Introduction

 Hydrology
 Catchment area
 Water budget equation
 Examples
Courtesy:
• https://en.wikipedia.org
• Warren Viessman, Jr. and Gary L. Lewis, Introduction to Hydrology,
• R. K. Linsley, Max A. Kohler, and Joseph L. Paulhus, Hydrology for Engineers
• Linsley, R. K. J. Franzini, Water Resources Engineering, McGraw Hill.
• David, A. Chin, Water Resources engineering, John Wiley & Sons.
• Dr. K.R. Arora, Irrigation, Water Power & Water Resources Engineering.
• R.K Sharma & T.K Sharma, Irrigation Engineering (including Hydrology)
• John E. Gribbin, Introduction to Hydraulics & Hydrology: With Applications for Stormwater
Management, 4th Ed.
Hydrology?
Hydrology is the science that encompasses the occurrence,
distribution, movement and properties of the waters of the earth
and their relationship with the environment within each phase of
the hydrologic cycle.

Surface water hydrology and Groundwater hydrology

Engineering Hydrology
The study of hydrology concerned mainly with engineering
applications is known as engineering or applied hydrology.
Engineering Hydrology deals with:
 Estimation of water resources
 The study of processes such as runoff, precipitation and their
interaction.
 The study of problems such as floods, droughts and strategies
to overcome them.
 It uses hydrologic principles in the solution of engineering
problems arising from human exploitation of water resources
of the earth.
 The engineering hydrologist, or water resources engineer, is
involved in the planning, analysis, design, construction and
operation of projects for the control, utilization and
management of water resources.

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Uses of Engineering Hydrology
Engineering Hydrology Helps in the following ways:
 Used to find out maximum probable flood at proposed sites
e.g. Dams, the expected flood flows over a spillway, at a
highway Culvert, or in an urban storm drainage system
 To calculate/describe the variation of runoff from catchments
 To find out the relationship between a catchment’s surface
water and groundwater resources
 To know the required reservoir capacity for assurance of
adequate water for irrigation or municipal water supply in
droughts condition
 To propose the hydrologic hardware (e.g. rain gauges, stream
gauges, etc.) and software (computer models) needed for real-
time flood forecasting

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Further Practical Applications of Hydrology
Hydrology treats all phases of the earth’s water, is a subject of
great importance for people and their environment.
Few more Practical applications of hydrology include:
 design and operation of hydraulic structures
 water supply, waste water treatment and disposal
 irrigation, drainage and hydro power generation
 flood control, navigation, erosion & sediment control
 salinity control, pollution abatement, recreational use
 fish and wildlife protection

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What Hydrologists Do?
 Hydrologists apply scientific knowledge and mathematical
principles to solve water-related problems in society, i.e.
the problems of quantity, quality and availability of water.
 They may be concerned with finding water supplies for
cities or irrigated farms, or controlling river flooding or soil
erosion.
 They may work in environmental protection: preventing or
cleaning up pollution or locating sites for safe disposal of
hazardous wastes.
 Persons trained in hydrology may have a wide variety of job
titles. Scientists and engineers in hydrology may be
involved in both field investigations and office work.

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What Hydrologists Do? Cntd…
 In the field, they may collect basic data, oversee testing of
water quality, direct field crews and work with equipment. A
hydrologist may spend considerable time doing field work in
remote and rugged terrain.
 In the office, hydrologists do many things such as interpreting
hydrologic data and performing analyses for determining
possible water supplies. Much of their work relies on computers
for organizing, summarizing and analysing masses of data, and
for modelling studies such as the prediction of flooding and the
consequences of reservoir releases or the effect of leaking
underground oil storage tanks.
 The work of hydrologists is as varied as the uses of water and
may range from planning multimillion dollar interstate water
projects to advising homeowners about backyard drainage
problems.
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Some Definitions
An iceberg is a large piece of freshwater ice that has broken off a glacier or
an ice shelf and is floating freely in open water.

As it drifts into shallower waters, it may come into contact with the seabed.
The word "iceberg" is a partial loan translation from Dutch ijsberg, literally
meaning ice mountain.
Some Definitions (continued)
• Meteoric water is the water derived from precipitation (snow
and rain). This includes water from lakes, rivers, and icemelts,
which all originate from precipitation indirectly.
Most groundwater is meteoric water.
• Non-meteoric forms of groundwater are connate water and
magmatic water or juvenile water.
• Connate water is trapped in rock strata at the time of
formation. Because rock containing connate water is typically
formed from ocean sediments, connate water is
normally saline.
• Magmatic or Juvenile water rises from great depth
accompanying magma intrusion and affects mineralogy.
• Hence, meteoric water can be defined as “the water that has
fallen as rain and has filled up the porous and permeable
shallow rocks, or percolate through them along bedding
planes, fractures, and permeable layers”.
Water Resources of Pakistan
Rainfall
• Annual rainfall (125mm in South-East to 750mm North-West)
• Total water generated by rainfall is around 32 BCM
• Contribution to crops is 10-20%

