.5
4 Transport 172.4 6.25 1254 15.00
5 Parks 373.1 13.54 1000 12.01
6 Community Facilities - - 1252 15.01
7 Government Office 172.4 6.25 60 0.7
8 Commerce 114.6 4.15 - -
9 Vacant Land 200.9 7.29 - -
10 Other - - 200 2.4
11 Developed Area 2755.4 8360
Source: Master Plan 1971-2001, Agra Development Authority

Transport facility couldn’t take place with increasing population and growing
mobility in the city. Population of city has been growing steadily. With estimated urban
population by 2001, plan figured out about 12.2 million houses were needed in Agra city
in future. Due to loopholes in public policy and institutional hindrances, housing supply
was affected that led to growth in slums and poor houses. The current urban form shows
that city has grown more in the north and around the core of the city, southward and in
Trans-Yamuna areas by easy accessibility through flyovers and bridges over Yamuna
River. The second Master Plan is a long perspective plan for 20 years starting from 2001
to 2021. Instead of the two zones demarcated in the first plan, the second plan divides
Agra Metropolitan Area into seven development zones. Land use break up for these
zones is shown in the Table 3. Planners have projected that by 2021 population of Agra
city would reach 2.2 million mark. By 2021, housing requirements would reach to
256,488 units. Plan now focuses on development and reutilization of “vacant land” or
“unused land use” of densely populated areas in effective manner for social purposes i.e.
parks and community facilities. Figure 2 shows the land use break for 2001-2021. This
perspective plan is in line with shifting priorities of urban governments from providers of
social goods and urban amenities to promoters of urban economic growth and
investment. This is phase of (neoliberal) development where public sector is allowing
non-state actors in urban development and providing services to growing urban
population. Even the international development cooperation and funding institutions like
the UNESCO and the USAID do influence local development. However, intra-city or
ward level inequalities in Agra are rampant and wide spread. Present land use plan takes

8
recognizes the importance of growing heritage-tourism in Agra. For the better transport
facility, one outer ring has been proposed to reduce the traffic congestion and providing
good circulation of traffic. This planning shows a trend of spatial expansion with the
centrifugal pattern of functions and activities. Fact is that the world heritage icon the Taj
too shapes the contours of town planning and infrastructure development in Agra.
Preserving the past heritage is not a bad idea but, colonial elite consumption of the Taj
monument and its legacy as a ‘destination’ of lovers along with its own mythical love
story sets it apart from various other heritage sites and monuments located in India.

Table 3 Existing Land Use and Proposed Land Use for Agra Metropolitan City

Existing Land Use 2001 (in hect.) Proposed Land Use for 2001-2021 (in hect.)
Land Use Land Area % Land Use Land Area %
Residential 4886.34 61.84 Residential 9923.8 49.53
Commercial 148.74 1.88 Commercial 544.17 2.72
Wholes. Commercial 58.88 0.75 Industrial 1606.31 8.01
Industrial 542.72 6.87 Office 508.4 2.54
Community Facility 842.62 10.66 Tourism 178.18 0.89
Office 177.93 2.25 Community Facility 1763.4 8.8
Traffic & Transport 858.65 10.87 Transport 2161.6 10.79
Burial Ground 31.25 0.4 Recreation Space 875.4 4.37
Park Place 105.22 1.33 Other uses 2475.72 12.35
Historical Monument 116.48 1.47 Total 20036.97 100
Other Uses 131.56 1.66
Total 7901 100

