3.

Ocean Acidification Sending Us Back 35

Million Years
Ocean acidification is no small issue. The basic science behind acidification is that the
ocean absorbs CO2 through natural processes, but at the rate at which we're pumping it
into the atmosphere through burning fossil fuels, the ocean's pH balance is dropping to
the point where life within the ocean is having trouble coping.
"Ocean acidification is more rapid than ever in the history of the earth and if you look at
the pCO2 (partial pressure of carbon dioxide) levels we have reached now, you have to
go back 35 million years in time to find the equivalents" said Jelle Bijma, chair of the
EuroCLIMATE programme Scientific Committee and a biogeochemist at the Alfred-
Wegener-Institute Bremerhaven.
Freaky, right? At some point in time, there is a tipping point where the oceans become
to acidic to support life that can't quickly adjust. In other words, many species are going
to be wiped out, from shellfish to corals and the fish that depend on them.
What is Ocean Acidification?

A pH unit is a measure of acidity ranging from 0-14. The lower the value, the higher the
acidity of the environment. A shift in pH to a lower value reflects an increase in acidity.

Pteropod Limacina Helicina. Courtesy of Russ Hopcroft, UAF.

The Chemistry

When carbon dioxide (CO2) is absorbed by seawater, chemical reactions occur that reduce seawater pH,
carbonate ion concentration, and saturation states of biologically important calcium carbonate minerals.
These chemical reactions are termed "ocean acidification" or "OA" for short. Calcium carbonate minerals
are the building blocks for the skeletons and shells of many marine organisms. In areas where most life
now congregates in the ocean, the seawater is supersaturated with respect to calcium carbonate
minerals. This means there are abundant building blocks for calcifying organisms to build their skeletons
and shells. However, continued ocean acidification is causing many parts of the ocean to become
undersaturated with these minerals, which is likely to affect the ability of some organisms to produce and
maintain their shells.
Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the pH of surface ocean waters has fallen by 0.1 pH
units. Since the pH scale, like the Richter scale, is logarithmic, this change represents approximately a
30 percent increase in acidity (see our pH primer web page for more information). Future
predictions indicate that the oceans will continue to absorb carbon dioxide, further increasing ocean
acidity. Estimates of future carbon dioxide levels, based on business as usual emission scenarios,
indicate that by the end of this century the surface waters of the ocean could have acidity levels nearly
150 percent higher, resulting in a pH that the oceans haven’t experienced for more than 20 million years.
The Biological Impacts

Ocean acidification is expected to impact ocean species to varying degrees. Photosynthetic algae and
seagrasses may benefit from higher CO2 conditions in the ocean, as they require CO2 to live just like
plants on land. On the other hand, studies have shown that lower environmental calcium carbonate
saturation states can have a dramatic effect on some calcifying species, including oysters, clams, sea
urchins, shallow water corals, deep sea corals, and calcareous plankton. Today, more than a billion
people worldwide rely on food from the ocean as their primary source of protein. Thus, both jobs and food
security in the U.S. and around the world depend on the fish and shellfish in our oceans.
Pteropods
The pteropod, or “sea butterfly”, is a tiny sea creature about the size of a small pea. Pteropods are eaten
by organisms ranging in size from tiny krill to whales and are a food source for North Pacific juvenile
salmon. The photos below show that a pteropod’s shell dissolves over 45 day when placed in sea water
with pH and carbonate levels projected for the year 2100. Photo credit: David Liittschwager/National
Geographic Stock. Used with permission. All rights reserved.  National Geographic Images.

Shellfish

In recent years, there have been near total failures of developing oysters in both aquaculture facilities and
natural ecosystems on the West Coast. These larval oyster failures appear to be correlated with naturally
occurring upwelling events that bring low pH waters undersaturated in aragonite as well as other water
quality changes to nearshore environments. Lower pH values occur naturally on the West Coast during
upwelling events, but a recent observations indicate that anthropogenic CO 2 is contributing to seasonal
undersaturation. Low pH may be a factor in the current oyster reproductive failure; however, more
research is needed to disentangle potential acidification effects from other risk factors, such as episodic
freshwater inflow, pathogen increases, or low dissolved oxygen. It is premature to conclude that
acidification is responsible for the recent oyster failures, but acidification is a potential factor in the current
crisis to this $100 million a year industry, prompting new collaborations and accelerated research on
ocean acidification and potential biological impacts.

Coral
Many marine organisms that produce calcium carbonate shells or skeletons are negatively impacted by
increasing CO2levels and decreasing pH in seawater. For example, increasing ocean acidification has
been shown to significantly reduce the ability of reef-building corals to produce their skeletons. In
a recent paper, coral biologists reported that ocean acidification could compromise the successful
fertilization, larval settlement and survivorship of Elkhorn coral, an endangered species. These research
results suggest that ocean acidification could severely impact the ability of coral reefs to recover from
disturbance. Other research indicates that, by the end of this century, coral reefs may erode faster than
they can be rebuilt. This could compromise the long-term viability of these ecosystems and perhaps
impact the estimated one million species that depend on coral reef habitat.  For more information on the
impact of ocean acidification on coral, see NOAA's Coral Reef Watch website.
Ocean Acidification: An Emerging Global Problem

Ocean acidification is an emerging global problem. Over the last decade, there has been much focus in
the ocean science community on studying the potential impacts of ocean acidification. Since sustained
efforts to monitor ocean acidification worldwide are only beginning, it is currently impossible to predict
exactly how ocean acidification impacts will cascade throughout the marine food chain and affect the
overall structure of marine ecosystems. With the pace of ocean acidification accelerating, scientists,
resource managers, and policymakers recognize the urgent need to strengthen the science as a basis for
sound decision making and action.
Ocean acidification and its effects
Oceans absorb a substantial proportion of the
CO  emitted into the atmosphere by human activities,
2

with potentially negative effects on shell-forming

organisms

Oceans absorb a substantial proportion of the CO2 emitted into the

atmosphere by human activities, with potentially negative effects on
shell-forming organisms.

 Increasing CO2 in the atmosphere due to human activities not

only affects the climate; it also has direct, chemical effects on
ocean waters.
 The oceans have absorbed between a third and a half of the
CO2 humans have released into the atmosphere since about
1850. This has slowed the rate of climate change.
 When CO2 dissolves in seawater, the water becomes more
acidic. The acidity of the oceans has increased by 26 % since
about 1850, a rate of change roughly 10 times faster than any
time in the last 55 million years.
 Associated chemical reactions can make it difficult for marine
calcifying organisms, such as coral and some plankton, to form
shells and skeletons, and existing shells become vulnerable to
dissolution.
 The extent to which calcifying organisms are already being
affected by acidification is unclear, as this is a very new area of
study. Limited evidence suggests that some organisms are
more sensitive than others.
 The rate at which acidification occurs is a determining factor in
the extent to which calcifying organisms will be able to adapt.
 The impacts of acidification will extend up the food chain to
affect economic activities such as fisheries, aquaculture and
tourism. Wherever there are marine calcifying organisms, there
are risks from ocean acidification.
What is ocean acidification?
Human activities release CO  into the atmosphere, which leads to
2

atmospheric warming and climate change, as explained in Causes of

climate change. Around a third to a half of the CO released by human
2

activities is absorbed into the oceans. While this helps to reduce the rate
of atmospheric warming and climate change, it also has a direct, chemical
effect on seawater, which we call ocean acidification  (Figure 1).
T2I3_Figure-1.gif

Figure 1: Some of the carbon dioxide emitted to the atmosphere by human activities is
absorbed by the oceans. When carbon dioxide combines with water in the ocean it forms
carbonic acid, which makes the ocean more acidic and may reduce the ability of calcifying
organisms to form their shells and skeletons. Source: Adapted from J. Cook,
skepticalscience.com.
Box 1: What is pH?

Ocean acidification is often expressed in terms of the pH of seawater.  pH is a

measure of acidity or alkalinity. A pH below 7 is considered acidic, and a pH greater

than 7 is considered alkaline, or basic.

