Addison Wesly Biology PDF

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Addison Wesley Ray Bowers

Science Authors
Toronto District School Board
Ray Bowers Toronto, Ontario
Eric Brown
Sadru Damji
Dean Eichorn
Dean Eichorn
Ute Goering-Boone Langley School District
Art Last Langley, British Columbia
Dale Parker
Robert Perkins Len Silverman
Geoff Rayner-Canham Toronto District School Board
Mark van Roode Toronto, Ontario
Len Silverman
Gail de Souza Gail de Souza
Elgin Wolfe
Dufferin-Peel Catholic Separate School Board
Rob Young
Mississauga, Ontario
Advisory Panel Rob Young

Ray Bowers Peel District School Board
Shawna Hopkins Mississauga, Ontario
Heather Mace
Philip Marsh Contributing Author
Graham Satterthwaite Robert Hedges
Gail de Souza
Peel District School Board
Elgin Wolfe
Mississauga, Ontario
Toronto
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education Canada Inc., Toronto, Ontario

All rights reserved. This publication is protected by copyright, and permission should be
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However, the publisher shall not be liable for any damages resulting, in whole or in part, from
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Ack n ow l e d g e m e n t s
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Toronto District School Board
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Contents
UNIT 1 4.3 Protein Synthesis

4.4 Photosynthesis and Food Production
93
95
Cellular Functions 2 4.5 Cellular Respiration
Case Study Ethanol or Fossil Fuels?
98
102
Investigation 1 Factors Affecting Fermentation 103
CHAPTER 1 Investigation 2 Factors Affecting the Rate of
The Chemistry of Life 4 Photosynthesis 104
1.1 The Chemical Basis of Cells 6 Chapter Summary 105
1.2 Carbohydrates: Short-Term Energy Storage 13 Chapter 4 Review 106
1.3 Lipids: Long-Term Energy Storage 17
Case Study Diet and Disease 21 Exploring Careers 108
1.4 Proteins 23 Achievement Task 110
1.5 Nucleic Acids 26 Unit 1 Review 112
Investigation 1 Building Molecular Models 29
Investigation 2 Testing for Compounds in Foods 31
Chapter Summary 33
Chapter 1 Review 34
UNIT 2
Genetic Continuity 116
CHAPTER 2
Cell Structure and Function 36 CHAPTER 5
2.1 A Background to Cell Structure 38 Mitosis and Meiosis 118
2.2 Cell Structures 41 5.1 Mitosis 120
2.3 Cytoplasmic Organelles 48 Case Study The Demand for Human Tissue 129
Case Study Ethics and Stem Cell Research 57 5.2 Meiosis 131
Investigation 1 Estimating an Object’s Size with 5.3 Sexual versus Asexual Reproduction 143
the Microscope 58
Investigation 1 Observing Cells in the Process
Investigation 2 Characteristics of Cells 60 of Meiosis 147
Chapter Summary 61 Investigation 2 Illustrating Mistakes in Meiosis 148
Chapter 2 Review 62 Chapter Summary 149
Chapter 5 Review 150
CHAPTER 3
Cell Transport 64 CHAPTER 6
3.1 Cell Membrane: Gateway to the Cell 66 Genetics and Heredity 152
3.2 The Movement of Solutes and Water 68 6.1 The Origins of Genetics 154
3.3 Protein Carrier-Assisted Transport 72 6.2 Genetic Analysis 160
3.4 Transport Requiring Vesicles 75 6.3 Genetics After Mendel 168
Case Study Drug Addiction and the Cell 79 Investigation 1 Mendelian Inheritance Patterns 180
Investigation 1 A Study of Osmosis: Determining Investigation 2 Human Traits Following
the Solute Concentration of Potatoes 80 Mendel’s Patterns of Inheritance 182
Investigation 2 Effects on Permeability 82 Chapter Summary 183
Chapter Summary 83 Chapter 6 Review 184
Chapter 3 Review 84
CHAPTER 7
CHAPTER 4 Genetics and Society 186
Cells at Work 86
7.1 Genes, Chromosomes, and DNA 188
4.1 Cell Reactions and Energy 88 7.2 Genetic Disorders and Pedigrees 201
4.2 Enzymes 90 7.3 Applying Our Knowledge of Genetics 210
Contents v
Case Study What Genes Can Tell Us 225 10.2 The Structure and Function of the
Investigation 1 Gel Electrophoresis Simulation 228 Human Heart and Blood Vessels 324
Investigation 2 DNA Extraction 230 10.3 The Circulatory System in Health and
Chapter Summary 231 Disease 335
Chapter 7 Review 232 10.4 Circulatory Systems in Various Organisms 341
Investigation 1 Exercise and Pulse Rate 345
Exploring Careers 234 Investigation 2 Measuring Blood Pressure 346
Achievement Task 236 Investigation 3 Fetal Pig Dissection 349
Unit 2 Review 238 Chapter Summary 354
Exploring Careers 358

UNIT 3 Achievement Task 360
Unit 3 Review 362
Internal Systems 242
CHAPTER 8
Nutrition and Digestion 244
UNIT 4
8.1 Nutrition 246 Diversity of Living
Case Study Health and the Media 254
8.2 The Digestive System 256 Things 366
8.3 Accessory Organs in Digestion and their
Associated Enzymes 267 CHAPTER 11
8.4 Digestion in Various Organisms 275 Classification 368
Investigation 1 What Effect Does Temperature
Have on an Enzyme? 279 11.1 Taxonomy: Organizing the Diversity of Life 370
Investigation 2 Enzyme Activity in Fruit 281 11.2 Phylogeny, Taxonomy, and Natural Selection 377
Chapter Summary 282 Case Study Biodiversity and Aquaculture 382
Chapter 8 Review 284 Investigation 1 Using a Dichotomous Key 384
Chapter Summary 385
CHAPTER 9
Respiration 286
CHAPTER 12
9.1 The Respiratory System 288
Archaebacteria, Eubacteria,
9.2 The Physiology of Respiration 294
9.3 Respiratory Disorders 300
and Viruses 388
Case Study Health and the Global Community 305 12.1 The Prokaryotes: Archaebacteria and
9.4 Respiratory Systems in Eubacteria 390
Various Organisms 306 12.2 Viruses 400
Investigation 1 Measuring Lung Capacity— 12.3 Bacteria, Viruses, and Biotechnology 405
A Comparative Approach 309 Case Study Viruses: Research versus Risk 412
Investigation 2 The Effect of Airways of Investigation 1 Observing Bacteria 413
Different Diameters 311 Investigation 2 Preparing and Observing
Chapter Summary 312 Stained Bacteria 414
Chapter 9 Review 314 Chapter Summary 415
CHAPTER 10
Circulation 316 CHAPTER 13
10.1 The Human Circulatory System and the Protists, Fungi, and Plants 418
Components of Blood 318 13.1 The Protists 420
Case Study Fair Testing for Athletes? 323 13.2 The Fungi 427
vi Contents
13.3 The Plants 434 Investigation 1 A Test for Protein in Seeds 523
Investigation 1 Growing Moulds 445 Investigation 2 Eucalyptus Oil and Dust Mites 524
Investigation 2 Improving the Growth of Yeast 446 Chapter Summary 525
Chapter Summary 447 Chapter 15 Review 526
CHAPTER 16
CHAPTER 14 Plant Structure and Function 528
The Animal Kingdom 450 16.1 Root, Stem, Leaf: Structure and Function 530
14.1 Simple Animals 452 Case Study Using Plants to Fight Pollution 539
14.2 Wormlike Animals 457 16.2 Plant Tissues and Their Functions 541
14.3 Invertebrate Animals of Increasing 16.3 Water and Food Transport 545
Complexity 462 Investigation 1 Examining Monocot and Dicot
14.4 Joint-Legged Animals 465 Stems 551
14.5 Animals with Internal Skeletons 469 Investigation 2 Examining Plant Tissue 552
Case Study Cloning and the Cattle Industry 477 Chapter Summary 553
Investigation 1 Study of a Crayfish Body Plan 478 Chapter 16 Review 554
Investigation 2 Stream Study 479
Chapter Summary 481
CHAPTER 17
Plant Growth and Development 556
Exploring Careers 484 17.1 Plant Growth and Adaptations 558
Achievement Task 486 17.2 Hormones and the Control of Plant
Unit 4 Review 488 Growth 568
Investigation 1 Factors Affecting the Growth of
Plants 574
Investigation 2 Investigating Gravitropism 576
UNIT 5 Chapter Summary 577
Plants: Anatomy,
Growth, and Functions 492 Achievement Task 582
Unit 5 Review 584
CHAPTER 15
The Uses of Plants 494 Appendix 589
Glossary 610
15.1 Plants in Nature 496
Answers to Numerical Questions 630
15.2 Plants in Agriculture 502
Index 633
Case Study Canada’s Laws on Pesticide Use 509
Photo Credits and Acknowledgements 644
15.3 Plants in Industry 514
15.4 Plants in Medicine 519
Contents vii
UNIT
1 Cellular Functions
I
By the end of this unit, t all started in 1665 when Robert Hooke first viewed what he called cells
you will be able to: through his homemade microscope. It continues today as biologists use
the latest high-tech electron microscopes to reveal the mysteries of cells.
Demonstrate an understanding of
cell structure and function and the You don’t have to be a biologist, however, to benefit from knowledge about
processes of metabolism and cells. Whether you realize it or not, issues concerning cells affect you in
membrane transport
Investigate the fundamental
molecular principles and
mechanisms that govern energy-
transforming activities in all living
matter, whether it be animal, plant,
or microbial
Demonstrate an understanding of
the relationship between cell
functions and their technological
and environmental applications
b) Scanning electron micrograph