Source: Agra Master Plan, 2001-2021, Agra Development Authority

Figure 2 Land use Breakup, Master Plan 2001-2021

Landuse Breakup 2001-21

8% 3% 1% 9%
3%
11%

4%

2%
10%
49%

Residential Commercial Industrial Office

Tourism Public & Semi Public Transport Recreat. Open Space

Other Space Other Space

Source: Master Plan 2001-2021, Agra Development Authority

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 Table 5 shows zonal distribution of land use in Agra according to Master Plan
2001-21. Further, the medium density (300 persons per hectare) residential areas will
come up in zone II and III. Low density residential areas are proposed to come up in zone
III, V, VI and VII. New commercial activities are planned in outer zones than in the
central parts of the city. Pollution free industries are directed to come up in zone V and
VI. Here, the information technology, service and communication industries too are
allocated land use. New community facilities to be created in zone III and V.
Conservation of natural forest cover around The Taj, up to 500 meter in circle is priority
for maintaining healthy environment in zone VI. As per zonal planning, residential,
commercial, industrial and recreational spaces will be developed in almost equal
proportion in Zone VI (see Figure 2). This zone also depicts that heritage-tourism is
causing huge spatial changes in area in connection to growing tourism at the Taj. At the
same, the interior areas of Tajganj where urban poor live are “ghettoized”.

Table 5 Zone Wise Land Use Break-Up 2001-2021

Land To Be Developed in Each Zone by 2021 (in %)
Land Use Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone Total Land (in
I II III IV V VI VII Hect.)
Residential 6.5 19.2 34.8 0.05 12.0 14.9 12.3 9923.8
Commercial 16.7 23.8 27.3 - 9.5 13.6 8.0 544.5
Industrial 10.5 14.8 22.3 4.5 19.5 15.0 13.0 2161.6
Recreational 0.02 37.8 17.3 - 10.7 14.6 18.9 875.4
Greenbelt - - 16.3 5.9 38.0 6.6 32.5 421.5
Other Uses 0.9 4.1 16.3 45.1 7.9 6.6 16.4 2054.1
Source: After Agra Master Plan 2001-2021

Figure 2 Map Showing the Planning Region of Agra

Source: Agra Master Plan, 2001-2021

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 The share of community facility, open or park space has been decreasing in land
use ratio over the years. The salient features and objectives of the present Master Plan
are: controlling and directing the current unplanned growth by planning measures;
holistic adjustment of different areas of the city; provisions for residential and community
facilities to the various income groups; a compatible relationship between social,
economic structure, and industrial and commercial areas; guiding the private, public,
semi-public institutions for implementation of the projects; and provision for roads and
highways for the current and the future areas to be developed. Existing urban institutions
are being restructured and new actors are coming forward and involved in urban planning
and management of urban areas. Rowan Ellis suggests, in the context of neoliberal
effects, “older structures of urban regulation and management have been replaced by a
regime of governance wherein multiple and various state, non-state and quasi-state actors
become involved in urban governance” (2011: 1). New central urban programme is an
extension of what Ellis has suggested. Apart from land use planning, the Jawaharlal
Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission enlists Agra as of the beneficiary cities. This
reform-led urban policy had justified a necessity of local reforms already suggested by
the Japanese Bank for International Cooperation. Share of fund allocations under
JNNURM- City Development Plan to various sectors are as follows: roads and
transportation (63.1%), water supply (11.5%), sewerage (9.7%), urban poverty and slum
(6.1%), environment (3.2%), urban renewal in inner city (2.3%), industry (0.1%), urban
renewal in inner city (2.3%), solid waste management (1.1%) and heritage and tourism
(0.7%). A huge share of the total cost is channeled to the roads and transportation, and
infrastructure facilities in the city. Recently, a mega project the Yamuna Express Way is
completed between Agra and Delhi which offers huge investment climates for developers
all along the highway. These developments draw our attention to the fact that city is on
the move for having ‘world class’ facilities. On the other side, the older parts of the city
are not on high priority even though social and environmental conditions have worsened
over the years there. Case of Agra is similar to other urban centres of state of Uttar
Pradesh and of the country. Specificity is that being home of the Taj, city has been
showing significant urban transformations and spatial changes in and around Agra in
post-liberalised period. Urban planning is playing an important role in this direction, but
at same time, market forces are causing unavoidable changes in urban economy and
consequently in built environment.