Average ocean water pH is currently 8.1.  The pH scale is logarithmic, so a one

point change on the scale means a tenfold change in concentration.

T2I3_Figure B1.png

Figure B1: The pH scale. Source: Feely et. al 2006.

What are the observed changes?
Since around 1850, the oceans have absorbed between a third and a half
of the CO  emitted to the atmosphere. As a result, the average pH of
2

ocean surface waters has fallen by about 0.1 units, from 8.2 to 8.1
(Figure 2). This corresponds to a 26 % increase in ocean acidity, a rate of
change roughly 10 times faster than any time in the last 55 million years.
T2I3_Figure-2.gif

Figure 2: Global mean ocean surface pH from 1850 to 2100, from climate models. The
modelled historical trend shows an overall decrease of about 0.1 pH units (black).
Projections up to 2100 are shown for high emission scenarios (RCP8.5, red) and low
emission scenarios (RCP2.6, blue). Source: Gattuso et al. 2014, Fig. OA1b.
What can we expect in the future?
The degree of future ocean acidification will be very closely linked to
future increases in atmospheric CO (Figure 3). If greenhouse gas
2 

emissions continue as they are doing at present (the RCP8.5 trajectory,

see Causes of climate change), seawater could increase its acidity by 0.4
units (see Box 1) by the end of the century.
The acidification of the oceans will not be uniform worldwide. Polar seas,
and upwelling regions, often found along the west coasts of continents,
are expected to acidify faster than temperate or tropical regions. The pH
will vary significantly depending on the ecosystem. In some parts of the
Arctic the water is acidic enough to corrode some types of shells and in
California occasional corrosive events have already occurred. Most
surface waters will be continually corrosive within decades.

Figure 3: Atmospheric CO₂ concentrations and ocean pH values. Atmospheric CO₂, shown in
blue (seasonal variations) and red (long-term smoothed trend), is measured at Mauna Loa,
Hawai’i. Ocean pH values (green and orange) are from the ocean to the north of Hawa’ii
(Station Aloha). As CO₂ accumulates in the ocean, the water becomes more acidic (the pH
declines). Source: Modified from Feely et al. 2009.
What are the effects of ocean acidification on
marine organisms and ecosystems?
Ocean acidification reduces the amount of carbonate, a key building block
in seawater. This makes it more difficult for marine organisms, such as
coral and some plankton, to form their shells and skeletons, and existing
shells may begin to dissolve. 

The present-day pH of seawater is highly variable, and a single organism

can cope with fluctuations of different pH levels during its lifetime. The
problem with ocean acidification is the sustained nature of the change, as
the risk comes from the lifetime exposure to lower pH levels. The rapid
pace of acidification will influence the extent to which calcifying
organisms will be able to adapt.

The impacts of ocean acidification are not uniform across all species.
Some algae and seagrass may benefit from higher CO concentrations in
2 

the ocean, as they may increase their photosynthetic and growth rates.
However, a more acidic environment will harm other marine species such
as molluscs, corals and some varieties of plankton (Figure 4). The shells
and skeletons of these animals may become less dense or strong. In the
case of coral reefs this may make them more vulnerable to storm
damage and slow the recovery rate.

Figure 4: A mollusc shell dissolves under acidic conditions. The shell almost completely
dissolves after 45 days when placed in seawater with pH and carbonate levels projected by
models for the year 2100. Source: © David Liittschwager/National Geographic Creative.
Marine organisms could also experience changes in growth, development,
abundance, and survival in response to ocean acidification (Figure 5).
Most species seem to be more vulnerable in their early life stages.
Juvenile fish for example, may have trouble locating suitable habitat to
live.

Despite the different responses within and between marine groups,

positive or negative, research suggests that ocean acidification will be a
driver for substantial changes in ocean ecosystems this century. These
changes may be made worse by the combined effect with other emerging
climate-related hazards, such as the decrease of ocean oxygen levels – a
condition known as ocean deoxygenation –that is already affecting
marine life in some regions (Long et al. 2016).
Figure 5: Summary of effects of ocean acidification among key taxonomic groups. The main
responses are represented in percent changes, which could be either positive (green) or
negative (red). Source: Adapted from Kroeker et al. 2013.
What are the effects on human societies?
Changes in marine ecosystems will have consequences for human
societies, which depend on the goods and services these ecosystems
provide. The implications for society could include substantial revenue
declines, loss of employment and livelihoods, and other indirect economic
costs.

Socioeconomic impacts associated with the decline of the following

ecosystem services are expected:

 Food: Ocean acidification has the potential to affect food security.

Commercially and ecologically important marine species will be impacted,

although they may respond in different ways. Molluscs such as oysters and

mussels are among the most sensitive groups. By 2100, the global annual costs

of mollusc loss from ocean acidification could be over US$100 billion for a

business-as-usual (RCP8.5) CO  emissions pathway.

2

 Coastal protection: Marine ecosystems such as coral reefs protect

shorelines from the destructive action of storm surges and cyclones, sheltering

the only habitable land for several island nations. This protective function of

reefs prevents loss of life, property damage, and erosion, and has been valued

at US$9 billion per year.

 Tourism:  This industry could be severely affected by the impacts of ocean

acidification on marine ecosystems (e.g. coral reefs).  In Australia, the Great

Barrier Reef Marine Park attracts about 1.9 million visits each year and

generates more than A$5.4 billion to the Australian economy.

 Carbon storage and climate regulation: The capacity of the ocean to

absorb CO decreases as ocean acidification increases. More acidic oceans are

2

less effective in moderating climate change.

What can coastal decision makers do?
While reducing global greenhouse gas emissions (mitigation) is the
ultimate solution to ocean acidification, undertaking some challenging
decisions and actions can help us prepare for the adverse effects of ocean
acidification. This is the adaptation approach.
At the local level, the following policy and management options can help
to minimise the adverse effects of other local stressors and, as a result,
help marine ecosystems to cope better with changing environmental
conditions.

 Improvements in water quality: Monitoring and regulating localised

sources of acidification from runoff and pollutants such as fertilisers.

 Development of sustainable fisheries management

practices: Regulating catches to reduce overfishing and creating long-term

bycatch[1]  reduction plans.

 Implementation of new technologies: Different techniques can be applied

depending on the industry. For example, in the aquaculture industry, new

forecasting systems have been developed to account for seasonal upwellings

that bring low pH seawaters to the ocean surface and cause massive shellfish

die-offs.

 Sustainable management of habitats: Increasing coastal protection,

reducing sediment loading and applying marine spatial planning.

 Establishment and maintenance of Marine Protected Areas: Protecting

highly vulnerable and endangered marine ecosystems.

[1] Bycatch: a fish or other marine species that is caught

unintentionally. Bycatch is either of a different species, the wrong sex, or is

undersized or juvenile individuals of the target species.

WHAT IS OCEAN
ACIDIFICATION?
Ocean acidification is occurring because our ocean is absorbing carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere, leading to lower pH and greater acidity. This is causing a fundamental change in the
chemistry of the ocean from pole to pole.

Since the industrial revolution, the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide has increased
from 280 to over 400 parts per million due to the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, gas, and
oil, along with land use change. Ocean acidification (OA) refers to a change in ocean chemistry
in response to the uptake of increasing carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere. The world’s
surface ocean is tightly linked with the atmosphere and absorbs huge amounts of carbon dioxide
each year. This exchange, in part, helps to regulate the planet’s atmospheric CO2 concentrations,
but comes at a cost for the oceans and life within it; from the smallest, single celled algae to the
largest whales. Were it not for ocean uptake of CO2, atmospheric CO2 levels would be increasing
at an even greater rate than they are now.

LEARN MORE ABOUT OA CHEMISTRY

 THAT'S OCEAN
ACIDIFICATION, BUT
THERE'S MORE TO IT...

COASTAL ACIDIFICATION
While ocean acidification refers to the global change in ocean chemistry from atmospheric inputs
of carbon dioxide, coastal acidification is another mechanism by which coastal chemistry can
change.