(SEM) of a monocyte
c) Scientist studying cells through a

a) A replica of Hooke’s microscope light microscope
2
your everyday life. Does that new low-fat diet you want to try actually work
and is it safe? Why is there such controversy surrounding the use of anabolic
steroids in sports? Should the government spend millions of tax dollars to
equip hospitals with MRI machines? What is the best way to clean up an oil
spill? These questions have one thing in common: they can best be answered
using an understanding of cellular functions.
In this unit, you will study the dynamic processes by which nutrients and
waste material are moved in, out, and around cells. You will investigate
molecules that make up the structure of cells and others that play important
roles in cell metabolism. You will examine the structures within cells that not
only ensure the health of each individual cell, but also the health of the
entire organism. You will gain the knowledge about cells necessary to make
important decisions throughout your entire life, decisions that could affect
your health and the world around you.
BIOLOGY HEADLINES
Cell Transplant Procedure Seen as Major Oil Company Uses Single-Celled Microbe to Purify
Breakthrough in Treating Diabetes Oil Sands
A team of Edmonton doctors has removed insulin- In the past, energy company Syncrude Canada has
producing cells known as islet cells from the pan- managed to cut costs at its Fort McMurray oil sands
creas of deceased human donors. The islet cells refining site by getting the bugs out of the process.
were then successfully transplanted into the livers But now it wants to invest over two million dollars
of 14 Canadians with Type 1 diabetes. After the to put bugs back into it! Pseudomonas bacteria will
transplant procedure, the diabetics no longer re- be used in one of a series of research projects to
quired daily insulin injections. The pioneer cell improve recovery rates from heavy oil sands mined
transplant procedure has been hailed as a major at the Fort McMurray site. It is hoped that the bac-
breakthrough in treating diabetes. teria will be useful in removing impurities like ni-
trogen compounds found in the Syncrude oil.
Bacteria have been used before to clean up oil
Lack of MRI Machines Tests the Patience of
spills, but this is the first time they will be used
Medical Patients
to purify oil.
Imagine feeling sick, but having to wait up to 12
months to find out what is wrong. Such delays face
PREVIEW
many Canadians waiting to receive a Magnetic ACHIEVEMENT TASK
Resonance Imaging (MRI) test. MRI technology is
extremely reliable and accurate for diagnosing con- At the end of the Unit you will demonstrate your learn-
ing by proposing recommendations to Health Canada
ditions such as cancer and brain tumours, but it
for allocation of funds for public health campaigns. You
is also extremely expensive. A single machine can
will research the diseases most affecting Canadians today
cost millions of dollars to purchase and hundreds
and analyze which disease or diseases could be most
of thousands of dollars each year to operate.
impacted by increased public awareness. You will also
Who will pay the bill?
consider the social and economic impacts of public
health campaigns, and how public awareness can be
most effectively achieved. See page 110.
3
CHAPTER 1
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS The Chemistry of Life
By the end of this chapter,
you will be able to:
identify and describe the structure
and function of important
biochemical compounds, including
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and
nucleic acids (1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5,
Investigation 1)
view and manipulate computer-
generated, three-dimensional
molecular models of important
biochemical compounds, including
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and
nucleic acids (1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5)
carry out biological tests for
macromolecules found in living
organisms (Investigation 2)
explain how the scientific
knowledge of cellular processes is
used in technological applications
(1.1, 1.2, 1.3)
analyse ways in which societal
needs have led to technological
advances related to cellular
processes (1.1, 1.2)
FIGURE 1.1 All life depends on the reactions of molecules in a watery

environment.
4
A ntelopes and grasshoppers, fish and Douglas fir. Life occurs in an

amazing number of different forms, but all consist of a few kinds of
molecules made up of a few different kinds of atoms. How do these atoms
and molecules produce such a variety of living things?
The bonding of atoms produces molecules of a specific structure or shape.
The structure of a particular molecule determines its function. A small change
in one portion of a molecule can mean an important difference in its shape
and a vast difference in its function. For example, a change in the hemoglobin
molecule of only one sub-unit out of a chain of 146 results in sickle-cell ane-
mia in people who have this altered hemoglobin in their red blood cells.
Symptoms include weakness and pain.
Even simple-appearing molecules such as water show the importance
of structure to function. Fifty to ninety-five percent of any living organism
is water and the structure of water gives it remarkable properties. Ions, such
as sodium (Na+) and calcium (Ca2+), account for about 1%, and the remain-
der of most cells consists of four types of compounds: carbohydrates, pro-
teins, lipids, and nucleic acids. These substances interact in a watery
environment. In this chapter, you will gain the understanding to appreciate
these important molecules of the cell and examine how chemical structure
and function are applied in technologies as diverse as magnetic resonance
imaging, production of baby food, and miniaturizing of electronic circuits.
Discovering Biology
Water: An excellent solvent
A solvent is the substance in which a solute is dissolved.
1. Place a small glass on a saucer and fill the glass to the brim with water.
2. Slowly add salt to the glass one spoonful at a time. CHECKPOINT
3. Record how many spoonfuls of salt the water can hold before the glass
overflows. Brainstorm what you know
about elements and how
What changes have taken place? they link to one another.
How can the water hold so much salt without overflowing?
Element
CHAPTER 1 The Chemistry of Life 5

1.1 The Chemical Basis of Cells

Key Understandings
When you have completed this section, you will be able to:
describe how atoms, ions, and molecules are important to biological compounds
represent the structure of important biological molecules in different ways
identify and describe the structure and biological functions of water
relate characteristics of acids and bases and the use of the pH scale to conditions in
living organisms
To understand how cells work it is nec-

essary to understand some chemistry.
The field of biochemistry studies the
chemical reactions that take place in
cells. The same compounds are pre- e– e–
WORD ORIGIN
sent and the same essential metabolic
Atom from the Greek atomos, processes go on in organisms as differ-
meaning “indivisible” or unable hydrogen hydrogen
ent as bacteria and humans. The prin-
to divide. Democritus kept atom atom
ciples of chemistry and the mechanisms
breaking grains of salt into e–
smaller pieces and asked his
of chemical reactions apply inside and
students if the pieces were still outside the cell in the intracellular and
salt. He claimed he would extracellular fluids. Reactions that take e–
eventually obtain atoms— place in cells must be very efficient be-
pieces that could no longer be cause the formation of by-products could
broken. a hydrogen molecule
be toxic and also waste energy.
The Greek philosopher Democritus
chose the term “atom” nearly 3000 years
ago. Today, despite the discovery of sub- oxygen atom
atomic particles, the atom is regarded as e– e–
the basic unit of matter just as the cell is
e– e– e–
regarded as the basic unit of life. Six types e–
of atoms (carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxy-
gen, phosphorus, and sulfur) make up hydrogen hydrogen
about 99% of all living organisms. e– e–
atom atom
Atoms bond to one another to form e– e–
compounds. Bonds are formed by the
sharing or transfer of electrons present
in the atoms. Compounds are made up
of at least two different kinds of atoms.
INFOBIT In most important biochemical com- b water molecule
pounds these bonds are covalent.
Many biological terms in this
unit originate from the Greek
Covalent bonds involve a sharing of
language. This is partially be- electrons between the atoms in the com- FIGURE 1.2 Covalent bonding. A covalent bond
cause Greek philosophers such pound (Figure 1.2). Covalent bonds may forms when two atoms share one or more pairs
as Democritus and Aristotle be single, double, or triple, depending of electrons.
were among the first to study on how many pairs of electrons are a) Two atoms of hydrogen have come together,
science. Present-day scientists
have used words originating
shared. For example, in a single bond and each shares its electron with the other; this
one pair of electrons is shared; in a dou- completes the outer shell and gives stability.
from the Greek language to b) Two hydrogen atoms are linked with one oxy-
create modern scientific words ble bond two pairs are shared. gen atom; two pairs of electrons are shared,
as a tribute to the work of the Ionic bonds occur when one atom one pair between each of the hydrogen atoms
ancient Greeks. donates one or more electrons to and the oxygen atom.
6 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

Sodium atom (Na) Chlorine atom (Cl)
another atom (Figure 1.3). This transfer

a)
of an electron causes the atom losing the
e–
electron to become positively charged
and the atom gaining the electron to be-
come negatively charged. The charged
atoms are called ions. The attraction of
opposite charges between the ions re-
sults in the formation of an ionic bond.
If the electrons are shared between electron
atoms, but not equally shared, the bond transfer
is a polar covalent bond. One atom has e–
a slight positive charge (δ+ ) and the other
has a slight negative charge (δ–). Polar co-
valent bonds are important in biological
compounds because of the attraction
between areas of slight positive and slight
negative charge on the compound.
Sodium ion (Na+)
Substances present in cells can be Chloride ion (Cl–)
divided into two classes: organic and in-
organic compounds. Organic compounds ionic
contain carbon. Carbon is a unique and compound
(Na+Cl–)
important element in living systems
because of its ability to form strong, sta-
ble covalent bonds. Examples of organic
salt crystals
compounds include carbohydrates, pro- b)
teins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Inorganic
compounds are not generally part of the
structure of living cells, but in some
species, for example some corals, they FIGURE 1.3 Ionic bonding
are an integral part. Most inorganic sub- a) When sodium and chlorine atoms come together, sodium loses its third shell elec-
tron to chlorine, and becomes a sodium ion with a net positive charge. Having gained
stances in cells are in the form of ions
an electron, the chlorine atom becomes a chloride ion, with a net negative charge.
such as sodium, chloride, and bicar- b) The sodium and chloride ions are now attracted to each other because they are
bonate. Two important exceptions to this oppositely charged. An ionic bond is formed.
rule are the water molecule and the car-
bon dioxide molecule. These molecules
Another symbol system represents
are inorganic compounds that are
the structure of molecules. These rep-
essential for cell metabolism.
resentations are known as structural for-
mulas. Structural formulas use the
Representation of Molecules Rather than
same symbols as molecular formulas
draw each atom that makes up a chem-
ical compound, chemists have invented to represent the atoms, but structural
symbol systems to represent molecules. formulas also show how the atoms mak-
One such system in use is known as a ing up the molecule are bonded to one
molecular formula. Molecular formulas another (Figure 1.4 and Figure 1.5).
show the number of atoms of each type Since biologically important molecules
that make up a compound; the formulas consist almost exclusively of covalent
use symbols such as “C” to represent bonds, these bonds are represented in
carbon, “H” to represent hydrogen, and a structural formula by a line between Molecular Formulas
“O” to represent oxygen. Perhaps the atoms. Each line in a structural formula Water Glucose
most well-known molecular formula is represents a shared pair of electrons. H2O C6H12O6
H2O. Subscripts, such as the “2” in H20, Many of the molecules made by cells
are used to show the number of each are very complex; some protein FIGURE 1.4 Molecular
kind of atom present in the molecule. molecules consist of thousands of atoms. formulas
(Figure 1.4)
H C OH
a)
C O H H O
O H H
H N C C
H H C C b) c)
OH H H R OH
OH OH
C C
H OH
water molecule glucose molecule amino acid molecule
FIGURE 1.5 Structural formulas
WORD ORIGIN Cells are able to make these large

molecules by joining smaller sub-unit
Polymer and monomer from molecules together into chains known as
the Greek poly, meaning polymers. Polymers are large molecules
“many,” mono, meaning “one”
consisting of identical or similar build-
and meris, meaning “parts.”
ing-block molecules strung together. The
Polar from the Latin polus, arrangement is somewhat like the beads
meaning “end of axis.” in a necklace: each bead represents
the building-block molecule and the
whole necklace represents the poly-
mer. The individual building-block
molecules are known as monomers.
Cells make a wide variety of polymers
INFOBIT using relatively few monomers. For ex-
ample, glucose is the monomer molecule
PEBBLES (Probes Encapsulat-
of the polymer glycogen (Figure 1.7). All
ed by BioListic Embedding) are
biosensors that allow scientists the reactions that take place in cells are
to observe chemical processes collectively termed metabolism. The re-
within a living cell. These poly- actions that build up substances like
mer spheres can be as small as polymers through a series of steps are
20 nm (1nm = 10–9 m) in diame-
anabolism. Those that break down com-
ter. Dye is placed into the poly-
mer and when the PEBBLE is pounds into simpler forms are
injected into the cell, the dye catabolism. FIGURE 1.7
will become fluorescent if acti- Three-dimensional representations a) A glucose molecule: a simple sugar or
vated by a wavelength of light. of molecules are based on patterns of monosaccharide
As the targeted ion or molecule
diffraction of X rays by crystals. They b) A polymer of glucose units forming a starch
in the cell changes, the fluo-
molecule in a slice of raw potato
rescence will increase or
decrease. This technology has c) A complex, branched polymer of glucose
potential applications to the units making up glycogen globules in the liver
study of changes in cell chem-
istry due to diseases or drugs.
include space-filling models that show
Image omitted due to copyright the surface shape of the molecule and
restrictions. computer-generated ribbon diagrams
that highlight particular areas or do-
WEBLINK mains within the molecule (Figure 1.6).
Water: A Polar Molecule