Heritage Planning and Tourism in Globalization

Cities dominate global economic activity, even more than their population would
suggest, because of powerful economies of scale. City planning has given more
importance to physical environment. Urban management of civic amenities and their
public reach is inadequate. It not is an odd thing to see because most of such policies are
meant for the land use development for the concerned urban centre. With the increase of
urban population, the morphology of the city has been transforming. In addition, the
‘heritage’ of Agra such historic the Taj Mahal and its global popularity is playing an
important role in shaping priorities of urban development and distribution of resources
and civic amenities. There are more than two hundred historical buildings or monuments
in and around Agra Metropolitan Region. On its part, the Archaeological Survey of India

11
(ASI) retains authority of listing monuments and now about fifty plus monuments in
Agra falls under the purview of the Monuments Protection Act. These are places of
attraction for both domestic and foreign tourists. Taj Mahal, Agra Fort, Fatehpur Sikri,
Itima-ud-Daula, Akbar’s Tomb, Mariam’s Tomb, Ram Bagh and Mehtab Bagh are
Centrally Protected Monuments (CPMs) and heritage sites. Agra circle has three the
World Heritage Sites: The Taj Mahal, Agra Red Fort and Fatehpur Sikri. Compared to
other sites, Agra is famous and well known across the world for the Taj Mahal with
millions of tourists annually visiting this magnificent marble monument, as shown in
Figure 3. As a result, functional character of Tajganj space has changed to adapt to the
needs of tourism and tourist facilities. Parts of existing residential areas are converted
into budget hotels, cafes and emporiums all along the main road and land values got
enhanced. Regulation of tourism in Tajganj and consistent efforts to maintain a classic
image of the area has affected locals most- hawkers, vendors, thelewalas- whose
subsistence incomes were associated with arrival of tourists. Thus long term urban plan
remains an important instrument for guiding and regulating development of towns and
cities over a period of time, and contributes to planned development both conceptually
and operationally (Meshram 2006: 7). Land use and its management becomes the
essential thing for the planners. Restructuring of urban space leads changes in structure of
economy and city. Capital accumulation and change in built environment are more
concerned with new economic reforms. Doing so, planners, architects of city design, and
those they led along with them in their beliefs are not consciously disdainful of the
importance of knowing how things work (Jacobs 2003: 64). Instead, they mostly focus on
how cities ‘ought’ to work and what ‘ought’ to be good for people. Fainstein (1991) adds
the connection between the economic structure and planning legitimacy is now
straightforwardly claimed, and the tactics developed to stimulate economic growth are
frankly enumerated (Perry 2003: 149). Table 6 shows tourists at Agra and their flow to
the particular monuments and the historic Taj Mahal attracts more than half of them.

Figure 3 The World Heritage Site- The Taj Mahal

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 Table 6 Tourists Arrival to Agra Built-Heritage

SN Monuments 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Agra Circle Domestic Foreign Domestic Foreign Domestic Foreign Domestic Foreign Domestic Foreign
2624085 586105 2635283 591560 2585560 491554 4087968 621183 4646203 668903
1 Taj Mahal (58.4) (47.7) (56.8) (47.3) (54.9) (47.3) (63.7) (46.6) (62.8) (49.6)
1177133 357570 1289810 385697 1398890 314116 1417641 381479 1605432 306097
2 Agra Fort (26.1) (29.1) (27.8) (30.8) (29.7) (30.2) (22.1) (28.6) (21.7) (22.7)
262083 198589 292483 191242 294316 159672 315420 210450 422450 229091
3 Fatehpur Sikri (5.8) (16.2) (6.3) (15.3) (6.3) (15.3) (4.9) (15.8) (5.7) (17.0)
304938 42455 293504 40801 300213 35761 409368 52600 443553 57852
4 Akbar's Tomb (6.8) (3.5) (6.3) (3.3) (6.4) (3.4) (6.4) (3.9) (6.0) (4.3)
Mariam's 9435 38 12188 103 9937 117 18056 236 23880 234
5 Tomb (0.2) (0.0) (0.3) (0.0) (0.2) (0.0) (0.3) (0.0) (0.3) (0.0)
62811 39739 64647 39871 63974 33677 79208 55920 117401 62625
6 Itima-ud-Daula (1.4) (3.2) (1.4) (3.2) (1.4) (3.2) (1.2) (4.2) (1.6) (4.6)
34756 284 32209 197 27461 162 31689 322 41820 307
7 Ram Bagh (0.8) (0.0) (0.7) (0.0) (0.6) (0.0) (0.5) (0.0) (0.6) (0.0)
17792 4357 20552 1544 26902 5250 59075 10890 98291 22214
8 Mehtab Bagh (0.4) (0.4) (0.4) (0.1) (0.6) (0.5) (0.9) (0.8) (1.3) (1.6)