Coastal acidification includes local changes in water chemistry from freshwater river inputs and
excess nutrient run-off (e.g. nitrogen and organic carbon) from land. Excess nutrients from
runoff and fertilizers can cause increases in algal growth.  When these algal blooms die, they
consume oxygen and release carbon dioxide.   Pollution and fertilizers are another mechanism by
which carbon dioxide can increase in our coastal waters, threatening our waterways close to
home. The ability of an ecosystem to cope with acidification is influenced by the amount of local
stressors it needs to contend with, such as high nutrient input or changes in temperature or
salinity. By minimizing local stresses, some ecosystems may prove more resilient to ocean
acidification.

TAKE ACTION WITH YOUR

COMMUNITY
You've taken the first step to learn more about ocean acidification- why not spread this
knowledge to your community?
Every community has their unique culture, economy and ecology and what's at stake from ocean
acidification may be different depending on where you live.  As a community member, you can
take a larger role in educating the public about ocean acidification. Creating awareness is the first
step to taking action.  As communities gain traction, neighboring regions that share marine
resources can build larger coalitions to address ocean acidification.  Here are some ideas to get
started:
IDEAS FOR COMMUNITY-
LEVEL ACTION 
1) Partner with informal educators, such as aquarium
outreach programs and local non-profits, to teach
the public about ocean acidification.  Visit
our Education & Outreach page to find the newest
tools!
2) Participate in habitat restoration efforts to
restore habitats that help mitigate the effects of
coastal acidification
3) Facilitate conversations with local businesses
that might be affected by ocean acidification,
building a plan for the future
4) Partner with local coastal management projects
to understand how OA is affecting your region
5) Contact your regional Coastal Acidifiction
Network (CAN) for more ideas about how you can
get involved in your community

Ocean Acidification

Concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO 2) are rising rapidly in the atmosphere, due to
the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation. About 25% of the extra CO 2 added to the
atmosphere through human activities is being absorbed by the oceans.
When atmospheric CO2 dissolves in seawater, it first forms carbonic acid and triggers
a cascade of other chemical changes. The concentrations of hydrogen ions increase
and carbonate ions decline.  In fact, the concentrations of hydrogen ions have already
increased by 30% in the seawater compared with pre-industrial times 250 years ago,
increasing the level of ocean acidity. This change in the seawater chemistry is called
“Ocean Acidification”.
The surface ocean pH has declined by about 0.1 so far, and is predicted to further
decline by 0.2–0.4 by the end of this century, depending on future CO 2 emissions.
Geological records show that the present rate of change in the seawater chemistry is
10 to 100 times faster than it has been for many millions of years.
Although some scientists had recognised more than 50 years ago that rising
CO2 concentrations will affect seawater chemistry and cause ocean acidification, this
phenomenon has only recently emerged as one of the big knowledge gaps in marine
science, and has now become a global research priority.
There is still very little known about how the ongoing changes in the seawater
chemistry will affect marine ecosystems. Experimental studies suggest ocean
acidification will profoundly affect the physiology and behaviour of some marine
organisms. For example, ocean acidification makes it harder for some marine animals
to form their shells and skeletons, but it may make it easier for some marine plants to
do photosynthesis. A lower pH in the seawater may even lead to behavioural changes
in fishes and invertebrates such as a reduced ability to recognise and avoid
predators. It is unclear how natural marine ecosystems, such as coral reefs, will
respond to such profound global changes.
AIMS scientists are researching the effects of ocean acidification on coral reef
organisms and ecosystems, using four complementary approaches:

1. Field research at unique CO 2 seeps in Papua New Guinea ,

2. Studies of the carbonate chemistry in the Great Barrier Reef ,
3. Controlled CO2 enrichment experiments in SeaSim , and
4. Computer models.  

What is the 'other carbon dioxide problem'? How are humans driving changes in the
chemistry of the ocean, and what might this mean for marine ecosystems in the future?
Aa Aa Aa

The oceans take up CO2 from the atmosphere and are responsible for absorbing around a third of the CO 2 emitted by fossil
fuel burning, deforestation, and cement production since the industrial revolution (Sabine et al. 2004). While this is beneficial
in terms of limiting the rise in atmospheric CO 2concentrations and hence greenhouse warming due to this CO2, there are
direct consequences for ocean chemistry. Ocean acidification describes the lowering of seawater pH and carbonate
saturation that result from increasing atmospheric CO2 concentrations. There are also indirect and potentially adverse
biological and ecological consequences of the chemical changes taking place in the ocean now and as projected into the
future.

What is Ocean Acidification?

When CO2 dissolves in seawater to produce aqueous CO2 (CO2(aq)) it also forms carbonic acid (H2CO3) (Eq. 1; Figure 1).
Carbonic acid rapidly dissociates (splits apart) to produce bicarbonate ions (HCO 3-, Eq. 2). In turn, bicarbonate ions can also
dissociate into carbonate ions (CO32-, Eq. 3). Both of these reactions (Eqs. 2, 3) also produce protons (H+) and therefore
lower the pH of the solution (i.e., the water is now more acidic than it was — recall that pH is the negative logarithm of the
proton concentration or activity, -log10[H+]. Note, as illustrated in Figure 2, Ocean Acidification does not imply that ocean
waters will actually become acidic (i.e., pH < 7.0).
CO2(aq) + H2O ↔ H2CO3 (1)
H2CO3 ↔ HCO3- + H+ (2)
HCO3- ↔ CO32- + H+ (3)

Figure 1: Dissociation of carbon dioxide in seawater.

Cartoon of the reactions described by Equations 1–3 plus the precipitation (or dissolution) of calcium carbonate. The
scanning electron micrograph image (bottom left) is of the planktic foraminifer, Globigerina bulloides (about 0.5 mm long),
which secretes a multi-chambered shell made of calcite (the more resistant-to-dissolution structural form of CaCO 3 than
coral aragonite).
© 2012 Nature Education Courtesy of Stephen Barker and Andy Ridgwell. All rights reserved. 

However, when CO2 dissoves in seawater it does not fully dissociate into carbonate ions and the number of hydrogen ions
produced (and the drop in pH) is therefore smaller than one might expect. This is due to the natural capacity of seawater to
buffer against changes in pH, which can be represented simply by:
CO2(aq) + CO32- + H2O → 2HCO3- (4)
where CO2 is effectively neutralized by reaction with CO32- to produce HCO3-. The HCO3- produced by Eq. 4 then partly
dissociates (Eq. 3), releasing protons and so decreasing the pH-which is where the ‘ocean acidification' actually comes
from-but this drop is much smaller than for an un-buffered system. One can also think of the sequence of events resulting
from dissolving CO2 in seawater as firstly the production of HCO3- and H+, but because the equilibrium between HCO3- and
CO32- (Eq. 3) has now been unbalanced by excess acidity (H+), Eq. 3 goes to the left to consume some of the excess H +, and
in doing so, also consumes CO32-.
The total dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) in seawater is defined as the sum of [CO 2(aq)] + [HCO3-] + [CO32-]. The distribution
of DIC between these species varies with seawater pH (Figure 2). Typically, the surface waters of today's ocean have a pH
of around 8.1, meaning that HCO3- is the dominant carbonate species, representing about 90% of DIC. CO32- is the next
most abundant species (~10% of DIC), while CO 2(aq) represents less than 1% of DIC. Note that there is so little carbon in the
form of carbonic acid (H2CO3) at any one moment in time, that the concentrations of CO2(aq) and H2CO3are usually combined
as [CO2(aq)] (also written: [H2CO3*]). All else being equal, as more CO2 is added to seawater the pH will slowly decrease and
the balance between the three carbonate species will change, with [CO2(aq)] and [HCO3-] increasing and [CO32-] decreasing —
this is the fingerprint of anthropogenic (human caused) ocean acidification.
Figure 2: How ocean carbonate chemistry and pH are related.
Bjerrum plot showing the relative proportions of [HCO3-], [CO32-] and [CO2] to DIC in seawater with different temperature,
salinity and pressure (heavy curves are for S=35‰, T=25ºC, P=0bar, narrow curves are S=35, T=0ºC, P=0bar, dashed
curves are S=35, T=0ºC, P=300bar). The shaded region reflecting the range of modern (annual average) ocean surface,
with the hashed region reflecting the corresponding projected year 2010 range: taken from the global ocean geochemistry
model projections of Turley et al. (2010). To put ocean chemistry into some perspective, some common substances and
their respective pH are shown at the bottom (scale is same as upper panel). pH values for foodstuffs are from Bridges &
Mattice (1939), and for household products from (Hoffman et al. (1989). Note that different brands and preparations can give
different pH values (up to ±0.5 pH units) — typical measured values are shown.
© 2012 Nature Education Reprinted with permission: Turley et al.; Bridges & Mattice; Hoffman et al. All rights
reserved. 