Ground Water
• Exploitation of Groundwater is 59 BCM
• Over 9,00,000 private tube wells
• 40% of total supply at farm-gate

Surface Water Resources

• Total Inflow is 171 BCM
• Tarbela (10.38 BCM - 485 ft),
• Mangla (5.90 BCM - 380 ft)
• 19 Barrages, 48 Canals (61000 km) and 1,70,000
Watercourses (1.6 Million km)
Catchment Area
• In calculating the rate of runoff in a stream/river, resulting from
a rainfall event, first of all size of the area over which rain falls is
determined.
• For every stream, a well-defined area of land intercepts the
rainfall and transports it to the Stream.
• This area of land is called the catchment area or watershed or
drainage basin. (Refer Figs. on next slides)
• All the rainwater that falls within a particular drainage basin
makes its way to a specific stream. While the rainwater falling
outside the boundaries of that drainage basin makes its way to
some other stream via the adjoining drainage basin.
• The imaginary line that outlines the boundary of the drainage
basin is called the divide or basin divide and is determined by
the topography of the land.
• As the first step in computing runoff, a contour map is used to
describe the basin divide of the land surrounding the stream.
Catchment of a River Catchment of two Lakes/a River
Diagram showing two Catchments
Catchment of River A at station M
Order of Tributary and Basin
Buba River Basin-a tributary of the Izvorul Lung River in Romania
Diagram showing Elevation Difference of Eleveation and
Types of Tributaries within a Typical Catchment of River

Tributaries:
• Primary
• Secondary
• Tertiary
Time of Concentration
• It is the amount of time needed for runoff to flow from the
most hydraulically remote point in the drainage basin to the
point of analysis.
• The path or route taken by the most remote drop is called the
hydraulic path.
• The hydraulic path may not cover the greatest distance, but it
takes the greatest time compared to the routes of all other
drops in the drainage basin.
• The time is determined by adding all the individual flow times
for the different types of flow as the drop makes its way toward
the point of analysis.
• Therefore, t1, t2, …, tn represent the travel times for overland
flow, shallow concentrated flow, stream flow, and any other
type of flow encountered.
Methods to Determine Time of Concentration of a Catchment
Case-I: For small plots with laminar overland flow
For small plots having no defined flow channels from which run off occurs as
laminar overland flow, the time of concetration is determines using Izzard’s
Formula, i.e. Types of Surface Value of C r
111.b.L1o/ 3
To  minutes Smooth asphalt surface 0.007
K . p 2/3
Concrete pavement 0.012
Where Tar and gravel pavement 0.017
Lo = Length of overland flow (m) Closely clipped soil 0.046
K = Runoff coefficient (Refer Table) Dense blue grass turf 0.060
p = Rainfall intensity (cm/hr)
0.000275 p  Cr
b  a coefficient 
So1/ 3
Cr = Retardance coefficient (Refer Table)
So = Slope of the surface
To = Overland Flow Time / Inlet Time (min)

Range of Applicability:
These equations are applicable only when, p.Lo < 387.
Case-II: For Design of Hydraulic Structures

0.385
 L3o 
To   0.885 
 H

The Kirpich method is limited to watershed with a drainage area of about 200 acres.
Example:
An area of 5 hectares in a single family residence
district has an average length of overland flow of 40
meters, average slope of the plots of 0.003, and the
design rainfall is given by p = 64/To1/2 , where p is in
cm/hr and To is in minutes. Ignoring the intensity term
in the retardance coefficient equation and using Cr =
0.05; find the time of concentration for the overland
flow from this area. Assuming gutter flow time to add
10 min., find the peak rate of runoff to be expected.
Solution:
We have the relationship for over land flow time,

111.b.L1o/ 3 0.000275 p  Cr
To  minutes where b
Kp 2/3
So1/ 3
Cr
Ingnoring p term and substitution of values yields, b  1/ 3  0.347
So
Also, for the Single family residence, from the Table, K = 0.3

Substitution of values in the equation for over land flow time, we have

111(0.347).(40)1 3
To  which yields To = 75 minutes
[0.3(64 To1 2 )]2 3

Here,
Inlet time or overland flow time, To = 75 min
Gutter flow time, Tf = 10 min
Hence,
Total time of concentration, Tc = To + Tf = 75 + 10 = 85 min
Now,
p  64 / T01 2  64 751 2  7.4 cm/hr
and,
K . p. A  0.37.4 5  0.31 cumec
1 1
Qmax 
36 36
Example-1
Determine the time of concentration for the drainage basin
having the following conditions:
A. Overland flow: 300' @ 2.5%, average cover
B. Shallow concentrated flow: 400' @ 4.0%
C. Stream flow: 4700' @ 0.3%, average cross section as shown:

Solution:
A. Overland flow using the Nomograph.
B. Shallow concentrated flow using the graph for unpaved
surface.
C. Stream flow using Manning’s formula.
Example-2
Determine the time of concentration for the drainage basin
having the following conditions:
A. Overland flow: 150' @ 2%, over average grassy surface
B. Shallow concentrated flow: 350' @ 4.0%
C. Stream flow: 2700' @ 0.3% & 2000’ @ 0.4% slopes
respectively, cross sections are:

Solution:
A. Overland flow using the nomograph.
B. Shallow concentrated flow using the graph for unpaved
surface.
C. Stream flow using Manning’s formula.
Example-3
Determine the time of concentration for the drainage basin
having the following conditions:
A. Overland flow: 100' @ 2.5%, average cover
B. Shallow concentrated flow: 600' @ 4.0%
C. Stream flow: 4700' @ 0.3%

Solution:
A. Overland flow using the nomograph.
B. Shallow concentrated flow using the graph for unpaved
surface.
C. Stream flow using Manning’s formula.
Water Budget Equation
From the continuity equation for water

Mass inflow - mass outflow = change in mass storage

Water budget of a catchment for a time interval Δt is written as

P–R–G–E-T=ΔS

Where
P = precipitation,
R = surface runoff,
G = net ground water flow out of the catchment
= Gin - Gout,
E = evaporation,
T = transpiration and
Δ S = change in storage.

All terms in the equation may have the dimensions of volume

or depth over the catchment area.
EXAMPLE # 1
A lake had a water surface elevation of 103.2 m above datum at the
beginning of certain month. In that month the lake received an
average inflow of 6.0 m3/sec from surface runoff sources. In the same
period the outflow from the lake had an average value of 6.5 m3/sec.
Further, in that month, the lake received a rainfall of 145 mm and the
evaporation from the lack surface was estimated as 6.10 cm. Write
the water budget equation for the lake and calculate water surface
elevation of the lake at the end of month. The average lake surface
area can be taken as 5000 ha. Assume that there is no contribution to
or from the ground water storage.
DATA:
WSEstart = 103.2 m;
Surface Inflow = 6.0 m3/sec = 6.0 x 30 x 24 x 60 x 60 m3;
Surface Outflow = 6.5 m3/sec = 6.5 x 30 x 24 x 60 x 60 m3;
Area = 5000 ha = 5000 x 104 m2;
Precipitation = 145 mm = 0.145 m = (145 x 10-3) x (5000 x 104) m3;
Evaporation = 6.10 cm = 6.10 x 10-2 m = 0.061 x 5000 x 104 m3;
Water budget equation = ?
WSEend = ?
Solution:
For the given lake, Water budget equation will be written as
Inflow volume – Outflow volume = Change in storage (∆S)
Inflow volume = Surface Inflow + Precipitation
= (6.0 x 30 x 24 x 60 x 60) + (0.145 x 5000 x 104)
= 22.802 x 106 m3

Outflow volume = Surface Outflow + Evaporation

= (6.5 x 30 x 24 x 60 x 60 ) + (0.061 x 5000 x 104)
= 19.898 x 106 m3

Therefore, ∆S = 22.802 x 106 - 19.898 x 106 = 2.904 x 106 m3

Change in elevation, ∆Z = ∆S/A = 2.904 x 106 / 5000 x 104

= 0.05808 m
Since, Inflow>Outflow, there will be rise in water elevation.
Hence,
WSEend = WSEstart + ∆Z = 103.2 + 0.05808 = 103.25808 m
Example # 2
A small catchment of area 150 ha received a rainfall of 10.5 cm
in 90 min duration due to a storm. At the outlet of the
catchment, the stream draining the catchment was dry before
the storm and experienced a runoff lasting for 10 hr with an
average value of 2.0 m3/sec. The stream was again dry after
the runoff event. What is the amount of water which was not
available to runoff due to combined effect of infiltration,
evaporation and transpiration? Also compute the ratio of
runoff to precipitation.
Data:
Area = 150 ha = 150 x 104 m2
Rainfall, P = 10.5 cm = 10.5/100 m = 0.105 x 150x104 m3
Storm duration, ∆tp = 90 min
Runoff duration, ∆tr = 10 hr
Runoff, R = 2.0 m3/sec = 2.0 x 10 x 60 x 60 m3
Solution:
The general Water budget equation in time ∆t,
ΔS = P – R – G – E - T (1)
Amount of water not available for runoff, i.e.
Losses, L = G + E + T
Change in storage, ΔS = 0
Hence Eq. (1) becomes, 0 = P – R – (G + E + T) (2)
(a) From eq.(2), L=P–R
Putting the values, L = (0.105 x 150 x 104) – (2.0 x 10 x 60 x 60)
= 157,500 – 72,000
= 85,500 m3

