Module 1: World Regions in Global Context

Introduction
Here is an experiment you shouldn’t try. Grab your cell phone, throw it on the ground, stomp on it, and
pick through the pieces. Amid the remnants, you can find the world. The screen was manufactured in Mexico.
The microprocessor chip was assembled in a factory in China, owned by a company in South Korea, funded by
investment from the United States. The software code that runs the phone was designed by a programmer in
India. The electronics are made from materials found in copper mines in Chile and coltan mines in the
Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), and the lead that soldered together the circuit board comes from
Australia. Your cell phone cannot exist without the resources and knowledge of all these different world
regions.

The objects we use in our daily lives are produced through international linkages and are central to the
processes of globalization. Globalization reflects a world where places and people are increasingly connected.
Thanks to these connections, resources and products as well as ideas, languages, culture, and music flow
from place to place, making places seem more similar. And yet places remain strikingly different in spite of
these similarities. Why?

If you visited all the places involved in the production of your phone, you would find well-educated,
highly paid technicians living in Bangalore, India. In Mexico, the urbanbased factory that produced the screen
employs workers who migrated from rural areas. The Chilean copper mine is an enormous pit mine, three miles
wide and a half-mile deep, drawing and polluting water from local communities. In Australia mines are located
on lands where indigenous people struggle for their rights, and in the DRC the mining of coltan has fueled
conflicts. In all these places, cell phones have become the way people connect to each other, but these places
are different because of the economic, cultural, and environmental transformations that happen when they
connect to global networks. This process is regionalization—a world where novel cultures, ideas, and products
emerge from the mix of elements into new unique regions. The conclusion you can draw smashing your cell
phone and considering its global originsis: places are different because they are connected.
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Learning Objectives:
A. Compare and contrast the concepts of globalization and regionalization.
B. Describe the Anthropocene’s global impacts on earth systems and analyze related environmental
issues and sustainability choices.
C. Differentiate between forms of economic activity and explain why these forms vary around the
globe.
D. Explain contemporary economic development trends and describe the main indicators of social
and economic advancement.
E. Identify the global, regional, and national actors that play a vital role in the world today.

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 F. Explain the implications of globalization and regionalization for world regions and cultures.
G. Provide examples of how the global distribution of languages and religions is changing.
H. Apply the demographic transition model and use population pyramids to explain how and why
regional
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Thinking Like a Geographer

 Geography is the study of global relationships involving everything from how people earn a living to
how they interact with the environment. Geographers seek to understand where things are, why they
are there, and how they are connected.
 Geography comes from the Greek word geographia, which translates as“writing the world.”
 Geographers do this through the study of physical geography, which is concerned with climate,
weather patterns, landforms, soil formation, and plant and animal ecology and through human
geography, which focuses on the spatial organization of human activity and how humans make Earth
into a home.
 Environmental geography connects physical and human geography, as geographers also study the
relationship between humans and the natural and built environments in which they live.
 The power of world regional geography lies in its ability to describe and examine global geographic
processes, while at the same time explaining why and how certain patterns emerge on Earth.

Place and the Making of Regions

 World regions can best be thought of as an aggregation of places and the connections that develop
between those places over time.
 Places themselves are dynamic, with changing properties and fluid boundaries that are the product of
a wide variety of environmental and human factors.
 Places exert a strong influence, for better or worse, on people’s physical well-being, opportunities,
and lifestyle choices.
 Places also contribute to people’s collective memory and are powerful emotional and cultural
symbols.
 A sense of place refers to the feelings evoked among people as a result of the experiences and
memories they associate with a place and to the symbolism they attach to that place.
 A sense of place develops out of the human capacity to reorganize the natural world into a built
environment. Geographers think of the built environment as landscape,Earth’s surface as
transformed by human activity.
 As a product of human actions over time, landscape provides evidence about our character and
experience, our struggles and human triumphs.
 Through an analysis of landscape, geographers compare the meanings of the natural environment
and built environment in the context of different places and regions.