From the relations above it can be seen that the ability of seawater to buffer changes in its pH as CO 2 is added depends on
the amount (or concentration) of CO32- present. It is then intuitive that the buffering capacity of seawater will decrease as
more CO2 is added and CO32- is progressively consumed. Because of this, the proportion of CO 2 added to seawater that
remains as CO2(aq) increases as more CO2 is added, an effect first recognised by Roger Revelle and Hans Suess (Revelle &
Suess 1957) and quantified as the 'Revelle Factor'. The proportion of DIC present as CO 2is also affected by temperature, as
illustrated in Figure 2. The consequence of this is that, as the ocean warms, less DIC will be partitioned into the form of
CO2 (and more as CO32-), hence enhancing the buffering and providing a ‘negative feedback' on rising atmospheric CO 2.
Here, a feedback describes a mechanism that dimishes or amplifies an initial change and asribed the sign ‘negative' or
‘positive', respectively. For example, melting polar ice caps through global warming will reduce the amount of solar radiation
that is reflected back out to space (the Earth's surface becomes less reflective), so producing more warming, which in turn
will melt more ice, and so on — a positive feedback. A well-known positive feedback in the carbon cycle arises due to the
decrease in solubility of CO2 gas in seawater at higher temperatures. In fact, this greatly outweighs the negative feedback
described above, meaning that as the ocean surface warms, even more of the emitted fossil fuel CO 2 will remain in the
atmosphere.

Biological Implications of Ocean Acidification

Decreasing ocean pH has the potential to affect life in the ocean because all organisms must expend metabolic energy in
maintaining a particular pH inside of their cells to ensure biochemical processes operate efficiently (Raven et al. 2005).
Decreasing ocean pH also has rather more unexpected consequences — frequencies of sound, important for sonar and
marine mammal (whale) communication, propagate more efficiently in waters with lower pH. This is because seawater
borate ions (B(OH)4-), which absorb sound at these frequencies, become depleted with increasing absorption of CO 2 by the
ocean (Brewer & Hester 2009), in much the same way that carbonate ions (CO 32-) are affected (as discussed earlier).
However, we will focus here on the better studied — and potentially more serious — implications of ocean acidification for
calcifying marine organisms.
The mineral calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is a fundamental building block for numerous marine organisms, from microscopic
algae to reef-building corals. Its importance can be seen clearly in the geological record in the form of vast deposits of
limestones and chalk rocks. However, this important structural material can dissolve under certain conditions, determined by
the 'saturation state' (Ω) of seawater:

(5)
Here, the subscript 'seawater' refers to the in-situ concentration and 'saturation' refers to the concentration at mineral
saturation, reflecting the equilibrium point between the tendency of ions dissolved in seawater to attach to the surface of the
crystal surface (precipitation) and ions detaching from the surface to enter solution (dissolution), as illustrated in Figure 1.
For our purposes, the concentration of Ca is relatively uniform and unchanging in the ocean, and hence Ω is principally a
function of [CO32-] (Eq. 6).

(6)
For supersaturated (Ω > 1) conditions, with an excess of [CO32-]seawater, a crystal of CaCO3 will tend to grow, and in
undersaturated (Ω < 1) conditions, CaCO3 will dissolve. [CO32-]saturation is a weak function of temperature and salinity but a
strong function of water depth (pressure) meaning that deeper waters are typically more corrosive. The particular crystal
structure form of CaCO 3 is also important — for example, for a given set of T,S,P conditions, [CO 32-]saturation for aragonite is
greater than that for calcite, and its saturation state will be lower. In other words, aragonite is a more soluble phase of
CaCO3 than calcite, which has implications for the orgnaisms that construct shells and skeletons out of aragonite, as we'll
discuss shortly.
We can see immediately from Eq. 6 that Ω will decrease as ocean acidification proceeds because we know that
[CO32-]seawater will decrease (Figure 2). While modern surface ocean waters (where the majority of carbonate-secreting
organisms live) are generally supersaturated (Ω > 1) with respect to both phases, there are regions of the ocean surface
which are already close to undersaturation (Figure 3). The effect of pressure means that deep ocean waters are mostly
undersaturated with respect to aragonite and, at great depths, also undersaturated with respect to calcite. The continued
decrease in seawater [CO32-] means that the depth at which waters become undersaturated is shoaling (i.e., getting
shallower) and will ultimately reach the surface in certain regions. Colder temperatures also mean a naturally lower initial
saturation state, because atmospheric CO2 is more soluble in cold seawater (Figure 3). High latitude surface waters will
therefore be some of the first to become undersaturated, later this century (Orr et al. 2005) — small, swimming sea snails,
known as sea butterflies (Limacina) (Figure 3) that build fragile shells made from aragonite may be amongst the first to be
impacted in these regions. Bottom-dwelling shellfish living in polar regions, or in more naturally acidic upwelling regions off
western coasts (Figure 3), will also start to experience undersaturated conditions sooner than animals living elsewhere.
Figure 3: Carbonate chemistry properties of the ocean surface.
To illustrate spatial differences in the carbonate chemistry of the modern ocean surface, and hence which regions start from
being already relatively close to under-saturation (a value of Ω less than 1.0), the model-reconstructed modern (year 2010)
annual mean surface saturation with respect to aragonite is plotted. Representative calcifying organisms are shown as
picture inserts (coral images courtesy of Ms Elena Couce) with typical habitat regions indicated by dashed ellipses (see
Turley et al.2010, for further analysis of seasonality and future trends).
© 2012 Nature Education Reprinted with permission: Turley et al., coral images courtesy of Elena Couce. All rights
reserved.

It is not just the occurrence and spread of undersatured conditions that may cause problems. Thermodynamics tells us that
the rate at which CaCO3can be precipitated is also related to the saturation state (Ω) of that solution. How this affects
calcifying organisms is difficult to predict however, because different species exert varying degrees of biological control on
the calcification process. Still, logically, it requires more energy to precipitate the same amount of CaCO 3 under conditions of
lower saturation, and it is not unreasonable to expect some change in shells and skeletons as seawater Ω decreases in the
future. Experiments carried out on cultured corals support this assertion and show a general decline in calcification rate with
declining saturation (Pandolfi et al. 2011), but with considerable uncertainty in how non-linear the response might be and
hence the sensitivty of tropical corals to ocean acidification. While it is highly unlikely that the tropical ocean will become
undersaturated in the near future, because the surface seawater there starts with a relatively high degree of (over)
saturation (Figure 3), once coral carbonate production drops below the rate at which CaCO 3 is being lost due to physical and
bio-erosion, the reef is in danger of being eroded away (Kleypas et al. 1999). It is notable that today, the poorly developed
reefs of the Eastern Tropical Pacific are associated with relatively low saturation states (Figure 3; Manzello et al. 2008) —
saturation states that reefs in the Western Tropical Pacific (such as the Great Barrier Reef) may start to experience before
the end of the present century.
Other species, notably fast-growing, single-celled planktic marine algae such as coccolithophores, may be comfortable
within a physically and chemically dynamic (seasonal) environment, and ocean acidification may not cause serious
disruption. For instance, replacing one species of coccolithophore by a similar and also calcifying species may have little
overall impact on the ecosystem and global biogeochemical cycles (Ridgwell et al. 2009, Ries et al. 2009).