To view and manipulate a Life as we know it on Earth could not
three-dimensional model of the FIGURE 1.6 A computer–generated ribbon
diagram follows the winding of the polypeptide
exist without water. Consider that water
water molecule, go to
chains and highlights the structure of different makes up 50–90% of nearly all organ-
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
domains in the molecule. isms, and wherever water is found on

detectors built into the MRI scanning been developing an MRI scanner
machine. The strength of the radio small enough to be used during sur-
signal depends on the number of pro- gical procedures.
tons in the particular type of tissue.
Proton behaviour A computer forms an image of the tis- a)
sue based on the differences in the
is responsible number of radio waves detected and
for safer, better the time it takes the protons to return
medical imaging to their original position. Image omitted due to
While conventional X rays show copyright restrictions.
Protons in the nucleus of atoms are good detail of bone structure, MRI
like tiny magnets. Magnetic reso- scans have the huge advantage of
nance imaging relies on this property also showing the soft tissues of the
of protons to create detailed medical body, such as tendons, ligaments,
images. In an MRI scanner, a person muscles, and brain tissue. Cellular
is placed into a machine capable of processes resulting from trauma or
b)
producing a very strong magnetic disease may result in a different
field. When the magnetic field is repertoire of cell compounds and
turned on, the protons in the atoms therefore also of atoms present in the
of the person’s body tissues line up individual’s cells. As a result, MRI
scans are often used to diagnose ath- Image omitted due to
with the magnetic field (much as a copyright restrictions.
compass lines up with Earth’s mag- letic injuries and cancer in the many
netic field). When the magnetic field non-bony areas of the body. So far,
is turned off, the protons return to no known harm is caused to humans
their original position. by strong magnetic fields.
As the protons return to their A scientific team from Canada’s
pre-magnetic state, they emit radio National Research Council (NRC), led FIGURE 1.8 a) MRI scans show soft tis-
waves that are received by special by NRC scientist John Saunders, has sue detail much better than b) X rays do.
δ−
our planet, life is also found—whether O slight negative FIGURE 1.9 Polar covalent
it is in hot springs, the deepest depths charge bonding. In the water
of the sea, or on the frozen water mak- molecule, the oxygen atom
attracts the shared electrons
ing up polar ice caps. more strongly than the hydro-
Water has a number of unique prop- gen atoms do. The electrons
erties due to its molecular structure and are shifted toward the oxygen
three-dimensional shape. Water is a atom, giving it a partial nega-
polar covalently bonded molecule. This tive charge (because elec-
trons are negatively charged)
means there is competition between the H H
and giving the hydrogen
atoms for the shared electrons making slight positive atoms a partial positive
δ+ δ+ charge
up bonds. In the case of water, the oxy- charge. Partial is indicated
electrons
gen atom has a larger, more positively here by the Greek symbol
charged nucleus than the two hydrogen delta, δ. The bonds are polar
covalent and the molecule as
atoms. As a result, the shared elec- a slightly positive charge. Such charge a whole is polar.
trons tend to spend more time near the differences result in what are known
oxygen atom than they do near the hy- as polar molecules. See Figure 1.9 for
drogen atoms. This results in an unequal further explanation.
sharing of electrons and a difference in Because of their polar structure,
charge between the ends or poles of a water molecules tend to form weak bonds
water molecule: the oxygen end of the with each other. These bonds, known as
molecule tends to have a slightly nega- hydrogen bonds, are weak attractions
tive charge, while the hydrogen end has between the polar ends of water and

INFOBIT other similar molecules (Figure 1.10). Van der Waal’s interactions are non-
Although each hydrogen bond is weaker specific weak attractive forces between
Scientists studying a 175-million- than either an ionic or a covalent bond, atoms or molecules that are the result
year-old meteorite from Mars the effect of the billions of bonds that form of random fluctuations in the distribu-
that landed in India in 1865
have found indications that in even a small amount of water is quite tion of electrons. Both polar and
water once flowed on the sur- strong. This effect is similar to the way nonpolar molecules have van der Waal’s
face of Mars. Grains from the weak individual strands of a rope com- interactions. Hydrophobic interactions
meteorite contain a high pro- bine to produce a rope of greater occur because nonpolar molecules are
portion of substances that are strength. excluded from mixing with polar
soluble in water. Also, images
from the Mars Orbiter camera There are other weak forces that op- molecules like water and so tend to as-
suggest the presence of water- erate within and between molecules. sociate with each other. Hydrophobic in-
carved gullies on the planet. teractions are very important in cell
These discoveries have piqued membranes.
H
the interest of scientists, who
believe that life cannot evolve + –
O Water and Cell Processes: Cohesion
without water. O H
+ H Because water is polar it has unique
H – –
properties. For example, water
+
+ molecules tend to stick together (cohere).
– H
H O This helps explain how water columns
O H –
move within plants to carry dissolved
–
+ + H minerals from the roots to the leaves.
H The mutual attraction of water molecules
H – O
– is the reason that it takes so much en-
O H
+
ergy to transform liquid water into
H –
+ H steam. It also explains the high boiling
+
– + H O point of water relative to other molecules
–
of similar mass, and its high specific heat
capacity.
O
H Hydrogen bond
H High Specific Heat A high specific heat
means that water requires a large
FIGURE 1.10 Hydrogen bonding. Hydrogen amount of heat energy to produce a
bonds between water molecules are indicated change in temperature, and tends to
by the dotted lines. These bonds exist because
of the attraction between hydrogen atoms, with
retain the heat. This means that water
their partial positive charge, and the unshared moderates temperature change, allow-
electrons of the oxygen atom, with their partial ing Earth to have a moderate climate
negative charge. able to support the development and
FIGURE 1.11 Water’s power evolution of life.
as a solvent
a) The components of a crys-
tal of table salt, Na+ and Cl– ,
are attracted to the charged sodium and
regions of the water water
(solvent) chloride ions
molecule—sodium to the neg- dissolved
ative charge of water’s oxygen H in water
atom and chlorine to the posi- O
tive charge of water’s hydro- H
gen atoms. sodium
b) Pulled from the crystal, chloride
sodium and chloride ions be- (solute)
come surrounded by water
molecules. Cl– Na+
c) The process repeats until
the ions are evenly dispersed a) b) c)
in the aqueous solution.

Density Solid water (ice) is less dense H+ concentration

than liquid water. Ice has a more rigid (mol • L–1) pH
structure, because it has the maximum ACIDIC
number of hydrogen bonds (Figure 1.10). battery acid
This leaves more space between water hydrochloric acid
molecules, so the mass per unit volume
(density) is less than that of liquid water. lemon juice, gastric (stomach) juice
This explains why ponds freeze from the
top down—a very important property in cola, beer, wine, vinegar
supporting life.
tomatoes
Solvent Properties Water is a very good
solvent. This means that other com- black coffee
pounds dissolve readily in water—a
property that allows your blood to carry urine
dissolved nutrients, minerals, and gases
to and from your cells (Figure 1.11). NEUTRAL pure water
human blood
Dissociation Another important prop- seawater
erty of water is its ability to dissociate
(to form ions). In a simplified way, we baking soda
can regard this dissociation as water
molecules breaking down to form Great Salt Lake
hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions
(OH–). H+ and OH– are two of the most
reactive ions in the body. household ammonia
household bleach
H2O H+ + OH–
oven cleaner
lye
BASIC
Acids, Bases, and pH
FIGURE 1.12 Common substances and the pH scale. The pH scale measures the
Other compounds besides water break concentration of hydrogen ions per litre of solution. The most acidic substances on
down and release H+ or OH–. Compounds the scale have the greatest concentration of hydrogen ions, while the most basic (or
that add H+ to a solution are known as alkaline) substances have the least concentration of hydrogen ions. The scale is log-
acids and compounds that take up H+ are arithmic, so that a difference of one unit on the pH scale means a 10 times differ-
ence in concentration. Wine, for example, is 10 times as acidic as tomatoes and 100
called bases. The more H+ that is in a so-
times as acidic as black coffee.
lution, the more acidic it is; conversely,
the more OH– that is in a solution, the
more basic it is. Acids and bases are very
common in and around living things: vine- acidity of a solution. The pH scale ranges M AT H L I N K
gar, lemon juice, and gastric (stomach) from 0–14, with a pH of 0 being the most
juice in humans are acidic; pancreatic acidic and a pH of 14 the most basic. A The pH value is defined as the
juice in humans is basic. The amount of pH of 7 is neutral, neither acidic nor negative log of the concentra-
H+ ion in a cell is normally far less than basic. Pure water has a pH of 7. Figure tion of H+ in a solution. For every
the amount of water. However, many vital 1.12 lists the pH of some body fluids and unit change in pH, there is a 10
cellular processes, such as the proper times change in the concentra-
other common solutions. tion of H+, so a pH of 4 means a
functioning of the metabolic reactions that Human blood should be within a pH H+ concentration of 10–4 mol • L–1
maintain life, require H+ or are strongly range of 7.35–7.45 and any movement (0.0001 mol • L–1), while a pH of 5
influenced by the number of H+ ions in away from this pH results in a clinical means a H+ of 10–5 (0.00001 mol •L–1).
the cell. problem. Some reactions in the body The hydrochloric acid in Figure
The pH scale is a measure of the 1.12 is 10–1 mol • L–1 (0.1 mol • L–1).
such as the beginning of digestion of the

proteins in your food require a low pH. trients. When these metals wash into
However, the cells in the area of low pH lakes, they can interfere with the gills of
must be supported by protection from fish, preventing them from obtaining oxy-
the effects of acidity. gen. As fish and other organisms die, the
lakes die too. Hundreds of lakes in
Ontario and Quebec are sick, dying, or
A Problem with Acid
already dead.
The tissues of almost all living organ- Acid rain is also a leading cause of a
isms are very sensitive to acid solutions. worldwide reduction in amphibian pop-
If the pH of an organism’s internal ulations—frogs, toads, and salamanders.
environment becomes too acidic, this The exact reason for the mass decline
affects the structures of proteins in the and near extinction of many species is
organism’s cells and tissues as well as not known. However, it is suspected that
the chemical reactions in the cells. the accumulation of H+ in their habitat—
Organisms worldwide are suffering particularly during spring runoff—is in-
due to the effects of acid rain. Acid rain, terfering with their ability to lay eggs and
also called acid precipitation is defined with the survival of their young. Leaching
as rain or snow with a pH of less than of metals into the water causes damage
5.6. Because of the way the pH scale to spawn, adversely affecting fertilization.
works, a decrease by a difference of one The metals are also suspected of dam-
unit on the scale means that the sec- aging larvae and intermediate “tadpole”
ond solution is 10 times more acidic than forms. As a result, in addition to de-
the first solution. Rainfall with pH as low creased numbers, amphibian populations
as 4.3 has been recorded in southern are displaying increased rates of abnor-
Ontario. Figure 1.13 illustrates how acid malities, such as missing limbs and/or
rain forms. eyes.
Some scientists believe that all of the Acid rain is probably not the only
organisms living in areas subjected to cause of the stress on amphibian popu-
acid rain will be affected. For example, lations. It is likely a complex interaction
acid precipitation leaches the soil of some between loss of habitat, global warming,
of the metals normally found there. This ozone depletion, and pesticide use.
has the effect of destroying plant roots or Research is currently under way to
interfering with their ability to absorb nu- explain the factors responsible.
OH– (hydroxyl radical)

pollution rain
cloud
SO2 H2SO4
(sulfuric acid)
NO2 HNO3
NO (nitric acid) Image omitted due to copyright restrictions.
acid
rain
a) b)
FIGURE 1.13 How acid rain forms
a) Sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitric oxide (NO), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), combine with hydroxyl rad-
icals (OH–) in the atmosphere to produce sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3). These com-
bine with atmospheric water to create acid precipitation.
b) A stand of trees in Ontario damaged by acid rain