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  Regionalism is a term used to describe the strong feeling of collective identity often shared by people
who inhabit a region with distinctive characteristics.
 The feelings that one has toward places and regions also generate one’s geographical imagination.
 A geographical imagination is how people think about the world around them—their own places and
the places of others.
 Combined with critical thinking, a geographical imagination allows geographers to understand
changing meanings of social identity and the relationships among people, places, and regions.

Maps and Mapping

 Geographers use many tools to study the world, including maps as well as statistical and qualitative
techniques
 A map is a visual representation and generalization of the world
 Maps can locate places using a coordinate system of latitude and longitude.
 Maps also represent the names that people ascribe to places and the relationships that exist between
places.
 Maps help geographers ask questions about the relationship between different sociocultural, political-
economic, or environmental distributions, human activities and living experiences as well as uses of the
natural environment.
 Maps are not neutral objects, as every single map is created through a series of choices about what
should and what should not appear on it.
 A map set at the global scale tends to be more general than one at regional, national, or even local
scale.
 On a constantly changing Earth, every map is only a snapshot.

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 Some regions that we take for granted now would have made no sense to people in the past. The Ancient
Celts or Romans would never have recognized “Europe” as a coherent world region 2,000 years ago.

◀▶Figure 1.3 Tabula Rogeriana

Muhammed al-Idrisi, an Islamic
cartographer, had a strong impact
on mapmaking worldwide. Tabula
Rogeriana is a “map of the known
world,” which al-Idrisi produced in
1154 for King Roger of Sicily. It
includes Europe, Asia, and North
Africa. The Islamic tradition places
the south at the top of the map, in
contrast to many world maps today.
The map became the basis of many
other maps of the world by both
Islamic and European
cartographers.

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Globalization and Regionalization
 The world has always been global. Since Homo sapiens walked out of East Africa and long after the
moment when McDonald’s began to appear in malls in Kenya.
 In today’s world, these connections have intensified and become more widespread in a process
geographers call globalization
 Globalizationis a sytem of elements-political-economic, sociocultural, environmental-linked together so
that changes in one element often result in changes in another.
 Some scholars predict that the most recent wave of globalization will result in unprecedented consolidation
and homogenization of the world’s ecologies, economies, and societies.
 And yet parts of the world retain their uniqueness and new world regions may emerge over time. We use
the term regionalization to describe how and why new regions emerge.
 It is the process of making new global connections that allows or causes world regions to change. These
connections mean that world regions are:
 best studied by considering how they interact and develop as part of wider global political-
economic, sociocultural, and environmental systems;
 best conceptualized as interdependent, as they affect, and are affected by, each other; and
 best understood as products of change over time.
 By studying world regions, we can understand why and how differences emerge, even as global
processes connect the world’s regions in new and important ways.

A World of Regions
Exploring the interconnections among world regions not only helps explain the contemporary world,
but it also allows us to think about where the world might go from here. The world we grew up in, and all the

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regions we know now, will not and cannot be the ones we will inhabit in the future. New regions and clusters
are developing as places in the world connect in new ways. To highlight the changing nature of regions,
consider that the regions and countries described in this edition of this book are already different from those in
the previous edition published only three years ago. Regional changes in politics and government (as in the
struggle over Crimea between Ukraine and Russia), the continuing emergence of economic power centers
(such as Brazil and China) in what used to be called the underdeveloped world, and new regional opportunities
and challenges (such as the Arctic melting as a result of global warming) demonstrate the ever-changing
nature of world regions (Figure 1.6). In an effort to address the emerging and future topics that affect each
region, we introduce several Emerging World Regions.

An emerging world region is an area where loosely connected locations are developing shared
characteristics that differentiate them from other world regions, past and present. These areas may become
increasingly important to global relationships or systems. For example, the Arctic, which has often been viewed
in fragments (as part of a number of different world regions, such as the United States and Canada, Europe,
and Russia), is now linked closely together through human migration, international trade, and shared
environmental problems. An emerging world region may also be noncontiguous—it might not share borders
with other partners in the region. This is the case for new regions, such as BRICS— Brazil, Russia, India,
China, and South Africa—which have strong regional connections even though they are spread widely across
the planet.