Perspectives on Historical and Future Ocean Acidification

Computer models of the chemical changes associated with historical CO2 emissions predict that average surface ocean pH
has dropped by about 0.1 units (equivalent to a ~25% increase in [H+]) since the dawn of the industrial age (i.e., the past 200
years or so). Continuing emissions into the future may drive a further decrease of 0.3 or 0.4 units by the end of this century
(Orr et al. 2005) (Figure 4). By comparison, the change between glacial (ice age) and interglacial (similar to the current
Holocene) conditions, when CO2 naturally alternated between lows (glacials) and highs (interglacials), was no more than 0.2
units (Hönisch & Hemming 2005) (Figure 4). Notably, ocean surface pH over the past almost one million years has tended to
be higher and only very rarely significantly lower than pre-industrial times. Also geologically unusual is the rate at which
ocean chemistry is currently changing. While the geological record is incomplete, sometimes difficult to interpret, and with
the potential for as yet undiscovered surprises, we would probably have to go back at least 65 million years (the time at
which the dinosaurs went extinct) to maybe find an ocean chemical change as fast as we are experiencing today (Ridgwell &
Schmidt 2010. The rate of change is important as organisms with longer generation times and used to living and evolving in
relatively stable environments such as cold water corals (e.g., Lophelia) (Maier et al. 2009) may be unable to adapt quickly
enough if their environment changes very rapidly.

Figure 4: How historical and future ocean acidification compares with the geologic past.
Shown is a comparison of past records of CO2 and pH variability as compared to the projected impact of fossil fuel
combustion. Panel B shows a reconstruction of ocean surface pH, based on the boron isotopic composition of carbonate
foraminiferal shells (red symbols and axis) (Hönisch et al. 2009). The past 9 interglacial periods, with climatic characteristics
generally similar to that of pre-industrial time (together with the current interglacial — the 'Holocene'), are shaded in light
grey, with (8) ‘full’ glacial conditions in dark grey (definitions of the intervals of time assigned as ‘interglacial’ or (full) ‘glacial’
follow Masson-Delmotte et al. 2010). Filled circles represent measured ocean surface pH during interglacials, squares
during interglacials, and empty triangles pH during intermediate climate conditions. The red horizontal dashed lines mark the
mean values of the pH measurements falling within glacial (upper line) and interglacial (lower line) intervals. Also shown in
Panel B is a composite record of atmospheric CO2 (blue symbols and axis) spanning the past 800,000 years (800 kyr),
drawn from measurements made on air bubbles trapped in Antarctic ice cores (Petit et al. 1999, Monnin et al. 2001,
Siegenthaler et al. 2005, Luthi et al.2008). Dashed and dotted lines are shown only to illustrate different apparent
CO2 thresholds here, and are not statistically derived. Panel A shows model-reconstructed historical changes plus a
projection of future changes to the year 2100 both following Turley et al. (2010) on the same y-axis scales (for CO2 and pH),
but with the time-axis magnified one thousand times. Here, the closely-spaced model projections of annual mean conditions
each year between 1900 and 2100 have been interpolated to continuous lines.
© 2012 Nature Education Reprinted with permission: Hönisch et al.; Masson-Delmotte et al.; Petit et al.; Monnin et
al.; Siegenthaler et al.; Turley et al. All rights reserved. 

It is important to recognise that there may be winners as well as losers as a consequence of ocean acidification, either
because some species may actually ‘prefer' lower pH, or because reductions in numbers of one species will leave more
resources available for another. However, changes taking place in marine resources and the species we eat may be costly
— or simply unpopular — to adapt to. Proposals to neutralise the acidity in the ocean and/or extract CO 2 from the
atmosphere (e.g., Kheshgi 1995) are currently at the drawing-board stage and likely to be more costly still. Natural
processes will eventually act to re-set the chemistry of the ocean, but these processes — dissolution of carbonate sediments
lying at the bottom of the ocean and the weathering of rocks on land — require many hundreds of thousands of years to
occur (Ridgwell & Schmidt 2010).

The problem of CO2 accumulation in aquaculture systems

There is increasing awareness of the problems caused by the accumulation of respired CO2 in land-baed aquaculture

systems that recirculate water. Degassing CO2from water requires a significant amount of pumping energy, therefore,

there is a need to optimise and economise CO2 degassing. Several fish farmers operating land-based aquaculture

systems had commented to me that removing CO2 from saltwater appeared to be more difficult compared to

freshwater systems. Maintenance of low CO2 concentrations are particularly important for shellfish aquaculture (e.g.

abalone, pictured below) due the effect of carbonic acid on shell formation.
Shell forming organisms such as these abalone are sensitive to the acidification resulting from respired CO2 that

accumulates in recirculating aquaculture systems. 

Most of the work carried out to date on CO2 degassing has focussed on freshwater, primarily because the majority of

recirculation systems are for freshwater species. I wanted to find out whether there was a difference in degassing

efficiency of the same device at different salinities, so I tested the CO2 removal efficiency of a cascade column and

airlift in fresh versus saline water.

In a cascade column the water falls down over a large surface area and CO2 diffuses from the water into the lower-

CO2 air. I measured the CO2 removal efficiency of this column in fresh and saline water.
An airlift can be used to pump and mix water with air to degas dissolved CO2. Air is injected at the bottom of a tube

and rises, dragging water with it. I measured the CO2 removal efficiency of this airlift in fresh and saline water.

I measured the alkalinity and CO2 concentration of water entering and exiting these CO2 stripping devices, which

allowed for the calculation of different measures of CO2removal efficiency. The CO2 mass transfer coefficient did

not differ substantially between salinities for either the cascade column or airlift, meaning that the same mass of

CO2 was removed in fresh and saline water for a given influent CO2 concentration. However, the CO2 stripping

efficiency differed between salinities. But how can there be a difference in the CO2 stripping efficiency between

salinities while there is no difference in the mass of CO2 removed? To understand this we need to look at the

definition of each measure of CO2 removal and CO2 chemistry. The diagram below explains the difference

between CO2 mass transfer versus CO2 stripping efficiency.

CO2 mass transfer efficiency differs from CO2 stripping efficiency as a measure of CO2 removal efficiency. CO2

stripping efficiency takes in to account the re-formation of CO2 from the large pool of carbonates following degassing.

The equilibrium reactions that re-form CO2 following degassing take 1-2 min to complete. Most mechanical CO2

degassing treatments only last for about 5-30 seconds.

The next important point to understand is that CO2 typically represents a small fraction of the total inorganic carbon

(Ct) that exists in water. When CO2 is degassed from water, more CO2 re-forms from the pool of carbonates that make

up the bulk of Ct. The formation of CO2 from bicarbonate is a relatively slow process (taking about 1-2 minute to

complete) compared to the rate at which water passes through a degasser (a few seconds).
When dissolved CO2 gas pressure is lowered by degassing, CO2 will re-form from the bicarbonate pool. This back

reaction is a relatively slow process (1-2 min), meaning that CO2 re-forms after exiting the degasser as the carbonate

system re-establishes equilibrium of the different inorganic carbon components.

The main affect salinity has on degassing is determining how much CO2 re-forms from the carbonate pool following

stripping of CO2 gas. More CO2 re-forms in the equilibration reactions in sea or saline water compared to freshwater.

This means that while the mass transfer of CO2 gas inside the degasser is (essentially) the same between salinities,

more CO2 reforms from the carbonate pool in salt water, lowering the effective CO2 stripping efficiency of the

degasser for salt waters. The image below illustrates this.

Okay, first I’ll give you the accepted method. You can strip CO2
from water using normal, garden variety (literally) air.

Using a stripping tower, you will run CO2 down through media
while bubbling air up through. Note: This only works in cases
where CO2 has built up to high levels in the water, higher than
would normally be the case. This may be from aquaculture,
plant decomposition, the result of chemical reactions, or
whatever. The stripper uses the concentration gradient to
replace CO2 for O2 in the water, and the CO2 will exit with the
air.