Section 1.1 Review

Understanding Concepts molecule. Predict whether or not these
alternative structures would behave in
1. Covalent and ionic bonds differ. the same chemical manner in cells.
Describe two of these differences. Provide reasons for your answer.
2. Using words and the appropriate dia- 7. Figure 1.12 shows the relationship be-
grams or formulas, describe the dif- tween pH and gastric juice, urine, pure
ferences between a molecular formula, water, and blood. Propose other pos-
a structural formula, a space-filling sible ways of representing this infor-
model, and a ribbon diagram in the mation.
representation of molecules.
8. The pH of human blood is stabilized at
3. Water is a polar molecule. Explain. 7.35—7.45. Explain what might hap-
4. Hydrogen bonds form between water pen if the pH rises or falls above or
molecules. Hydrogen bonds do not below this range.
form between methane (CH 4 )
molecules. Using diagrams, illustrate
why. Making Connections
5. At the beginning of winter, a friend sug- 9. “Water is life.” Explain this statement.
gests skating on a large local pond. Present your ideas using an
Explain, using scientific reasoning, the Agree/Disagree chart.
need to be cautious about the thickness 10. “Without control of its water resources,
of the ice. Identify two biological pro- a society does not control its life.”
cesses that depend on the same Analyze and describe the scientific, so-
principle. cial and environmental aspects of this
issue.
Applying Inquiry/ 11. Propose ways in which effects of acid
Communication Skills rain on the environment can be ad-
dressed.
6. The structural formula for a molecule
12. Acid rain impacts the environment. It
with a molecular formula of C6H12O6 is
shown in Figure 1.5. Draw other struc-
also affects society and the economy in Investigation
a variety of ways. Explain. Refer to page 29,
tural formulas possible for this
Investigation 1
WORDORIGIN
Saccharide from the Greek

sakkharon, meaning “sugar.”
1.2 Carbohydrates: Short-Term Energy Storage
CH2OH
Key Understandings H O H
H
When you have completed this section, you will be able to: OH H
identify and describe the structure of carbohydrates HO OH
understand the formation of polysaccharides through dehydration synthesis H OH
relate the ability to increase energy stored in muscles to physical training glucose
FIGURE 1.14 The structural

Carbohydrates include the biologically drogen, and oxygen. Like many other or- formula of glucose. Glucose
important molecules, sugars and ganic molecules, carbohydrates may be is an important molecule in
starches. These molecules provide short- monomers or polymers. The monomer organisms for two major rea-
term energy to cells (Figure 1.15). In forms of carbohydrates are known as sons. It can be broken down
quickly for the release of en-
carbohydrates, as in other organic monosaccharides. For example, ergy for metabolism in cells,
molecules, carbon provides the back- glucose is a monosaccharide. The and it is the monomer for the
bone of the molecule. Structurally, molecular formula of glucose is C6H12O6 synthesis of larger carbohy-
carbohydrates consist of carbon, hy- (Figure 1.14). drate molecules.

Disaccharides are sugars that consist of developed to convert the glucose in

two monosaccharides. Examples include North American–produced corn syrup to
maltose and sucrose (Figure 1.16). the much sweeter-tasting sugar, fructose.
Maltose is made from two glucose This new, lower-priced sweetener, called
Image omitted due to molecules, and sucrose, commonly high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS), has had
copyright restrictions. known as table sugar, is made from the a major economic impact: the two
combination of glucose and another largest users of sucrose in the world,
monosaccharide known as fructose. Pepsi and Coke, have completely
Disaccharides form by dehydration switched to HFCS, and the economies of
synthesis (also known as a condensa- some Caribbean nations have been ad-
FIGURE 1.15 Carbohydrates tion reaction). In dehydration synthesis versely affected as a result.
in foods. Breads, cereals, and a molecule of water is split out as the
pasta are important in our bond is formed. Disaccharides are broken
diet. These foods are all rich
Polysaccharides
down into monomers by hydrolysis, in
in carbohydrates, one of the
which a molecule of water is used up as Polysaccharides are large carbohydrate
four main types of biochemi- molecules (complex carbohydrates) that
cal compounds. a bond is broken to yield two smaller
products. See Figure 1.17. are polymers of monosaccharides such
as glucose. Some important polysac-
charides include starch, glycogen and
Sweet Tooth cellulose. Starch is the energy storage
The average Canadian consumes about molecule in plants and a good source of
57 kg of sugar a year. Your food, soft energy for human cells. Glycogen is the
drinks, sports drinks—just about every short-term energy storage molecule in
prepared food you eat—has an added human cells. Cellulose is the molecule
sweetener. Traditionally, most of this that makes up plant cell walls.
sugar has been in the form of sucrose Differences between the polysaccharides
refined from sugar cane grown in are caused by differences in their molec-
Caribbean countries, thus providing an ular structure. Organisms must break
important economic export for those down polysaccharides to obtain usable
countries. Recently a technique has been glucose molecules. For example, your
HOCH2 HOCH2 CH2OH

H O H H O OH H O H HOCH O H
2
H H H
OH H O OH H OH H O H HO
HO H HO
CH2OH
H OH H OH H OH OH H
maltose sucrose
FIGURE 1.16 The structural formulas of maltose and sucrose
glucose glucose maltose water
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH

Dehydration
H O H H O H Synthesis H O H H O H
H H H H
H 2O
OH H OH H OH H O OH H
HO OH HO OH Hydrolysis HO OH
H OH H
H OH
OH H OH H OH
FIGURE 1.17 Carbohydrates follow a building blocks model

Two units of the monosaccharide glucose link to is reversible. Under the right conditions, and
form the disaccharide maltose. In this dehydration with hydrolysis by a water molecule, a single mal-
synthesis, water is also a product of the reac- tose molecule can yield two glucose molecules.
tion. The double arrows indicate that the reaction

body breaks down starch and glycogen Glycogen Storage You probably know Investigation
by hydrolysis—starch within your di- that running a marathon requires several
Refer to page 31,
gestive system and glycogen within your months of training. One of the main Investigation 2
cells (Figure 1.18). The glucose released reasons for this requirement has to do
from the starch molecule in this way is with the polysaccharide glycogen. Cells,
then available for use for cell metabolism. such as muscle cells, use glucose for
However, humans and many other ani- energy. However, only so much glucose WEBLINK
mals cannot break down cellulose into can be carried in the blood, so the extra
molecules of glucose. Instead, cellulose glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver
passes undigested through our digestive and muscle cells. Glycogen is composed To view and manipulate three-
system serving as dietary fibre. of about 50 000 glucose sub-units. As the dimensional models, go to
potato liver algae
a) STARCH b) GLYCOGEN c) CELLULOSE FIGURE 1.18 Examples of

complex carbohydrates
Polysaccharides, like other
large polymer molecules,
have complex three-dimen-
sional structures, as seen in
starch, glycogen, and cellulose.
The different three-dimensional
structure of polysaccharides is
due to the different locations
of the bonds between the
glucose monomers in each
molecule.
a) Starch is a form of carbo-
hydrate storage in many
plants. Starch granules can be
seen within the cells of a slice
of raw potato.
b) Glycogen is a form of car-
bohydrate storage, here seen
as glycogen globules in the
liver.
c) Cellulose, visible as fibres
running through cell walls,
provides structural support for
plants.

glucose in the blood is used by cells for breast milk. While it is possible to build
energy, the liver and muscle cells break carbohydrates in a chemistry lab, the
down glycogen by hydrolysis. This allows process is very slow and expensive, re-
the cell to replenish the glucose. An quiring several steps to make just one
athlete’s training improves the ability of molecule containing only two carbohy-
muscle cells to store much more glyco- drates.
gen. Without this large amount of stored Biological systems like the ones
energy, the muscles would run out of en- found in breast-milk producing cells use
ergy and the runner would not be able to specialized proteins called enzymes to
finish a long race such as a marathon perform the numerous steps required to
or a triathlon. make these carbohydrates. Using
biotechnology it is possible to obtain
Building Carbohydrates in the Lab We nor- these enzymes for use in the laboratory.
mally think of carbohydrates as a short- Efficiently producing the enzymes to
term energy source, but some of them make the carbohydrates in the labora-
have other important tasks. Some of tory was the next hurdle to be overcome.
Image omitted due to these carbohydrates help protect infants In answer to this challenge, Canadian
copyright restrictions. from disease-causing micro-organisms. microbiologist, Dr. Warren Wakarchuk,
For infants the best source of car- discovered not only how to manufacture
bohydrates, other nutrients, and anti- the necessary enzymes, but also how
bodies is their mother’s breast milk. to produce two enzymes in one, a step
However, for some mothers—including that has made the process more efficient.
those who have adopted babies—breast- The use of this technology makes it pos-
FIGURE 1.19 Dr. Warren
feeding is not an option. It has been a sible to produce biologically important
Wakarchuk’s research made a
technological advance in re- challenge for scientists to manufacture carbohydrates for products like infant
sponse to a need in society. the special carbohydrates found in formula and other health-care products.
Section 1.2 Review

Understanding Concepts Applying Inquiry/
1. List the similarities and differences be-
Communication Skills
tween monosaccharides, disaccharides, 5. In preparation for competition an ath-
and polysaccharides. lete has to decide what to eat on the
2. Name one monosaccharide, one dis- day of competition. Design an experi-
accharide, and one polysaccharide and ment to test the effects of different car-
describe the biological importance of bohydrate sources on athletic
each. performance. What is your hypothesis?
Outline your procedure.
3. Using diagrams illustrate why a de-
hydration reaction may be consid-
ered the reverse of a hydrolysis Making Connections
reaction.
6. Some people believe that “a vegetarian
4. “Hitting the wall” is a term marathon
diet is best for you and for the envi-
runners use to describe their body’s re-
ronment too.”
action once their liver and muscle cells
have run out of glycogen. What strate- Prepare a PMI chart on this statement.
gies could a marathon runner utilize to Include a consideration of dietary fibre
prevent this from happening? (more technically known as the
polysaccharide cellulose).