Organizing and Exploring the World’s Regions

The world region concept is a useful tool for organizing and understanding information about the world.
Accordingly, the framework for the study of world regions in this chapter provides the structure for the 10 world

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regional chapters that follow. Each chapter is organized around a set of themes common to every world region,
though unique in each.
 Environment, Society, and Sustainability: How environments change and are changed by people.
 History, Economy, and Territory: How history, economics, and politics evolve over time •
 Culture and Populations: How people and cultures all around the world interact and change
 Future Geographies: How contemporary regional differences and new global forces are likely to
impact important real world issues in coming years

Environment. Society, and Sustainability

 The term environment to describe the physical and ecological setting for human activities where the
environment is critical to the study of world regions.
 Environmental characteristics that are studied by physical geographers and other Earth scientists include
rainfall, temperature, vegetation, soils, wildlife, geology, and landforms.
 World regions are shaped as the environment influences many opportunities for societies, but also as
people transform the environment.
 A physical environment with extreme cold, little water or frequent storms, and unstable geology can pose
great challenges for human survival, yet humanity now occupies extreme and hazardous environments in
places such as the Arctic region of Russia or drought and earthquake prone California in the United States
 Although some still call our physical and biological surroundings the ‘natural’ environment, almost all
aspects of the Earth system have now been transformed by human action and there is very little
untouched ‘nature’. And humans, as one of many species occupying the planet, are part of nature as well.
 Much of our evolution as a species took place during the Pleistocene epoch.
 Scientists have traditionally divided Earth’s history into epochs lasting thousands of years during which
geological conditions produce characteristic rock layers and fossils.
 The Pleistocene epoch lasted from about 2.5 million to 11,700 years ago and included major glaciations
when much of North America and Europe were covered with ice, with ecosystems dominated by now
extinct large mammals such as mammoths and with the emergence of modern humans.
 The Pleistocene ended when the ice retreated and warmer stable temperatures allowed for the
development of agriculture and the expansion of human populations during the most recent epoch called
the Holocene.
 We now live in the Anthropocene—the period of Earth’s history where human activity dominates the earth
system
 In the last 200 years we have cleared more than half of the world’s forest cover, polluted rivers and
oceans with chemicals and plastic, warmed the climate by doubling the carbon dioxide content of the
atmosphere, and contributed to the extinction of hundreds of species.
 Environmental sustainability is a concept that challenges us to live within the constraints of the earth’s
system without causing irreversible damage to it or harming the lives of future generations.

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 Sustainabiiity requires evaluation of our decisions and their environmental impacts, including our choices
regarding consumption, affluence, production, population, technology, and social organization.
 The characteristics of different regions—culture, politics, lifestyles, and economy—have significant
impacts on their sustainability.

Climate and Climate Change

 Weather and climate are ever-present aspects of the environment that impact our lives.
 Weather is the current state of temperature and precipitation (it is a cold day or it is raining) at a particular
time and place.
 Climate is the average weather or typical conditions of temperature, precipitation (e.g., rain, snow), and
other weather variables (e.g., humidity, wind) at a location over the longer term (this is generally a cold
place or a wet place or summers are hot).
 Climate—the saying goes—is what we expect, weather is what we get.
 Our weather and climate are products of the climate system— the effects of the sun’s energy with the
interactions of air (atmosphere), water (hydrosphere), ice (cryosphere), landforms (lithosphere), and
ecosystems (biosphere).
 The climate is not the same everywhere because places receive different amounts of sunlight and have
different atmospheric compositions (e.g., because of dust or pollution); amounts of water, snow, and ice;
and dissimilar landforms and ecosystems.
 But climate regions are also connected. As the sun heats one region and cools another, masses of air rise
and fall and flow with winds and currents from one place to another, bringing moisture that can fall as rain
or transporting pollution across the globe.
 If any of these components of the climate system change, the average temperature or precipitation may
also change local and global conditions in a process called climate change.

Regional Climate
 The climates of world regions are influenced by a number of basic factors. These include the orientation to
the sun at different times of the year and the associated variations in solar radiation; the configuration of
land, sea, and mountains; the resulting atmospheric circulation of air and ocean currents that transport
heat and moisture from one place to another; and precipitation process
 These influences combine to create climatic patterns across the world that can be classified according to
temperature and moisture characteristics. The most commonly used classification is based on that of
Köppen, which has five major types of climate: tropical, dry, temperate, continental and high land.
Subdivisions indicate whether seasons are wet or dry, warm or cool, and presence of ice.