Clearly, this will NOT completely strip CO2. So, how do we

completely strip it?

Here’s one idea. There are likely other ways, and I’ve done no
math or research. It’s just a brainstorm, and there may be
huge problems with it. However, you get what you pay for, and
Quora answers are free. ;)

When CO2 dissolves in water, many people understand that

carbonic acid is formed. But, what they may not know is that
two anions are formed in separate reactions with their
interrelated equilibriums, bicarbonate (HCO3-) and carbonate
(CO3- -). And, of course, it has low pH with associated
hydronium ions.

Running it through the anion cell of an ion exchange system

with resin in a hydroxide state would serve to remove the two
anions and also to release OH-, which would serve to move the
the pH back up. The loss of anions would drive the equilibrium
of the reactions, causing more CO2/H2CO3 to react down to
the anions. Continue to run this through the system to allow
essentially all of the CO2 to convert to anion and be removed.

Okay, there you go. Hope that helped.

Tiny Motorized Robots
Can Clean Carbon
Dioxide Out Of Seawater
Love that flat water
By Mary Beth Griggs  September 24, 2015
 

MICROBOTS
Artist's rendition of how the microbots work.
Laboratory for Nanobioelectronics, UC San Diego Jacobs School of Engineering
The Effects of Ocean Acidification
on Coral Reefs

Most people are familiar with the concept that compares coral reefs to underwater rainforests. 
Coral reefs form the most biodiverse habitats in the ocean, and their presence is essential to the
survival of thousands of other marine species - many of which we rely on for food.

Hard corals are the reef-building corals, and their stonelike structures are composed of calcium
carbonate, the same substance found in the shells of many marine organisms including oysters,
clams and snails.  Like these mollusks, corals must have access to available calcium in
the seawater in order to build their hard skeleton.  This is especially important in the early stages
of a coral polyps's life, when it settles onto a hard substance and starts "building" its skeleton. 
Some studies have shown a 52-73% decline in larval settlement on reefs that are experiencing
lower pH levels.  Scientists can also measure the calcification rates of hard corals, and ocean
acidification has had a negative impact on the rate at which corals calcify.  This means that coral
colonies in the future may be more brittle and less resilient to other factors influencing their
survival.

Ocean acidification is just one more threat to the success of hard corals.  Coral reefs are already
being affected by many other pressures, some human-related and some natural.  Warming ocean
temperatures are contributing to coral bleaching and making them more susceptible to diseases. 
Nutrient and chemical pollution coming into the oceans from rivers is also making suitable coral
habitat very scarce.  Natural threats impacting coral reefs include predation from urchins and a
variety of fishes, and also tropical storms.  Coral reefs are naturally very resilient to many of
these threats, but now their ability to recolonize and grow sturdy structures is
being compromised by ocean acidification.  Sometimes, coral habitat is gradually being replaced
by non-calcifying organisms, like seagrass, once the coral has been killed off.

The resources included in this lesson will describe many of these processes, and will also provide
suggestions for how to protect coral habitats.  Protecting oceans as a whole will help corals
maintain resiliency in the face of these threats.

 PBS created a 7-minute documentary titled "Coral Reefs Die as Ocean Temperatures
Rise, Water Acidifies".  This is a great video to watch because it shows scientists
researching corals in lab conditions, and trying to "forecast" how corals will respond to
acidity changes in their water.
 The majority of the 30-minute talk "Ocean Acidification: Coral Reefs in the Balance"
deals with the impacts of OA on coral reefs.  Much of this information goes beyond what
we need to interpret for general audiences, but it may be good to know if you want to be
prepared for anything!  Pages 15-35 of the powerpoint focus on coral reefs.  The coral
reef topic is covered in the video from 6:00-25:45.
 "Climate Training Activities" shows Aquarium interpreters explaining why ocean
acidification is detrimental to hard corals, and how suitable coral habitat is shrinking in
the near future.
 The short animation shows the past, present and future of suitable coral reef habitat.  It
only plays for 16 seconds, so you may need to pause it or slow it down to catch what's
happening.

Lesson Take Away: 

The stony structures of hard corals are composed of calcium carbonate.  In order to create this
material, corals rely on a specific pH balance to extract calcium from the seawater.  Ocean
acidification will have a negative impact on the ability of corals to develop, and on their ability
to recover from damage.  Reef-building corals form the most biodiverse habitats in the ocean,
their success is essential to everyone!
Impacts of ocean acidification on the
Reef
In the long-term, ocean acidification is likely to be the most significant impact of a changing climate on the Great
Barrier Reef ecosystem.
The oceans absorb carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere and are estimated to have absorbed about half the
excess CO2 released by human activities in the past 200 years.
About half of this anthropogenic CO2 (carbon dioxide in the atmosphere resulting from human activities, such as the
burning of fossil fuels, rather than natural processes) is in the upper 10 per cent of oceans (less than 1000 metres
depth) due to slow ocean mixing processes.
This absorbed CO2 is resulting in chemical changes in the ocean, and is estimated to have caused a decrease in
oceanic pH of 0.1. This is referred to as ocean acidification as the oceans are becoming more acidic (though
technically they are still alkaline).
As carbon dioxide (CO2) is absorbed from the atmosphere it bonds with sea water forming carbonic acid. This acid
then releases a bicarbonate ion and a hydrogen ion. The hydrogen ion bonds with free carbonate ions in the water
forming another bicarbonate ion.
That carbonate would otherwise be available to marine animals for making calcium carbonate shells and skeletons.
So the more dissolved carbon dioxide in the ocean, the less free carbonate ions available for making calcium
carbonate. 
From a current pH of 8.2 (alkaline), it is predicted that the ocean’s pH could fall to about 7.8 (still slightly alkaline) by
2100.
Although the chemistry of ocean acidification is simple and well understood, its effect on marine life is much less well-
known as the process has only been recognised for less than a decade. Even relatively small increases in ocean
acidity decrease the capacity of corals to build skeletons, which in turn decreases their capacity to create habitat for
the Reef's marine life.

Ocean acidification
Follow Hermie the hermit crab as he discovers
how ocean acidification will affect marine
animals.
 Effects of Ocean and Coastal
Acidification on Marine Life

B The minerals that animals build their shells

out of are calcium carbonate compounds.y
releasing carbon dioxide to the atmosphere,
humans are rapidly altering the chemistry of the ocean and affecting marine
life. The acidity of the ocean has increased by about 25% since before the
Industrial Revolution, greater than any other time within the last two million years.
Given the speed at which humans are altering ocean chemistry, marine plants
and animals may not have time to adapt or migrate as they did in the past to
cope with changes to ocean chemistry over the history of the Earth.  
As a consequence of acidification, marine life face a two-fold challenge:
decreased carbonate availability and increased acidity. Laboratory studies
suggest changing ocean chemistry will 1) harm life forms that rely on carbonate-
based shells and skeletons, 2) harm organisms sensitive to acidity and 3) harm
organisms higher up the food chain that feed on these sensitive
organisms. However, we do not yet know exactly how ecosystems will be
impacted. 