1.3 Lipids: Long-Term Energy Storage

Key Understandings
identify and describe the structure of lipids
understand the varied functions of lipids in cells
relate types of lipids to their role in a balanced diet
The organic compounds known as lipids molecule, it causes a kink or bend in the WORDORIGIN
include fats, phospholipids, waxes, and molecule. These kinks prevent unsatu-
steroids. In human cells, fats serve as rated and polyunsaturated fatty acids Lipid from the Greek word
lipos, meaning “fat.”
long-term energy storage molecules, from packing together tightly. As a re-
phospholipids form cell membranes, and sult, the linear saturated fatty acids are
steroids include cholesterol and certain able to pack more tightly together and
sex hormones. tend to be solids at room temperature
Because fats have many energy- (lard, for example). The kinked unsatu-
containing carbon-hydrogen bonds rated fatty acids cannot pack as tightly
(there may be more than 100 such and therefore tend to be liquid at room
bonds in a typical fat molecule), they are temperature. The degree of
useful long-term energy storage
molecules in both plants and animals. Palmitic acid
Fats make for good energy storage
molecules because they are a very con- O H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
centrated source of energy—a gram of HO C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C H
fat contains more than twice as much H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
energy as a gram of carbohydrate. This
Saturated
translates into more energy requiring (no double bonds)
less mass. This is an important consid-
eration in animals that must carry their Oleic acid
stored energy with them as they travel. H H H H H H H H H
O H H H H H H H
Stored fat also helps cushion and C C C C C C C C C H
protect important organs such as the HO C C C C C C C C C
H H H H H H H H
kidneys. H H H H H H H H
Fats are made up mainly of two Monounsaturated
types of molecules: fatty acids and glyc- (one double bond)
erol. Fatty acids are long carbon-hydro-
gen chains with a carboxyl (COOH) group Linoleic acid H H H H H H
at one end. Fatty acids may be either H H
O H H H H H H H C C C C C C H
saturated or unsaturated. Saturated C C C
H H H H H
fatty acids have no double bonds be- HO C C C C C C C C C
H H
tween their carbon atoms and are lit- H H H H H H H H
erally saturated with hydrogen atoms.
Polyunsaturated
As seen in Figure 1.20, saturated fatty (more than one double bond)
acids are relatively straight (or linear)
molecules. In contrast, unsaturated FIGURE 1.20 Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids
fatty acids have one or more double a) The hydrocarbon tail in palmitic acid is formed of carbon-carbon single bonds.
bonds between carbons and so are not b) In oleic acid there is one carbon-carbon double bond. An additional hydrogen atom
saturated with hydrogen. Figure 1.20 could link to each of the carbon atoms. Oleic acid is a monounsaturated fatty acid.
shows that wherever a double bond is c) The carbon chain in linoleic acid has two double bonds so linoleic acid is a polyun-
found in the fatty acid portion of the saturated fatty acid.

WEBLINK saturation affects both the form these beef, lamb, and goat meat, and dairy
lipids take and their effects on human products.
health. Animals store energy in the form of
Lipids made from saturated fatty fats. Glycerol is an organic molecule
To view and manipulate three-
dimensional models of lipids go acids are known as saturated fats. These with three carbons and three hydroxyl
to lipids are found in red meat and dairy groups. Glycerol bonds with two or three
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11. products. Saturated fats have proven fatty acids to form a fat. A glycerol
to be associated with health problems, molecule bonded to three fatty acids is
particularly related to the circulatory known as a triglyceride. Triglycerides
system. are the long-term energy storage
Lipids containing unsaturated fatty molecules in animals and are stored in
acids are called unsaturated fats. They fat cells in adipose tissue (Figure 1.22).
come from plants, such as canola, corn, Unlike other cells in the body, fat
and olives as well as some animal cells have an almost unlimited capacity
sources. Some unsaturated fats may ben- for growth. So when individuals put on
efit your health. Certain unsaturated weight, they are not making more fat
fatty acids, such as linoleic acid, are cells; instead they are just adding more
essential in the human diet because they triglycerides to their existing cells.
cannot be made by the body. Recent
research on a substance called
Essential Fatty Acids
conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) suggests
possible health benefits from eating Low-fat diets are popular, and this may
be a good thing because most Canadians
eat a diet too high in fat—especially sat-
urated fat. However, if low fat is better
H O
O for you, how about no fat? Wouldn’t that
H
C
R1 H C O C R1 be even better still? The answer is no.
H C OH HO Lipids have an important role in your
O O
body, and your cells can make some but
H C OH HO C R2 H C O C R2 3 H2O
not all of the lipids you require. Linoleic,
O
H C OH H O linolenic, and arachidonic are the es-
O
C sential fatty acids—the label essential
H R H C O C R3
3
means they must be present in your
H food. Without them, your cells are un-
glycerol 3 fatty acids triglyceride water able to make all of the fatty acids nec-
essary to function properly. As with any
FIGURE 1.21 Formation of a triglyceride. R1, R2, and R3 stand for the hydrocarbon diet, it is best to consult with your doc-
chain of the particular fatty acid. For example, R1, R2, and R3 could be palmitic acid, tor before drastically changing your eat-
oleic acid, or linoleic acid as shown in Figure 1.20. ing habits.
nucleus of
adipose
fat cell
tissue
capillaries
fat cells
FIGURE 1.22 In a microscope slide of adipose tissue the fat cells appear empty
because the lipid contents dissolve during preparation of the tissue.

Discovering Biology
The Hidden Fats: What the Food Labels Don’t Tell You
Although Health Canada rules require ingredient labels on food products, they
may not always tell you all of the types of compounds present in a particular food.
1. Obtain labels from fat-containing products such as potato chips, margarine,

cookies, mayonnaise, etc.
2. List the amounts of the various types of fats shown on the food labels in a chart
similar to the one shown.
3. Calculate the amount of hidden fat in the food product in the following way:
Total fat – (Polyunsaturates + Monounsaturates + Saturates)
= Amount of hidden fat
The hidden fats are known as trans-fatty acids. These lipids

are produced when hydrogen atoms are added to un- Product Product Product Product
saturated fats, a process known as hydrogenation. #1 #2 #3 #4
Hydrogenation allows liquid vegetable oils to become Total Fat
solids at room temperature. Trans-fatty acids are con- Polyunsaturates
sidered by many experts to be quite harmful to your Monounsaturates
health. They are not required to be listed on food prod- Saturates
uct labels at the present time, although some manu- Hidden Fat
facturers have started to do so.
Questions:
Which food product had the most hidden fats? Which had the least?
Use print or electronic references to research the health-related effect of
trans-fatty acids and report your findings to the class.
What is your opinion on the labelling of different foods? What changes in
labelling, if any, would you like to see?
WORDORIGIN
Phospholipids
Hydrophilic and hydrophobic
+ – are from a combination of Latin
and Greek words. Hydro is
a) Latin, meaning “water”; philic
is from the Greek philios,
meaning “friendly”; and phobic
is from the Greek phobos,
nitrogen- phosphate
containing group meaning “fearing.”
group
polar head nonpolar tails
FIGURE 1.23 A dual-natured molecule

a)Phospholipids are made up of two
b)
long fatty acid tails attached to a head
that contains a negatively charged
“like attracts like”
phospholipids phosphate group and a positively
charged nitrogen-containing group.
oil (nonpolar) b)The polar head can bond with water
nonpolar, hydrophobic and remain submerged in it; the tails
water (polar) tails (fatty acids) have no bonding capacity for water but
will mix with oils.
polar, hydrophilic
heads
a) What all steroids have in common is a four-ring carbon unit: Phospholipids

Phospholipids are also necessary to cells.
Phospholipids consist of a hydrophilic
(water-loving) phosphate molecule and
two hydrophobic (water-hating) fatty
acid tails. Phospholipids are an impor-
tant part of cell membranes. The hy-
drophilic and hydrophobic ends of
phospholipids help the cell membrane
perform its function of regulating the
b) What makes individual steroids unique are the side chains that
passage of molecules into and out of the
are attached to the rings:
cell. Only very small molecules or those
OH CH3 that are fat soluble can pass through the
CH3 phospholipid part of the membrane. See
HC CH3 Figure 1.23.
CH3 CH2
CH2
Steroids
testosterone Steroids are an important group of lipids
O CH2 that consist of four linked carbon rings.
HC CH3 They include cholesterol and certain sex
OH
CH3 CH3 hormones (Figure 1.24). Although choles-
terol is necessary for several functions,
CH3 including the proper formation of cell
membranes, too much cholesterol in the
diet can cause heart and/or arterial
estrogen cholesterol
disease. The steroid sex hormones es-
HO HO
trogen and testosterone are present in
both males and females, but in differ-
FIGURE 1.24 Structure of steroids ent relative amounts. Testosterone is
a) The basic unit of steroids, four carbon rings
more abundant in males and estrogen is
more abundant in females.
b) Testosterone is a principal “male” hormone and estrogen is a principal “female”
hormone. These steroid hormones are found in both men and women, but in differing
amounts. Cholesterol has several important functions; for example, the breakdown of
fats.
commonly called steroids or “roids.” females, steroid use can stop men-
Their use has a number of unhealthy struation, cause scalp hair to fall out,
and dangerous side effects. For ex- and cause body and facial hair
ample, anabolic steroids can weaken growth to increase. In males, an-
Anabolic Steroids the immune system, leading to an in- abolic steroid use can interfere with
creased chance of illness, can cause the production of natural testos-
liver damage, and can also perma- terone, causing the testes to shrink,
Anabolic steroids are artificial ver- nently stop bone growth in teenagers. sperm count and reproductive abil-
sions of the male sex hormone testos- As a result, the person fails to reach ity to decrease, and scalp hair to be
terone that some men and women his or her full height. permanently lost.
take to increase their strength and Other effects of anabolic steroid
muscle size. Anabolic steroids are use differ between the sexes. In

Decision-Making Skills
Defining the Issue
Case Study
Developing Assessment Criteria
Researching the Issue
Analyzing Data and Information
Proposing a Course of Action
Diet and Disease Justifying the Course of Action
Communicating Your Proposal
B A C K G R O U N D I N F O R M AT I O N
For a number of years the news media have been Possible links between diet and disease remain
reporting possible health risks associated with eat- important areas for research. As a result of this
ing foods high in cholesterol and saturated fat. research there is potential for diseases like cancer
The risks include an increased chance of develop- and diabetes to be prevented or cured by the foods
ing heart and artery disease as well as an increased we eat.
risk of developing certain forms of cancer. As a re-
sult, many people have reduced their intake of foods
high in saturated fats, such as red meat and dairy
products.
However, recent research suggests that while
red meat and dairy products may contain some
harmful compounds, they also contain a substance
that is proving to be very beneficial. This benefi-
cial compound is known as conjugated linoleic acid—
a slight variation of linoleic acid, an essential
unsaturated fatty acid. Recall that essential fatty
Image omitted due to copyright restrictions.
acids are those that your cells cannot manufacture
and must, instead, be obtained in your diet.
Current testing of CLA is focused on animals like
cattle, as well as laboratory animals like rats and
mice. The farm animals have demonstrated that CLA
results in less body fat, leaner body mass, and bet-
ter immune function. CLA use in lab animals has
shown promise in fighting different forms of cancer.
It has also resulted in improved tolerance of glucose.
These indicators show that CLA could also have ben-
efits for humans. More testing is required, however, FIGURE 1.25 Red meat and dairy products contain
before this can be proven. conjugated linoleic acid.
Analyzing the Issue
1. Research diets that are recommended to people living 3. You are members of a team assigned to look at the re-
with cancer or diabetes. Select one of these diets and search that currently exists on diet and its effect on
summarize your findings under the headings of: disease. Your team should include a nutritionist, a sci-
Description of diet; Nutrients present; Advantages of the entist, a medical doctor, a member of the news media,
nutritional components for combatting the disease; and a person who is living with diabetes or cancer. You
Disadvantages of the diet for healthy living. will be preparing a presentation to a Health Canada
2. Identify the social and economic impacts (benefits and Committee on your recommendations for revising or
costs) that could result in treatment of disease through maintaining the current Canada’s Food Guide. Your pro-
diet. Explain the effect that these impacts could have on posal should include an analysis of statistics, and
other areas of research. evidence from current research, as well as a summary
of the perspectives represented within your team.