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PLACES AND LANDSCAPE IN THE CHANGING WORLD
Climate Change and a Warming World
 Although the climate can remain stable for
centuries, global and regional climates have varied
over time, especially as a result of slight changes
in the tilt of Earth’s axis and its orbit around the
Sun that cooled Earth into ice ages.
 The landscapes of places such as western
Canada, the U.S. Rocky Mountains, the Andes,
Scotland, and Norway show the marks of former
ice cover from periods when it was so cold that
rivers of ice (called glaciers) or massive sheets of
ice (ice caps) covered much of the world.
 The remnants of the ice still remain in Antarctica
and the Arctic, and the highest mountain regions.
Global and regional climates cool temporarily when
the dust from volcanic eruptions blocks sunlight.
Rainfall may also vary over the centuries as a
result of slight shifts in atmospheric circulation

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 Scientists agree that humanity is now changing the climate in a dramatic way. One of the most significant
markers of the Anthropocene is the rapid increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases, which have caused
the Earth to warm.
 We have altered the composition of the atmosphere through burning of coal, oil, and gas, using more
electricity, cutting down forests, and increasing the global livestock herd. All these activities emit
greenhouse gases—especially carbon dioxide and methane—that trap heat within the atmosphere,
resulting in a global warming of the atmosphere and surface.
 This warming has resulted in higher average temperatures in most world regions, decreases in ice and
snow cover, and changes in rainfall patterns and climate extremes such as heat waves, droughts, and
severe storms.

 The United Nations (UN) has established an expert group of hundreds of scientist-the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The IPCC’s 2014 report-Climate Change 2014- confirms that Earth is
already warming, caused by increaes in greenhouse gases that have reached the highest levels in more
than 800,00 years.
 If current trends in emissions continue, Earth could warms more than 2°C (3.5°F) this century with even
greater warming in polar and temperate regions.
 The IPCC also forecasts that droughts and floods will become more intense, sea level will rise by several
feet, and the oceans will become more acidic from carbon dioxide.
 A warmer, more extreme climate will have significant implications for plants and wildlife, and many may
need to move if their habitat becomes too warm or dry.
 The human impacts are also serious: Climate change, according to the IPCC, will affect the security of
food and water in regions that become drier, increase the intensity of weather disasters and forest fires,
and alter patterns of insect-borne and other diseases.

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 Social vulnerability to climate extremes and changes—climate vulnerability—is as important as the
physical location and severity of high temperatures, droughts, or floods.
 High temperatures and droughts, for example, can have much more severe human impacts on health and
food security where people do not have air conditioning or irrigation.
 The poor are often more vulnerable to climate extremes because they cannot afford to protect themselves
— through locating homes in safer locations, equipping farms with irrigation, purchasing disaster
insurance, or accessing government support.
 Geographers have played an important role in defining and mapping climate vulnerability—the
characteristics of people or places that affect their capacity to anticipate, cope with, resist, and recover
from the impact of a natural hazard. These characteristics can include income, gender, age, and ethnicity
 There are “hotspots” for climate change and climate vulnerability, where it will get warmer and drier with
serious impacts for poorer and disadvatged populations. These hotspots include southern Africa, the U.S.
South-west, australia, the Mediterranean, and the Arctic.
 While some reghions become hotter and drier, others may experience more intense precipitation and flood
risk.‘ There is a spirited debate about what to do about climate change. Should we reduce emissions
(termed mitigation) as fast as possible and does this mean shifting from fossil fuels to renewable energy?
 Should we learn how to adapt to living in a warmer, more hazardous world?
 Which regions are most responsible for the emissions, which regions are most severely impacted and
how, and who should respond and when?
 You can see some of these patterns in Visualizing Geography: “The Causes and Consequences of
Climate Change” International actions to respond to climate change are framed by the 1992 United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), ratified by almost all countries with the
goal of reducing the risks of dangerous anthropogenic climate change through reducing emissions
(mitigation), coping with the effects (adaptation) and financial assistance to developing countries.
 In 1997, the Kyoto Protocol—a treaty in which countries promised to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by
at least 5% between 2008 and 2012—was signed by a smaller group of developed countries. It included
mechanisms for carbon trading.
 Increasing awareness of the risk of climate change, and that much deeper cuts were needed, produced
the 2015 Paris Agreement, in which all countries committed to keep warming under 2°C. Countries
promised much deeper cuts by 2020 and beyond—the U.S. up to 28%, the European Union 40%, and
Costa Rica to become carbon neutral (net zero emissions) by using renewables and protecting its forests.
 Major emitters such as India and China also promised to significantly reduce their growth in emissions. At
least $100 billion a year was set as a financial goal for helping least developed and other vulnerable
countries reduce emissions and adapt to the impacts and losses of climate change.