Vulnerable Ocean Life

 Clams
 Oysters
 Scallops
 Mussels
 Corals
 Starfish
 Sea urchins
 Sea butterflies (pteropods)
 Shell-forming algae and amoebas
Building Shells and
Skeletons: Calcifying Organisms
Many ocean plants and animals build shells and skeletons out of two chemicals

calcium calciumCa2+ carbonate

that exist in seawater,   and 
carbonateCO
3
2-
. Organisms combine calcium and carbonate to form hard shells and

skeletons out of the mineral  calcium carbonate calcium carbonateCaCO3 . Therefore, the
plants and animals that use calcium carbonate for structure and protection are

called  calcifying organisms calcifying organismsPlants and animals that build hard shells or skeletons out of calcium

carbonate, CaCO3 . Increased acidity slows the growth of calcium carbonate

structures, and under severe conditions, can dissolve structures faster than they
form.
The Struggle to Stay Healthy Under
Increased Acidity
Just like humans, marine organisms require optimal conditions

inside  Under increasing acidity animals like this sea

urchin must spend more energy to build and maintain shells, which could impair overall health. their
bodies to stay healthy. If the acidity of seawater is beyond the optimum range for
that organism, its body must use more energy to maintain healthy body fluid
chemistry. Organisms can often compensate when faced with increased acidity,
but this comes at the expense of using energy to grow critical body parts like
muscle or shell. For example, scientists have found that mussels, sea urchins,
and crabs start to dissolve their protective shells to counter elevated acidity in
their body fluids. So even if an organism can adjust to survive increasing acidity
its overall health can be impaired.
Effects on Larvae
Many marine fish and invertebrates have complex life cycles. They spend their

early lives as  larvae larvaeA distinct, immature life stage of animals
prior to metamorphosis into the adult life stage  while they develop and
disperse to distant areas on ocean currents. Larvae are very small, which makes
them especially vulnerable to increased acidity. For example, sea urchin and
oyster larvae will not develop properly when acidity is increased. In another
example, fish larvae lose their ability to smell and avoid predators. The
vulnerability of larvae means that while organisms may be able to reproduce,
their offspring may not reach adulthood.  

How will ocean

a c i d i f i c a ti o n i m p a c t ma r i n e l i f e ?
A new analysis provides a holistic assessment of the impacts of climate change and ocean
acidification on marine organisms including coral, shellfish, sea urchins, and other calcifying
species.
© Rostislav Ageev | Dreamstime.com

Many marine organisms—such as coral, clams, mussels, sea urchins, barnacles, and certain microscopic
plankton—rely on equilibrated chemical conditions and pH levels in the ocean to build their calcium-based
shells and other structures. A new analysis published in the journal Environmental Science and
Technology provides a holistic analysis of how species will be affected worldwide under different climate
scenarios.
“Calcifying species are indispensable for ecosystems worldwide: they provide nursery habitats for fish,
food for marine predators, and natural defenses for storms and erosion. These species are also
particularly vulnerable to ocean acidification triggered by increased fossil fuel emissions,” says IIASA
researcher Ligia Azevedo, who led the study.

Just as carbonated soda water is more acidic than flat tap water, higher levels of carbon dioxide (CO 2) in
the ocean cause the water to become more acidic. And high acidity makes it more difficult for calcifying
species to make their calcium structures such as shells, reefs, and exoskeletons.
“Previous studies have shown that marine species were being negatively affected by decreasing ocean pH
levels. But until now most studies looked at individual species. This study is one of the first to analyze the
impact on the whole community of calcifying species, while also looking at both pH levels and CO 2 partial
pressure,” says Azevedo.
The study examines the impact of increased ocean acidity on species growth, reproduction, and survival.
It used two climate change scenarios from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fifth
Assessment Report (AR5): In the low emissions scenario, ocean pH is projected to decrease from 8.1 to
7.95, while in the high emissions scenario, median ocean pH is expected to decrease to 7.80. (Lower pH
indicates higher acidity).

The analysis finds that under the high emissions scenario, between 21-32% of calcifying species would
be significantly affected, based on a threshold of 10% of a species population being affected. In the low
emissions scenario, only 7-12% of species would be affected.

Azevedo notes that while the study is an important new milestone for ocean acidification research, it does
not show what level of impact which species population can handle, that is, how much acidification is too
much.

“It’s hard to say what the level of impact would mean for different organisms – a 10% rate could be no
problem for some species, but for other more sensitive species it could mean one step closer to local
extinction,” explains Azevedo.
Coral reefs, such as Australia's Great Barrier Reef pictured here, are a key calcifying species threatened
by ocean acidification.

The study also emphasizes that much uncertainty remains about the level of acidification that would lead
to major impacts on calcifying species – in part because of varying experimental results.

The researchers say that the analysis is an important step forward to provide policymakers a better
understanding of the big picture of climate impacts on the ocean. Azevedo says, “The main benefit of this
study is to provide a new research framework that policymakers could use for climate policy planning, life
cycle impact assessment, and environmental risk assessment.”

The study was funded in part by a grant from the European Research Council to explore the balance of
carbon, phosphorus, and nitrogen in the environment. 

Scientists at the University of California, San Diego, have developed tiny robots that could one day
remove carbon dioxide from the oceans, helping to mitigate the effects of climate change. Their
proof of concept study was published in the journal Angewandte Chemie.
The researchers developed “micromotors” that can rapidly decarbonate water. They do this using an
outer polymer surface that holds an enzyme called carbonic anhydrase. This speeds up the reaction
between carbon dioxide and water to form bicarbonate, which can then be converted to solid calcium
carbonate using calcium chloride in the water. Calcium carbonate is much safer, being found in
things like seashells.
Each tiny tube-shaped robot, measuring six micrometers long, is entirely autonomous, so they can
be deployed into the water and left to their own devices. "We're excited about the possibility of using
these micromotors to combat ocean acidification and global warming," said co-first author of the
study Virendra V. Singh in a statement. How they would be deployed on a large scale isn't clear at
the moment, though.

In tests, the micromotors removed 90% of carbon dioxide from a solution of deionized water, and
88% from a sea water solution, in just five minutes. "In the future, we could potentially use these
micromotors as part of a water treatment system, like a water decarbonation plant," said co-author
on the study Kevin Kaufmann.

One issue, though, is that very small amounts of hydrogen peroxide must be added to the water to
supply the "fuel" the micromotors need to move. In water solutions containing 2 to 4% hydrogen
peroxide, they can reach speeds of more than 100 micrometers per second using the reaction
between the hydrogen peroxide and their inner platinum surface, which generates a stream of
oxygen gas bubbles.

However, the researchers hope that in the future they might be able to use the water itself as a
power source. "If the micromotors can use the environment as fuel, they will be more scalable,
environmentally friendly and less expensive," said Kaufmann.

And with ocean acidification becoming a rapidly growing problem, this could be part of a solution to
maintaining biomes in the face of increasing man-made climate change.

Micromotors could take CO2 from oceans

07 Oct 2015

PE
The Ocean
"Enzyme-functionalised micromotors” can move rapidly in water, remove carbon dioxide
and convert it into calcium carbonate

Engineers at the University of California, San Diego, have designed tiny micromotors
that could one day be used to clean up carbon dioxide pollution in oceans. 

The “enzyme-functionalised micromotors” can move rapidly in water, remove carbon

dioxide and convert it into calcium carbonate. The team believes carbon dioxide
scrubbing micromotors could one day be used in water treatment facilities, similar to
desalination plants, to decarbonate water at an industrial scale.

The team demonstrated that the micromotors could remove 90% of the carbon dioxide
from a solution of deionised water. When placed in a sea-water solution the
micromotors removed 88% of the carbon dioxide in the same timeframe.

Virendra Singh, a researcher in the study, said: “We’re excited about the possibility of
using these micromotors to combat ocean acidification and global warming.”
The micromotors are six-micrometre-long tubes with an an outer polymer surface that
holds the enzyme carbonic anhydrase, which speeds up the reaction between carbon
dioxide and water to form bicarbonate. Calcium chloride, which is added to the water
solutions, helps convert bicarbonate to calcium carbonate.

The micromotors’ fast and continuous autonomous movement induces efficient solution
mixing, leading to faster carbon dioxide conversion. 

To fuel the micromotors in water, the team added hydrogen peroxide, which reacts with
the inner platinum surface of the micromotors to generate a stream of oxygen gas
bubbles that propel the micromotors. 

When released in water solutions containing as little as 2-4% hydrogen peroxide, the
micromotors reached speeds of more than 100 micrometres per second.