the IBM laboratory in Zurich, in Figure 1.26 are individual insulin

Switzerland. The microscope consists hexamers packed into the crystal
of a tiny probe that maintains a 0.001 lattice. Each hexamer is about
µm gap while it scans across the sur- 5.5 nm. in diameter (1 nm = 10–9 m.)
A Three-dimensional face of a molecule. In order to keep How would you calculate the
the distance of the gap at a constant magnification?
View of Molecules 0.001 µm, the probe moves up and
down as it travels across the sur-
The recently developed scanning tun- face of the molecule. A computer
neling microscopes (STMs) and compiles an image of the molecule’s
atomic force microscopes (AFMs) are surface based on the up-and-down
able to reveal even smaller things movements of the probe.
than either transmission or scanning The three-dimensional map that
electron microscopes can. STMs and is generated has a resolution close to
AFMs belong to a family of scan- atomic scale. These unique instru-
ning probe microscopes that are ments perform this imaging in real-
based on mapping interactions be- time and often in situ, without the
tween a physical tip and a surface of need for extensive preparation.
interest. STMs map current/voltage Dr. Christopher Yip of University
interactions and AFMs map atomic of Toronto has studied the insulin
force interactions. molecule using AFM. He has pro-
The invention of the STM was a duced an image of a crystal of insulin FIGURE 1.26 AFM image of a crystal of
Nobel-prize winning discovery at in fluid. The periodic structures seen insulin.
WEBLINK Section 1.3 Review

For more information on STMs, Understanding Concepts monounsaturates are 14.4 g. Saturates
begin your research at are 5.0 g. Write a paragraph to explain
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11 1. List four important biological functions why you would or would not recom-
of lipids. mend this bar as a healthy choice.
2. Explain why fats are well suited to be
the long-term energy storage molecules
in plants and animals. Making Connections
3. Name the molecules required to make 7. There is much discussion in the media
a triglyceride. about the possible health effects of sat-
4. Why is it necessary to include choles- urated versus unsaturated fatty acids.
terol in your diet? Why is it harmful to a) Compare the structures of satu-
have too much cholesterol in your diet? rated and unsaturated fatty acids.
5. Research the importance of steroids to b) Relate the structures to their func-
human health. Make a chart to list the tions/actions in the body.
normal functions of steroids and a c) Predict the long-term health effects
companion chart indicating the possi- of a diet rich in either of these types
ble results of an excessive intake of of compounds.
steroids. d) Extend your prediction from c) to
a consideration of possible eco-
nomic impacts on society.
Applying Inquiry/ 8. Some fats are better for you than oth-
Communication Skills ers. Two of the better fats are canola
oil (a Canadian discovery and product)
6. A 100-g “health food” bar is advertised and olive oil. Use a risk/benefit analy-
as being low in saturated fat. sis to investigate the effect of a diet in
The total fat is listed as 32.2 g, which the only fat consumed is canola.
while polyunsaturates are 1.2 g and

1.4 Proteins
Key Understandings
identify and describe the structure of proteins
understand the formation of peptide bonds through dehydration synthesis
relate protein structure and function
Proteins direct and control the chemical speed up chemical reactions in your WORDORIGIN
reactions in life processes: they make up body. In fact, about half of your body’s
part of the cell membrane; they provide dry weight is protein. Protein from the Greek, pro-
support and shape to cells; some func- Proteins are polymers of amino teios meaning “of the first
tion as hormones to send chemical mes- acids (Figure 1.27). Each amino acid rank.” The term was first used
by the Dutch chemist Gerard
sages between cells or as enzymes to contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, Johannes Mulder in 1838.
similar to carbohydrates and lipids, Mulder recognized the primary
a) What all amino acids have in common is an but amino acids are unique because they importance of proteins.
amino group and a carboxyl group attached contain nitrogen. All amino acids have
to a central carbon.
the same basic structure: an amino
H
H O group (NH2), a carboxyl group (COOH),
amino carboxyl
group N C C group
H OH
R
The linkage of several amino acids...
side-chain
H H H
H O H O H O
b) What makes the 20 amino acids unique are the
side-chains attached to the central carbon. N C C N C C N C C
H OH H OH H OH
H ala gln ile
H O
N C C H2 O H2 O
H OH
CH2
tyrosine
H O H H O H H
H O
N C C N C C N C C
OH
H OH
ala gln ile
H
H O
N C C
H OH
CH2 glutamine
C
...produces a polypeptide chain like this:
H2N O
le u s er glu glu his
ala ala gln il e glu
s er tyr a la ser glu
FIGURE 1.27 Structure of amino acids
a) Elements common to the structure of all amino
acids are an amino group and a carboxyl group,
linked by a central carbon with a hydrogen attached FIGURE 1.28 Beginnings of a protein
to it. The side chain that occupies the R position Amino acids join together by dehydration synthesis to form polypeptide chains that
determines the character of individual amino acids. fold up to become proteins. The formation of each peptide bond yields water as a
b) Examples of actual amino acids: tyrosine and by-product. Here alanine (ala) joins with glutamine (gln), which is then linked to isoleucine
glutamine (ile). A typical protein consists of hundreds of amino acids linked together.

M AT H L I N K and a side chain (or R group) attached molecule, with many amino acids, is
to the central carbon. The 20 amino known as a polypeptide (Figure 1.28).
How would you calculate the acids important to human metabolism For a protein to function properly in
number of different proteins vary only in the structure of the R a muscle cell, as a hormone, or as an en-
150 amino acids long that could
be assembled from the 20 dif- groups. The different R groups give zyme it must have a particular shape.
ferent amino acids available in the various amino acids different bio- Structure determines function (how one
cells? Hint: How many choices logical properties. For example, R groups molecule fits together with another).
are there for the first amino may vary in the amount of space they Some proteins have very complex
acid? How many for the sec- occupy, carry a partial charge or be able shapes, and due to these complex struc-
ond? How many different pro-
teins, then, could be assembled to form hydrogen bonds with other parts tures, scientists recognize four different
from two amino acids? Does of the protein molecule. See Figure 1.27b levels of protein structure: primary, sec-
the same logic apply to pro- for examples of different R groups. ondary, tertiary, and quaternary. See
teins assembled from 150 Proteins can be very large Figure 1.29. The primary structure is
amino acids? molecules. Some of them contain as simply the order of the amino acids in
many as 1000 amino acid monomers. the polypeptide. Once formed, the pri-
Proteins are formed by dehydration syn- mary structure often folds upon itself
thesis within cells. The bonds that form to form a secondary structure in the
between adjacent amino acids are form of an ∝-helix or a β-pleated sheet
known as peptide bonds, and such a pattern. Tertiary structures are formed
FOUR LEVELS OF STRUCTURE IN PROTEINS
Primary
a) structure
amino acid sequence
Secondary
b) structure
helix
random coil
pleated sheet
FIGURE 1.29 Four levels of

structure in proteins.
a) The primary structure of the
protein. The sequence of amino
acids determines the protein’s
final shape. c) Tertiary
structure
b) The secondary structure
folded polypeptide
may be a β-pleated sheet, chain
corkscrew-like ∝-helix, or the
less organized “random coil.”
Secondary structures are due
to hydrogen bonding.
c) The tertiary structure in-
volves folding of the secondary
structures.
d) Two or more polypeptide Quaternary
chains may be linked together d) structure
in a given protein, in this case
hemoglobin. This configuration
forms the quaternary structure.
two or more
polypeptide chains

when the secondary structures fold over hemoglobin is complexed with iron. WEBLINK
upon themselves, and are held by cova- Hemoglobin carries oxygen in red blood
lent, ionic, hydrogen and non-polar cells. Its quaternary structure is formed
bonds. The covalent bonds are from four polypeptide chains. Each
To view and manipulate
disulfide bridges between sulfur-con- polypeptide chain in the quaternary three-dimensional models of
taining amino acids in different parts of structure consists of around 150 amino proteins, go to
the polypeptide chain or between dif- acids. Linked to each of the four chains www.pearsoned.ca/biology11
ferent polypeptide chains in the protein. is a complex called the heme group that
Quaternary structures occur when two contains iron in the Fe(II) state. This
or more polypeptide chains combine to group is essential to the binding of oxy-
form the protein. gen by the molecule and imparts the red
colour to human blood. The blood of
some other organisms contains different
Proteins Complexed with
complexes; for example, the iron com-
Metal Ions plex is slightly different in the blood of
A number of proteins essential to the some marine worms and this results in
metabolism of different types of cells their blood being green.
contain metal ions. For example,
Section 1.4 Review

Understanding Concepts in medical treatment. Research and re-
port on one of the following proteins:
1. Name and describe the monomer human growth hormone, estrogen, her-
molecule that makes up proteins. ceptin (a cancer-fighting protein), or
2. Provide reasons why proteins are im- beta-amyloid (a protein involved in
portant to cells and cellular functions. Alzheimer’s disease).
3. Explain the relationship between the 8. You can manufacture only about half
terms peptide bond and polypeptide. of the amino acids required by your
4. Describe the four levels of protein body. The rest, called essential amino
structure and indicate the relation acids, must be obtained in your diet.
between structure and function in pro- Find out which amino acids are desig-
teins. nated as essential, and what foods are
a good source of these important
5. Make three-dimensional models of pro-
molecules.
tein structures. You may want to use
Styrofoam ® balls, toothpicks, paper 9. Design an experiment to investigate the
clips, glue, etc. in the construction of effects of three popular protein
your models. supplements.
6. Your digestive system produces en-
zymes to break down the proteins in Making Connections
your diet into amino acids. Within your
cells, these individual amino acids 10. Linus Pauling was one of the few sci-
are reassembled into the proteins entists to win the Nobel Prize twice.
needed by your body. Name the pro- Research his work on protein structure
cess responsible for a) breaking down at the library or on the Internet. List at
polypeptides and b) joining amino acid least two proteins present in common
monomers into polypeptides. substances whose structures are pre-
cisely known. Relate their function to
their structure.
Applying Inquiry/ 11. Advertisements for protein supple-
Communication Skills ments are very popular in fitness and
7. Proteins have a huge range of functions body-building magazines. Identify
within the body. Some proteins have claims being made in these ads. Are
stirred controversy because of their use they justified? Why?