Total 4494033 1229137 4640676 1251015 4707253 1040309 6418425 1333080 7399030 1347323
Source: India Tourism Statistics 2009, 2010, 2011 The Ministry of Tourism, Government of India, India
Note: Figures in parenthesis are in percentage (%)
Group I The World Heritage Sites -Taj Mahal, Red Fort, and Fatehpur Sikri
Group II Centrally Protected Monuments: Akbar’s Tomb, Mariam’s Tomb, Itima-ud-Daula, Ram Bagh and Mehtab Bagh
Group I 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Domestic 90.4% 90.9% 90.9% 90.7% 90.2%
Foreign 92.9% 93.4% 92.8% 91.9% 89.4%
Group II
Domestic 9.6% 9.2% 9.1% 9.3% 9.8%

Foreign 7.1% 6.6% 7.2% 8.9% 10.6%

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 Further, rationales and techniques often tend to decide what is good or better for
people living in a particular area. To do so, the state comes forward while taking it as a
responsibility to provide for in the public interest. The ‘collective consumption’ of built
environment (roads, sewerage networks, parks, railroads etc.) is regulated by the state.
Then, in their creation and provision, they are often politicized and conflict occurs. The
government intervention in ordering urban built environment- urban planning- can be
seen as a response to the social character of land, to the fact that land is not only a
commodity but also a collective good, a social resource as well as a private right
(Foglesong 2003: 104). Agra city land use planning is centralized one, where state is
determining the land use and growth pattern of the cities by institutional apparatus. The
para-statal body such Agra Development Authority (ADA) is accountable only to state
government and higher level agencies in the centre. One of the failures of the plan
implementation is that whatever has been proposed in the urban plans has not been
achieved. The ADA Master Plans are basically land use plans marking space for
commercial, industrial, and residential purpose and deciding upon the density per acre in
the residential areas. The ADA has been undertaking large scale acquisition of urban land
in order to control future development of Agra and make its own task of development
economically. In such a process, the ADA has paid more attention on the acquisition,
development and disposal of land. New colonies have been established as per the
requirement of differentiated urban society. In name of formal utilization of urban land,
authority had focused less attention on the needs and requirements of urban poor and
socio-economically disadvantaged groups. Over the past decades, a number of effective
measures have been taken by public authorities to reduce the threat to the monument,
among them are closing of some foundries and the installation of pollution-control
equipment at others, the creation of a parkland buffer zone around the complex, and the
banning of nearby vehicular traffic.

Going ‘Global’ Aspirations vs. Local Challenges

At first, city is preparing to have global-standard quality facilities such

international convention centre, mono-and-metro rail project within the city, high-quality
service hotels with western outlook and design. Agra Development Authority has drafted
a plan for establishing a global tourist centre in the vicinity of the Taj Mahal Complex.
This centre will provide following facilities and unique experience to the tourists: water
sports, amusement parks, international sports stadium, golf courses, nature cure activities,
multi-specialty hospital for medical tourism, natural and man made wild life areas, self-
sufficient internal and intra-city transport system, and new township and residential areas
with green surroundings. Urban local bodies face many challenges in developing and
managing the city. These challenges are in areas of qualitative water supply, sewage
(only 17 percent of the total areas of the city is covered) and drainage development and
improvement, solid waste (average waste generation is 492 grams per capita per day)
management and disposal of garbage (at current no regulated facility for garbage
collection) with the increasing population pressure. City had 10 percent slum population
as per the census 2001. Whereas, the District Urban Development Authority puts forth
that about 44 percent of total population live in slums. These are located at very spatially
and environmentally vulnerable areas of the city. About 40 percent of the slum