(b) Runoff Coefficient = R/P = 72,000/157,500 = 0.457

Example # 3
In a watershed that is 3.5 km2, the volume of annual
precipitation was 5,000 m3 and the volume of water that was
evaporated was 400 m3. Estimate the volume of annual runoff
(m3). Assume that storage and groundwater flux are negligible.

Solution:

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Example # 4
In a watershed that is 5 km2, annual precipitation was 20 cm and
the evaporation rate was 0.01 cm/d. Estimate the volume of
annual runoff (m3). Assume that storage and groundwater flux
are negligible.

Solution:

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Example # 5
The area of interest is 20.8 mi2 draining past a gage recording the
streamflow. For 1985, the total precipitation measured at a rain gage
in the region was 42.71 inches, the average annual streamflow as
measured at the stream gage was reported as 23.83 ft3/sec,
groundwater withdrawal from wells, obtained from utility records, was
1.89 mgd (million gallons per day), and the change in groundwater
storage was estimated as 0.42 inches per year. The unknown in this
water balance is therefore evapotranspiration.

Solution:
Precipitation = 42.71 in/yr
Runoff = 23.83 ft3/sec = (23.83x1728) in3/sec (1 ft3 = 1728 in3 )
= (23.83x1728)x365x24x60x60 in3/yr
= (23.83x1728)x365x24x60x60 in3/yr / 20.8×(5280)2x(12)2in2
= 15.55 in/yr

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Groundwater withdrawals = 1.89 mgd
= 1.89 × 106 gal/d
= 1.89 × 106 x 0.1605 ft3/d
= 303,427.6 ft3/d
= 303,427.6 (12 in)3 x 365 /yr
= 303,427.6 x123 x 365 in3/yr
= 303,427.6 x123 x 365 in3/yr /
20.8 mi2
= 303,427.6 x123 x 365 in3/yr /
20.8x(5280)2x(12)2 in2
= 303,427.6 x123 x 365 in3/yr /
(20.8x5280x12) in2
= 2.29 in/yr

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Δ groundwater storage = 0.42 in/yr

Evapotranspiration = (42.71 − 15.55 − 2.29 − 0.42) in/yr

= 24.55 in/yr

This calculation shows that evapotranspiration is about 57.5% of

the precipitation input.

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Further exercises

Question
Write a hydrologic budget equation for each of
the scenarios below, and calculate the change in
storage. Also write whether the hydrologic
budget is at a loss, a gain, or at steady state.

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Problem # 1
Precipitation = 72 in/yr
Evapotranspiration = 59 in/yr
Surface water Runoff = 9.6 in/yr
Groundwater pumping = 3.4 in/yr

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Problem # 2
Evapotranspiration = 55 in/yr
Surface water Runoff = 9.6 in/yr
Groundwater pumping = 3.4 in/yr
Precipitation = 60 in/yr

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Problem # 3
Surface water Runoff = 9.6 in/yr
Groundwater pumping = 3.4 in/yr
Precipitation = 60 in/yr
Evapotranspiration = 55 in/yr
Groundwater inflow = 8 in/yr

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Problem # 4
Groundwater pumping = 0 in/yr
Surface water Runoff = 9.6 in/yr
Evapotranspiration = 55 in/yr
Precipitation = 60 in/yr
Groundwater inflow = 8 in/yr

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Problem # 5
Groundwater pumping = 5 in/yr
Surface water Runoff = 9.6 in/yr
Evapotranspiration = 55 in/yr
Precipitation = 60 in/yr
Groundwater inflow = 8 in/yr

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Problem # 6
Groundwater pumping = 5 in/yr
Surface water Runoff = 23 in/yr
Evapotranspiration = 50 in/yr
Precipitation = 80 in/yr
Groundwater inflow = 8 in/yr

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Problem # 7
Groundwater pumping = 10 in/yr
Surface water Runoff = 23 in/yr
Evapotranspiration = 50 in/yr
Precipitation = 80 in/yr
Groundwater inflow = 8 in/yr

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Problem # 8
Groundwater pumping = 10 in/yr
Surface water Runoff = 23 in/yr
Evapotranspiration = 50 in/yr
Precipitation = 80 in/yr
Groundwater inflow = 8 in/yr
Leakage from septic systems = 2 in/yr

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