Singh said that the next step for the research was to develop micromotors that can be
propelled just by water, without “the need for hydrogen peroxide or expensive platinum
catalysts”.
 Tiny motors could suck carbon dioxide
from the ocean


 

 


By RUBY LOTT-LAVIGNA

Wednesday 23 September 2015

University of California
Nanoengineers at the University of California, San Diego have designed a new form of tiny
motor that could be used to rid the sea of carbon dioxide pollution.
The micromotors, described in a new study, would be powered by the environment itself, using
enzymes to move around the sea, converting carbon dioxide into a solid as they swim. "In the
future, we could potentially use these micromotors as part of a water treatment system, like a
water decarbonation plant," said Kevin Kaufmann, co-author of the study.
The proof-of-concept micromotors use the flow of the wateralong with a catalyst, carbonic
anhydrase, to rapidly convert carbon dioxide into calcium carbonate, which can then be stored.
If the micromotors can use the environment as fuel, they will be more scalable, environmentally
friendly and less expensive.

Kevin Kaufmann, University of California, San Diego

, the micromotors quickly decarbonated ionised water solutions containing carbon dioxide.
Within five minutes, the motors removed 90 percent of the carbon dioxide from the solution. In
seawater, 88 percent of carbon dioxide was removed.
Converting carbon dioxide to calcium carbonate, a compound found naturally in shells and coral,
is currently one of the most environmentally reliable methods for reducing reduce the amount of
carbon dioxide in water.
Other solutions to the problem have been suggested, but many are highly expensive, use harsh
chemicals or are energy consuming. The research team said their microbots would be more
efficient -- though in the experiments they were required to add hydrogen peroxide to the water,
which reacted with platinum inside their casing to create oxygen and propel them forward, and
whether that is sustainable across the entire ocean is obviously unclear. Platinum is also,
unfortunately, expensive.
The robots are fast though -- water with just two to four percent hydrogen peroxide allowed them
to reach more than 100 micrometers per second. Researchers hope to rework the concept to use
minerals that are more naturally abundant as a next stage in the development. "If the
micromotors can use the environment as fuel, they will be more scalable, environmentally
friendly and less expensive," said Kaufmann.
How CO2 Pollution is Affecting Life in the
Ocean

Most of the news about climate change is about how it affects the
atmosphere and land creatures. But we shouldn’t forget the source of life
that covers nearly three-quarters of Earth’s surface: the ocean.

About a quarter to a third of all carbon dioxide emissions from our cars and
factories are absorbed by the Earth’s oceans. Much of it becomes “fixed” and
stored in ocean plants like seagrass.

Ocean plants absorb carbon just like forests and field grasses do. But, any of
the CO2 that is not fixed dissolves into the seawater, altering the chemistry
of the waters. The result is ocean acidification.

Ocean Acidification
Over the past 250 years, ocean acidity has increased by 30 percent as
oceans absorbed around 530 billion tons of carbon dioxide. (That’s the
equivalent of 500 years of CO2 emissions produced in the U.S. at current
levels.)

The change in pH has troubled researchers in the recent years, as they

predict ocean acidity will more than double by 2100 if fossil fuels are burned
at today’s rate. The polar regions will be the first to undergo the most
dramatic changes, and scientists forecast that the Southern Ocean has the
potential to become corrosive with radically lowered pH levels by 2050.

However, species with shells, such as oysters, lobsters and mussels, will be
particularly disrupted. And, we are already seeing harm from sudden
changes in pH that coincide with seasonal upwhellings in the Pacific
Northwest. In these instances, the more corrosive waters start to dissolve
the shells of juveniles of various shellfish before they can mature.

In Oregon, for example, researchers found that a decreased larval oyster

populationhas already resulted from ocean acidification. The population has
dropped to the point that the hatchery owners have determined that the
harvested oysters may not longer be economically viable.

Similarly, researchers predict that the dissolving of coral reefs due to our
changing the ocean’s chemistry may lead to their extinction in 50 years.
Coral reefs are the home for many ocean creatures. The destruction of these
reefs, combined with the loss of shellfish would, in turn, affect the entire
marine food web.

You may be thinking, “But I don’t even like seafood!” or “I don’t even live
near the ocean. How does this affect me?”

Believe it or not, all of us have some contact with the ocean, even if we have
never even seen it. We rely on the ocean for tourism, fishing, and natural
resources such as salt and kelp. The benefits that we derive from the ocean
are known as ecosystem services.

Remarkably, about one-fifth of the world’s population relies on seafood as

their source of protein (yes, nearly 1.5 billion people!). Coastal regions rely
heavily on the fishing and harvesting industries. Mollusk sales, for example,
make around $750 million per year and account for about 20 percent of total
U.S. fisheries revenue. Mollusk harvests are expected to drop 10 to 25
percent in the next 50 years, which would decrease their sales by $75 to
$187 million dollars per year if we continue down our current path.

How to Stop Ocean Acidification

Ultimately, the best solution to combat ocean acidification is to reduce
carbon dioxide emissions. Click here for ways to personally reduce your
carbon footprint. Creating marine protected areas and halting harmful
fishing practices will also boost the resiliency of the ocean and its diverse
marine life. There are numerous marine organizations that are addressing
ocean acidification, including the Ocean Foundation, which provided helpful
background in preparing this report.
Sour seas: How does carbon
dioxide affect our oceans?
Heather October 19, 20161 Comment
Between 25 and 50% of carbon dioxide (CO ) emissions produced by the
2

burning of fossil fuels has been absorbed by the oceans, and it’s thought that
this process has considerably slowed the rate of global warming. This might
sound like good news, but unfortunately all that CO  doesn’t just conveniently
2

disappear when it goes into the water! The problem is that CO  combines with
2

water molecules to make a weak acid called carbonic acid:

Using this equation, we can predict that that the more CO  the oceans absorb,
2

the more acidic they will become. We measure acidity using the pH scale.
Remember, LOWER pH means HIGHER acidity.

Typical representation of the pH scale. pH 0 is highly acidic and pH 14 highly

alkaline.
But do the observations reflect this theory?

The answer is yes: Sea surface pH has decreased from 8.25 to 8.14 since the
Industrial Revolution. This doesn’t sound like much, but the pH scale is not
linear – it is logarithmic. So this seemingly tiny change in pH actually translates
to a 30% increase in H  ions in our seas. We call this phenomenon ocean
+

acidification.

This iconic
dataset shows that the pH of seawater has decreased since measurements
began in the 1990s, as CO2 levels in the atmosphere and oceans have
increased. (Image credit: Doney, S. C., et al. Ocean acidification: The other
CO2 problem. Ann. Rev. Mar. Sci.1, 169-192 (2009)).
Biologists are very worried about the effect this will have on marine life. The
problem is that a vast number of marine organisms build their skeletons and
shells from calcium carbonate. But calcium carbonate dissolves in acidic
solutions! Many researchers have showed that when these organisms are
exposed to high levels of CO , they cannot build their shells/skeletons properly.
2

You can prove this to yourself by doing a simple experiment at home – click
here.
Below are some examples of research showing the effect of increasing CO  on 2

various sea life.

The dissolution of a pteropod

shell over 45 days in seawater of increased acidity (Image credit: David
Littschwager, National Geographic Society).
 This example shows
the drastic effect of increased acidity on coral growth. Image A shows an
example of a coral grown under normal conditions, while Image B shows the
same species grown in more acidic water. (Image credit: Fine, M. and Tchernov,
D. Scleractinian coral species survive and recover from decalcification. Science
315, 1811-1811 (2007)).
This set of graphs shows how different types of sea creatures react to increasing
CO2 levels in seawater. (Image credits: Graphs from Wittmann, A. C. and
Portner, H.-O. Sensitivities of extant animal taxa to ocean acidification. Nature
Clim. Change 3, 995-1001 (2013). Images (left-right): T. Hudson, I. Skipworth,
P. Randall, A. Shaw, A. Green)).
Ocean acidification threatens the future of many marine creatures, and will have
a knock-on effect for entire ecosystems. These ecosystems deserve to be
protected not only for their beauty and uniqueness, but because we are a part
of them – millions of people around the globe rely on the sea for food and
income. This threat is another huge motivation to reduce our carbon emissions
and take responsibility for our planet. Yet outside of the scientific community,
not many people have heard of ocean acidification. Public awareness is key to
shaping climate change policies. So now that you’re in the loop, spread the
word!