1.5 Nucleic Acids

Key Understandings
identify and describe the structure and biological importance of nucleic acids
relate energy release in the cell to adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
NUCLEOTIDES ARE THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF DNA Nucleic acids form the important hered-
nitrogenous sugar itary molecule DNA, which determines
a) NUCLEOTIDE base (deoxyribose) the formation of substances character-
istic of any particular species, and also
its closely related molecular cousin RNA,
P
which is involved in the synthesis of the
O proteins determined by the DNA code.
G C
O Nucleic acids are polymers formed from
P phosphate monomer molecules called nucleotides.
group
Nucleotides are made of three subunits:
P a nitrogen-containing base, a five-car-
O
T bon pentose sugar molecule, and a phos-
b) A O
phate group. The sugar is deoxyribose
P
in DNA or ribose in RNA, and the ni-
P trogen-containing base may be one of
O five compounds: adenine, guanine, cy-
G C
O tosine, thymine, or uracil. Thymine is
P
present only in DNA; uracil is present
P
O T only in RNA.
A O
As shown in Figures 1.30 and 1.31,
P
in DNA the sugar and phosphate groups
P O C
G
O form the outer backbone of the molecule,
P while the bases point toward the inte-
sugar-phosphate T
P O A
backbone O hydrogen bond rior. Hydrogen bonds formed through
P
P O T A O
P
FIGURE 1.30 Nucleotides are the building

blocks of DNA.
a) The organization of the nucleotide: sugar,
DNA strand phosphate group, and nitrogenous base. The
structural formulas for guanine and cytosine.
A given nucleotide might contain any of four
bases: Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Thymine (T), or
Cytosine (C).
DNA
double helix b) The sugar and phosphate components form
the outer backbone of the molecule while the
bases point toward the molecule’s interior.
Hydrogen bonds between the bases link the
two chains to form the DNA double helix.
Nucleotides join together in dehydration synthe-
sis to form both single-stranded RNA and dou-
ble-stranded DNA. RNA nucleotides contain the
sugar ribose and DNA nucleotides contain the
sugar deoxyribose, which has one less oxygen
atom per sugar than ribose.

slight differences in charge between

pairs of bases link the two chains of
bases. Each of the linked chains of bases,
or strands, is in the form of a helix, so
the molecule is referred to as a double
helix. The three-dimensional structure
of DNA is such that adenine can pair
only with thymine and guanine can pair
Image omitted due to only with cytosine. These are referred
copyright restrictions. to as complementary base pairs. RNA
has a similar sugar phosphate chain
backbone. RNA is usually single
stranded, although it is capable of form-
ing hydrogen bonds and a double helix
under the appropriate conditions.
Adenosine Triphosphate ATP

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is an-
other important nucleotide in the cell.
Image omitted due to Unlike DNA and RNA, which are poly-
copyright restrictions. mers, ATP is a monomer. Three phos-
phate groups are attached to the ribose.
The bonds between these phosphate
groups are often called high-energy
bonds because they are associated with
energy release. ATP is the energy-pro-
viding molecule of the cell. When the
third phosphate group is split off by hy-
FIGURE 1.31 DNA is double stranded; RNA is
usually single stranded. drolysis, a net release of energy re-
a) A computer-generated space-filling model of sults, and ADP (adenosine diphosphate)
DNA is formed. The conversion of ATP to ADP
b) A computer-generated space-filling model of can be simplified to:
RNA ATP → ADP + P + ENERGY
computer scientists think that their used to inject anti-cancer drugs into
ability to miniaturize circuits will the diseased cells in a cancer patient.
soon have reached its limit—and Other research is testing the use of
computers will soon reach their molecules as switches that can turn
Molecular Circuits terminal velocity. off a flow of electric current, per-
Many scientists think that the an- forming a function similar to the
swer to this, as well as to other elec- diodes that are currently used.
tronic problems, is to use One of the advantages of using
For the past four decades electrical custom-designed molecules to replace molecules as opposed to conventional
engineers have been constantly prov- parts such as transistors. For exam- electronic circuits is that a molecular
ing Moore’s Law, which states: the ple, at Cornell University in the U.S., circuit can be made up to 60 000
ability to place electronic circuits on researchers have devised a way to times smaller than its electronic
a silicon computer chip doubles about use ATPase (the enzyme that gener- counterpart. This fact opens up the
every 18 to 24 months. This allows ates ATP in mitochondria) to power possibility that Moore’s Law may con-
the speed of the computer’s proces- a tiny motor. The researchers hope tinue unchecked as molecular-based
sor to double as well. However, some that one day, such a device may be machines become the standard.

FIGURE 1.32 The ATP cycle The ATP cycle

Energy released from the
ATP
breakdown of ATP is available
for endergonic (energy-requir- is
es
ing) reactions in the cell.
ation synth
Exergonic reactions in the cell
Hydrolysis
provide energy to convert Energy from Energy for
ADP to ATP. exergonic reactions endergonic reactions
ydr
eh
D
ADP+ P
This conversion of ATP to ADP, a re- To replace the ATP that is used, cells
action that releases energy, is termed an break down glucose to enable ADP to be
exergonic reaction. For example, mus- re-converted to ATP. Thus, glucose sup-
cle cells break down ATP to ADP, pro- plies the energy to form ATP, and ATP
viding energy for movement. Reactions provides energy directly to the cell. This
that require energy are called sequence of reactions is often shown
endergonic reactions. as a cycle, as in Figure 1.32.
Section 1.5 Review

1. Describe the biological importance of
nucleotides. 7. What might happen to a cell whose
2. Using a table, compare and contrast DNA is damaged?
DNA and RNA. List their similarities 8. In DNA, A always binds with T and G
and differences. with C. If one strand of a DNA molecule
3. Identify three types of molecules was made up of the bases ATGTCGAA,
formed by nucleotides. Describe each what bases would the other strand con-
with respect to components, structure, tain?
and function.
4. Explain how the ATP molecule is in- Making Connections
volved in the storage and release of en-
ergy in cells. 9. DNA could possibly be damaged by
overexposure to UV radiation.
5. When researchers analyze the struc-
Research the effects of UV radiation on
ture of DNA, certain patterns are con-
DNA. Make a list of precautions that
stant. For example, the number of
should be taken to minimize such ex-
adenine nucleotides always equals the
posure.
number of thymine nucleotides, and
the number of guanine nucleotides al- 10. It is now considered important for
ways equals the number of cytosine nu- the general public to have a basic
cleotides. Based on this information, knowledge of DNA. DNA affects our
what might you conclude about the lives in more and more ways all the
structure of the DNA molecule? time; ways that include decision-
Investigate the DNA molecule and making regarding reproduction, health,
check your conclusion. voting, and jury duty. Choose one of
these issues, research and prepare a
6. Examine Figure 1.30. The structure of
supported opinion piece indicating why
DNA is described as a double helix.
a basic knowledge of DNA is useful.
What common object does the shape
of the DNA molecule remind you of?
Relate the parts of that object to the
molecules that make up DNA.

Inquiry Skills
Initiating and Planning
Investigation 1 (Section 1.2, 1.3, 1.4)

Applying Technical Skills
Using Tools, Material, Equipment
Conducting and Recording
Building Molecular Models Analyzing and Interpreting
Concluding and Communicating
Problem 3. Build another molecule of glucose and join the two

molecules together to form maltose as shown in
How do carbon atoms and other atoms join to form or- Figure 1.34.
ganic molecules?
Part B Lipids
Materials and Equipment 4. Build a glycerol molecule as shown in Figure 1.35.
Molecular model kit
H
Procedure
1. Use a molecular model kit and build the molecules H C OH
indicated in this Investigation. Be sure to make a
labelled sketch in your notebook for each molecule H C OH
you build.
H C OH
Part A Carbohydrates H
FIGURE 1.35 A glycerol molecule

H
H C OH
C O 5. Build three molecules of a short fatty acid. The gen-

H H eral formula of a fatty acid is:
H
C C CH3— (CH2)n—COOH
OH H so a simple representation of a fatty acid would
OH OH be a 3- or 4-carbon chain as shown in Figure 1.36.
C C However, be aware that in animal tissues the most
commonly found fatty acids have n between 12 and
H OH
24. If you have time, build palmitic acid,
FIGURE 1.33 The structure of glucose CH3 – (CH2)14 – COOH
2. Glucose has a structural formula of C6H12O6. Use

Figure 1.33 to help you build a glucose molecule.
glucose glucose maltose water
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH

Dehydration
H O H H O H Synthesis H O H H O H
H H H H
H2O
OH H OH H OH H O OH H
HO OH HO OH Hydrolysis HO OH
H OH H
H OH
OH H OH H OH
FIGURE 1.34 The formation of maltose.


(continued)
O H H H 9. Reverse the reaction from step 8. This will leave

you with two amino acids through the process of
HO C C C C H hydrolysis.
H H H
Analyzing and Interpreting
FIGURE 1.36 A 4-carbon fatty acid 1. Name the process that would allow the completion
of step 3 within a cell.
2. Why did you need to build three molecules of
6. Place the glycerol and three fatty acids you built on
fatty acid in step 5?
your table and join them together into a triglyceride
3. What molecules did you have left over after com-
by simulating the process of dehydration synthesis.
pleting step 8?
4. Name the type of molecule you built in step 8.
Part C Proteins 5. What is the name of the bond that joins the two
7. Proteins are made from different combinations of amino acids together in step 8?
the 20 different amino acids. Remember that all
amino acids contain an amino group and a car- Concluding and Communicating
boxylic acid group. Two of the simplest amino acids
are glycine and alanine. Use Figure 1.37 to help 6. As a class, alcohols have a functional group called
you build glycine and alanine. a hydroxyl group. How does this property explain
the fact that ethanol, CH3—CH2OH, dissolves in
water but ethane, CH3— CH3, does not?
H H O H H 7. Three fatty acids form a triglyceride with one glyc-
O erol. What similarities would the fatty acids have
N C C O H N C C with polysaccharides? What differences?
H H H H C H O H
Extending
H 8. When you consume more food than you require the
a) b) mitochondria in the liver are involved in forming
triglycerides from the excess. Why is storage of
FIGURE 1.37 a) glycine b) alanine triglycerides important?
9. Some excess glucose is stored as glycogen in liver
and muscle. Why is it helpful that some glucose
8. Arrange the amino acids so you can bond them to- supplies are stored as glycogen instead of all being
gether by simulating the process of dehydration converted to triglycerides (fat)?
synthesis. 10. Prepare a flow chart or comic strip to communi-
cate to elementary-school students the importance
of consuming a proper diet with regard to fat.

Inquiry Skills
Investigation 2 (Section 1.2)


Testing for Compounds in Foods
Most of the compounds present in your cells either orig- 3. Use a clean graduated cylinder to measure and add
inate in or are made from the food that you eat. 3 mL of tap water to each of 4 test tubes and label
Therefore you should be able to confirm the presence them “Starch Control,” “Sugar Control,” “Protein
of many of these compounds in typical foods. Control,” and “Lipid Control.” Keep these test tubes
in a rack.
Problem 4. Use a clean graduated cylinder to measure and add

3 mL of the starch solution to another test tube and
What types of compounds are present in typical foods? label it “Starch Suspension.”
5. Use a clean graduated cylinder to measure and add
Materials 3 mL of glucose solution into another test tube and
(per group of 2–4 students) label it “Glucose Solution.”
6. Use a clean graduated cylinder to measure and add
safety goggles candy, butter, 3 mL of albumin (egg white) solution to another test
disposable gloves sunflower seeds tube and label it “Albumin Solution.”
(not latex) 400-mL beaker 7. Use a clean graduated cylinder to measure and add
Benedict’s solution 10-mL graduated 3 mL of vegetable oil and 3 mL of water to another
Biuret reagent cylinder test tube and label it “Oil Suspension.”
10% NaOH grease pencil
starch suspension hot plate 8. Arrange each of the test tubes from steps 4–7 in
glucose solution eyedropper the rack beside its control tube from step 3.
Lugol’s iodine 8 test tubes 9. Add 3 drops of Lugol’s iodine solution to the test
albumin (egg white) test-tube holder tubes labelled “Starch Control” and “Starch
solution test-tube rack Suspension.”
assorted food items mortar and pestle
TABLE 1.1 Results of Food Analysis
such as 2% milk, plain brown paper
whole milk, hard dropper Test Tube
Test Results
Contents
CAUTION: Wear safety goggles and gloves. Biuret reagent
Starch Sugar Protein Lipid
is toxic and NaOH is corrosive. Do not let these solutions
Test Test Test Test
come into contact with your eyes, skin, or clothing. Use
tongs to remove the test tubes from the hot water bath. Control
Starch
Procedure Suspension
1. Copy Table 1.1 in your lab notebook. You will com-
plete the white sections only. Glucose
Solution
2. Prepare a water bath by placing 300 mL of water
into a 400-mL beaker and placing the beaker on a Albumin
hot plate. Bring the temperature to a near boil (sim- Solution
mer). Maintain the water level in the bath by adding
Oil
more water when necessary. While the water is
Suspension
heating, read through steps 3–13 of the procedure.
Prepare a flow chart for the method used in this 2% milk
Investigation.