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PLACES AND LANDSCAPE IN THE CHANGING WORLD
Geological Resources, Risks, and Water
 Like the global climate system, the geologic system of Earth helps produce regions by uplifting mountains,
forming water drainage and river systems, and producing diverse resources and hazards around the
world.
 Earth’s physical features greatly influence how people live in different landscapes.
 The study of the physical processes that create these features is known as geomorphology.
 Underlying these physical forces on the Earth’s surface are processes at work deep within Earth’s molten
core and surface crust, which drive the slow movement of large “plates” of solid rock that constitute the
landmasses called continents.
 As plates interact, they create geological features. Where plates collide or converge, they form mountains.
Where plates pull apart or diverge, they form deep ocean canyons and valleys.
 These plate tectonics also create unstable geological conditions—transform boundaries—where blocks of
Earth’s crust move suddenly alongside or under each other causing earthquakes .Where molten rock is
forced to the surface, we often find volcanoes.

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Resources and Risks
Geological conditions pose seriious hazards and risk s to humanity, especially in the tectonically active zone
around the Pacific-called the Ring of Fire- where earthquakes and volcanoes threaten the lives and homes of
residents of the western Americas from Alaska to Chile, Asia, including Japan and Indonesia, and Pacific
islands such as Hawaii and New Zealand. For example, a majjor earthqualke in Japan in 2011 damaged
buildings and caused a tsunami that desatbilized the Fukushima nuclear plant.

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River Formation and Water Management
 When rain falls on the land, it can erode (cut into) the surface, especially on slopes, and will start to
channel water into streams and rivers flowing toward the ocean or lakes in interior low lands.
 Flows are especially intense on mountaiin slopes, during heavy rainstorms, and when the snow melts in
the spring.
 During ice ages and under current glaciers, ice flows, and also carves out deep valleys that usually
contain rivers or lakes when ice melts.
 Rivers and lakes when are critical source of fresh water for ecosystem s and for human activity. They are
often locations for human settlement, including cities. Industry, and agriculture. Which benifit from the
adjacent water resources. Including the rich sediments deposited by rivers that create fertile soil.
Fisheries, the use of water for drinking, transportation, and for electricity generation through hydropower.
 Most of the regions have large concentrations of people in major river basins and arround lakes-such as
the Great lakes in North America, the Rhine in Europe, and the Ganges in Spouth Asia.
 But when heavy precipitaion causes rivers to overflow, the resulting flooding can destroy property and
farm land and place lives at risk. As with climate, some people are more socially and economically
vulnerable than others to floods.

Ecology, Land, and Environmental Management

The interactions of climate, geomorphology, and human activity are the major influences on the global
distribution of living things. Over large regions of similar climate and physical conditions, we can identify major
biomes (also called ecoregions), with vegetation closely correlated with temperature and rainfall: forests where
rainfall is high, grasslands where precipitation is less and temperatures are moderate, and deserts where it is
dry (figure 1.15). The science of ecology studies the interactions between living organisms (e.g., plants and
animals) and their physical surroundings and classifies them into different communities called ecosystems.