14
population doses not have access to sanitation facility. Most of the pollution elements
(air, water, noise etc) have crossed the standard limits fixed by the concerned expert
bodies. Thus environmental pollutions have been affecting the city life and urban poor in
particular. Water quality is low and only source is Yamuna River and other open water
bodies either dried up or being encroached for housing and real state purposes. Some of
the water bodies are filled up with solid waste and domestic dirt. Necessity is to increase
the drinking water treatment capacity to cope with growing number of population.
Conditions of marginalized groups such as poor Dalits and Muslims and women are
miserable in interiors locations and live in unhygienic environs which affect their health,
life chances and socio-economic status. In Agra, in 2001, government records reported
252 slums constituting about 44% of city population. As per the City Development Plan
estimations, 1.2 million people i.e. 9% of the total population live in slums and slum like
conditions. As per the recent survey undertaken by Regional Centre for Urban and
Environmental Studies in collaboration with Centre for Urban and Regional Excellence,
city has 417 slums settlements up from 378 in 2007 and 252 in 2001. For example, in
trans-Yamuna area in absence of Municipal piped water connection and supply, the
primary source of drinking water in most of these localities of Agra is water supplied by
private tankers- known as tanker economy. In marginalized locations of the city like
Nagla Chhidda, Rajnagar, Nagla Harmukh and interior Tajganj, women suffer more than
men. The fact is, women are invariably disadvantageous compared with men cities in
terms of equal access to employment, housing, health and education, asset ownership,
experience of urban violence and ability to exercise their rights.

On the other side, declining share of open and recreational land and concretization
of urban space, leads changes in micro climate of the city. Over the decades open spaces,
community facility, parks priority has been undermined in the planning. More focus paid
to housing which is also not even in the city. With the involvement of private sector, the
development authority is promoting corporate housing with advance facilities meant for
middle-class centred requirement. Agra needs to go ‘sustainable’. A sustainable place is
one in which employment, mixed housing and social facilities are co-present and
available to a range of socio-economic groups (Raco 2007: 306). For a sustainable urban
future, development parameters of Agra city are not very encouraging. Therefore, as
suggest Nadarajah and Yamamoto, the merging urban crisis challenges environment-
based and economic-based approaches to sustainability, and seeks to bring to the
forefront the multi-faceted and critical role that culture and (locale) plays in ensuring that
cities are viable for future generations.

Concluding Remarks

Agra city planning has been determined by and operated in the sphere of modern,
rational, and comprehensive planning model. More emphasize has been to designing
urban land use controlled by zoning rules. Though physical plans play an important role
in structuring economic organization, urban land is reduced to an element which can be
used for according to set use. Changing the physical surroundings changes aesthetic and
moral environment prevails in planning ideology. If urban “plans” are taken as texts then
one finds the distribution, allocation and location of different land uses reveal an inherent

15
order of space creation. Space making is determined by the type of technocentric
approach and values planners practice. This sort of planning process includes setting
common objectives in the pursuit of urban development and shaping intra-city urban
growth. However, land use based planning rarely coincides with social urban planning
which need to focuses on effective delivery of civic amenities and basic services to the
different socio-economic groups like those who inhabit slums. Since Agra has the world
heritage site and other monuments of national importance, local development is put
against global aspirations of town planners and policy makers. Planning has to adopt an
inclusive mechanism to a collective public or citizens involvement and support for
making Agra a sustainable urban habitat. Though urban system in the state and country is
decentralized yet Agra faces crucial challenges: inequalities in basic services, inadequate
infrastructure, inequalities, incapacity of local institutions, lack of public participation
and presence of marginal spaces. Another, urban growth shows clear decline over the last
decades which is not a good sign for Agra and its region. Urban planning in Agra appears
to have capitalized on one historical built monument- the Taj- but in the process ignored
the other crucial elements of urban development. Apparently, ‘going global’ has
appropriated the local (Taj Mahal), but locals seems to have been left out in this process.

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