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Ecosystems and Biodiversity Decline
A few large ecosystems host the wealth of Earth’s species and genetic variability. This biodiversity—
the variety and differences in the types and numbers of species in different regions of the world—has been a
boon for human beings for more than 10,000 years, first providing food and clothing from hunting, gathering,
and fishing wild species, and then through the selective cultivation and breeding of plants and animals in the
process of domestication and agriculture. Biodiversity and ecosystems provide a range of ecosystem services
to society, including food, building materials, and medicine, as well as enjoyment, recreation, cultural values,
and enhancement of water resources (figure 1.16).

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 Biodiversity is lost as land is converted from diverse forests and grasslands to crops, ranches, and
settlements, and as a growing population overharvests wildlife and fisheries.
 Although it is impossible to estimate the exact rate of loss today, the International Union for Conservation
of Nature (IUCN) estimates that one in eight birds, one in four mammals, and one in three amphibians
(e.g., frogs) are threatened with extinction.
 All of the world regions have suffered serious declines in biodiversity in all ecosystems.
 Efforts to restore biodiversity include rewilding of ecosystems through the reintroduction of key species
like wolves into the Yellowstone ecosystem in North America, the restoration of forests, and even genetic
breeding of cattle in efforts to produce cattle with some of the characteristics of extinct wild cattle called
auroch or the extinct animals of the Pleistocene period (fiGure 1.17).
 Efforts to protect biodiversity range from endangered species protection and reserves to international
treaties such as the Convention on Biodiversity.

◀▶figure 1.17
Rewilding Fauna that
populated North
America during the
Pleistocene included
mammoths, saber tooth
cats, dire wolves, and a
zebra like horse.
Reintroducing major
species or their
equivalents is imagined
to encourage the return
of pre-human
ecosystems.

Human-Influenced Ecologies
 Human activities are by no means always ecologically destructive.
 Wherever people travel or migrate, they bring other species with them. Sometimes this is intentional, as
when humans introduce new agricultural species, and sometimes it is accidental, as in the case of many
pests and predators.
 The selective breeding of crops and animals for food and fiber has evolved to include genetic modification
(GM) and biological manipulation to increase production or pest resistance.
 Roughly one-tenth of cropland is now planted to GM varieties including corn, soybeans, and cotton.

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 While some people are concerned about the implications of these crops for native agricultural diversity,
human health, or local ecosystems, others see them as the creative solution to food security and climate
change.
 Humans may not be acting intentionally when species from one place “hitchhike” to new locations along
with humans. Nonetheless, these introduced plants and animals can thrive at their destination, interacting
with native species and habitats to create new ecological mixes, land covers, and ecosystems.
 Invasive species can overtake pastures, disrupt water systems, kill or drive other species to extinction, and
wreak expensive and unanticipated havoc on important local plant or animal resources.

Sustainability and the Future

 There is a growing concern that the recent rate of change in climate and ecology in the Anthropocene has
brought us close to thresholds that, if exceeded, could lead to rapid and irreversible changes and to
serious risks for much of humanity and other species.
 We are reaching danger zones with regards to climate change, biodiversity loss, and pollution that present
serious problems for the security of food, water, energy, and health, especially for vulnerable populations.
 There have been calls for humanity to reduce our impact on the planet through adopting principles of
sustainability, which allow us to meet current and future human needs while simultaneously preserving our
world’s precious environmental resources.
 Sustainability is often seen to include goals of meeting economic, social, and environmental needs at the
same time.
 In business this is known as the “triple bottom line” of serving profit, people, and the planet through making
money, while also providing fair wages and community benefits and minimizing environmental impact.
 Some are cynical about business claims for sustainability, suggesting that the few actions they take to
protect the environment are a form of “greenwashing” or are only implemented as a result of public
pressure or government regulation.
 Sustainability has become an important element of policy and actions in all world regions as a result of
public pressures, leadership and international agreements, which promote more sustainable approaches
to everyday living and the economy.
 Sustainable energy systems focus on conservation, efficiency, and the use of renewable sources such as
solar energy. Sustainable cities are designed to reduce the use of the automobile, provide healthy
environments and promote homes and buildings that are built to conserve energy and Water.

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PLACES AND LANDSCAPE IN THE CHANGING WORLD