(continued)
10. Use a clean graduated cylinder to measure and add Analyzing and Interpreting
3 mL of Benedict’s solution to the test tubes labelled
“Sugar Control” and “Glucose Solution.” Place the 1. What result indicates a positive test for starch? For
two test tubes in the water bath and heat for 2 min. sugar? For protein? For lipid?
Remove the test tubes from the water bath to 2. Which food samples contained the nutrients indi-
cool. cated?
11. To each of “Protein Control” and “Albumin
Solution,” add 10 drops of 10% NaOH, followed
by 7 drops of the Biuret reagent.
12. Place one or two drops of “Lipid Control” and “Oil 3. Would eating only hard candy or nuts provide a bal-
Suspension” on a piece of plain brown paper. anced diet? Explain.
13. Record the results of steps 9–12 in your data table. 4. What compounds did you discover to be present in
14. Test a selection of foods for the presence of starch, milk? Would milk provide a more balanced diet
sugar, protein, and lipid following the procedure than candy or nuts? Why or why not?
outlined in steps 9–12. Use the pestle to crush solid
pieces of food in a mortar and dissolve the mate-
rial in about 3 mL of water before testing. Record
Extending
the name of the food and results in the data table. 5. Why do you think it is important to know what
compounds are present in food?
6. What application do you think there is for these
tests? Hint: How carefully did you read your break-
fast cereal box this morning?

C H A P T E R S U M M A RY
Key Terms
adenosine triphosphate glycerol monomer quaternary structure

(ATP) glycogen monosaccharide R group
amino acid hydrogen bond nucleotide saturated fat
atom hydrophilic organic compound secondary structure
cellulose hydrophobic phospholipid starch
cholesterol inorganic compound polar molecule steroid
compound ionic bond polymer structural formula
covalent bond lipid polypeptide tertiary structure
disaccharide molecule polysaccharide triglyceride
double helix molecular formula primary structure unsaturated fat
Essential Understandings
1.1 The Chemical Basis of Cells 1.3 Lipids: Long-Term Energy Storage
Atoms are the basic units of matter and are held Lipids consist of an assortment of molecules, in-
together by covalent or ionic bonds to make cluding fats, phospholipids, and steroids.
compounds. Fats store energy in their many bonds and are used
Molecules can be represented by molecular and for long-term energy storage in plant and animal
structural formulas. cells.
Many cell compounds are polymers built from Fats may contain saturated or unsaturated fatty
individual units called monomers. acids.
Water is a polar molecule. Triglycerides, stored in fat cells, consist of three fatty
Hydrogen bonds form between adjacent water acids bonded to glycerol.
molecules. Phospholipids are important to cell membranes.
Because of the polarity of the molecule, water has
many chemical and physical properties important 1.4 Proteins
to life on Earth.
Amino acids are the monomers for polypeptides and
Many substances dissolve easily in water.
proteins
There are 20 different amino acids. They differ only
1.2 Carbohydrates: Short-Term Energy Storage in their R groups.
Monosaccharides are single sugar units and are the Peptide bonds join amino acids together in a
basic unit of carbohydrates. polypeptide.
Disaccharides are made of two monosaccharides Proteins are complex molecules that may be orga-
bonded together. nized into four levels of structure.
Polysaccharides are made of many monosaccha-
rides bonded together. They are important short- 1.5 Nucleic Acids
term energy storage molecules.
Nucleic acids are composed of nucleotides.
Glucose is the monomer for biologically important
DNA and RNA are examples of nucleic acids. DNA
polysaccharides. It is a source of energy for cells.
determines the heredity of the cell; RNA is active in
protein synthesis.
ATP, the energy molecule of the cell, is a nucleotide.
Consolidate Your Understanding
1. Revisit the Checkpoint on page 5 and review your web 3. Explain how chemistry and biology work together to sup-
showing how elements interact. Revise your web based port our understanding of the cell.
on what you learned in this chapter. 4. At the end of the Unit you will be completing an
2. Draw a concept map to describe the components of the Achievement Task to demonstrate what you have
cell using the following key terms as a starting point: learned. As you study the Unit content, what methods
atom, molecule, compound. can you use to prepare for this task?

CHAPTER 1 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts 8. Athletic training helps increase your stored

a) fat
1. Which of the following combinations does not describe b) glycerol
an organic molecule? c) glycogen
a) carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus d) glucose
b) carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
c) nitrogen, oxygen, and phosphorus 9. The secondary level of protein structure represents
d) phospholipid, carbohydrate, and nucleic acid a) the order of the amino acids in the finished polypep-
tide
2. Water molecules are polar because b) two or more polypeptide chains combine to form a
a) they have north and south poles protein
b) the electrons in a water molecule spend more time c) 1000 amino acid monomers
around the hydrogen atoms than the oxygen atom, d) a primary structure that is folded into a helix or
resulting in the hydrogen atom having a slight neg- pleated sheet
ative charge and the oxygen atom having a slight
positive charge 10. The differences between DNA and RNA include the fol-
c) the electrons in a water molecule spend more time lowing:
around the oxygen atom than the hydrogen atom, a) DNA is double stranded
resulting in the oxygen atom having a slight nega- b) RNA is usually single stranded
tive charge and the hydrogen atom having a slight c) RNA contains the sugar ribose
positive charge d) all of these
d) none of the above
11. Explain the difference between the bonds that form be-
3. The monomer of all biologically important polysaccha- tween the atoms of a sugar molecule and the bonds that
rides is form between atoms of sodium and chlorine. What type
a) an amino acid of compound is sodium chloride?
b) water
c) a phospholipid 12. Draw a diagram of the structural formula of glucose.
d) glucose Label at least one example of the following parts: car-
bon atom, hydrogen atom, oxygen atom, covalent bond,
4. Sucrose is commonly known as shared electron pair.
a) table sugar
b) a monosaccharide 13. Surface tension is the property that makes water form
c) a polysaccharide drops and allows some insects to walk across the sur-
d) a nucleic acid face of water in a stream. Using a diagram explain
how the polarity of water results in water having sur-
5. The short-term energy storage molecule in animal cells face tension.
is
a) glycerol 14. Diagram the process that allows the cycling of ATP
b) glucose molecules in cells.
c) glycogen
d) maltose 15. Explain why the name carbohydrate is a descriptive
name for any sugar.
6. Saturated fatty acids
a) contain no double bonds between the carbon atoms 16. Distinguish between saturated, unsaturated, and trans-
b) contain at least one double bond between carbon fatty acids.
atoms
c) are composed of two fatty acids and glycerol 17. Give two reasons why synthesis and hydrolysis are op-
d) are the energy molecules of cells posite chemical reactions.
7. The individual amino acids making up a polypeptide are 18. Joining monomers into polymers is called polymeriza-
bonded together by tion. Describe the role of polymerization in the forma-
a) hydrogen bonds tion of carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids.
b) peptide bonds
c) ionic bonds
d) polar bonds

19. Construct a chart to compare the structure and functions 29. What foods have you consumed this week that were high
of carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids. Some in saturated fat, unsaturated fat, trans-fatty acids. Based
points of comparison are: a) building blocks; b) functions on what you have learned in this chapter prepare a table
in organisms. similar to the one below and fill in the appropriate in-
Give examples of each type of molecule. formation.
20. Acid precipitation is a somewhat preventable environ-
mental problem. Outline at least five steps you could take Type of fat Food with highest Health effects of
to cut down your contributions toward the acid rain prob- content of fat the particular fat
lem.
21. Investigate the carbohydrate-loading method of training

for a running event. Report back to your classmates on
your findings. 30. “Moore’s Law” is the premise that the ability to double
the number of transistors on a circuit doubles every 18
22. Describe the four levels of protein structure and how to 24 months. Write a testable hypothesis based on
each level contributes to the three-dimensional shape of Moore’s Law and design an experiment to test your hy-
a protein molecule. pothesis.
31. Discuss your plans with your teacher in advance, and

then collect precipitation samples from local puddles,
Applying Inquiry/
ponds, lakes, or streams. Test the pH of your samples
Communication Skills and present your findings to the class.
23. A company manufacturing cookie dough claims that their

new product is fat-free. Upon scientific examination of
the contents of the product at Health Canada, it is found Making Connections
to contain glucose, sucrose, glycerol, a number of dif-
ferent amino acids, and several molecules containing 32. Write a brief essay explaining how life in Ontario may
long carbon hydrogen chains and carboxyl groups. be different if ice did not float.
According to these results, should the manufacturer be
marketing the product as fat-free? Why or why not? 33. Write a supported opinion in favour of one of the
following statements: (1) organic compounds are the most
24. Explain why the formation of a polysaccharide is a de- important compounds in cells, or (2) inorganic com-
hydration synthesis reaction. Use a diagram to help ex- pounds, including water, are the most important com-
plain your answer. pounds in cells.
25. Unsaturated fats are turned into saturated fats, in a pro- 34. Many organizations publish information related to the
cess termed hydrogenation. Explain why this is an ap- amount and types of food you should be eating. These
propriate name for this process. nutritional guidelines do not always agree. What sort
of characteristics should you use to decide if the rec-
26. Suggest simple experiments to decide if a solid food-like ommendations of a particular group are based on fact
substance contains lipids, proteins, or carbohydrates. or opinion?
27. Suggest a method a scientist might use to distinguish be- 35. There is some controversy as to the cause of global
tween a molecule that was a monomer and one that was warming. Many scientists believe that the increase in the
a polymer. “greenhouse gas” carbon dioxide is to blame for global
warming. Carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere
28. Using the Internet and other sources, research the con- by industrial processes, home heating, and automobile
troversy surrounding Olestra. Write a paragraph that in- exhaust. It is thought to act like a blanket over Earth
forms others of the controversy about this substance. keeping the heat in. Other scientists claim that the tem-
perature increase is just a cyclical variation in our planet’s
climate, such as the ice ages were. Still other experts are
in doubt as to what the cause is. If you were the minister
responsible for the environment, what recommendations
would you make to the House of Commons regarding the
actions Canada should take to combat the effects of global
warming?

UN
UNIT CHAPTER 2
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS Cell Structure
By the end of this unit,
describe how organelles and other
and Function
cell components carry out various
cell processes and explain how
these processes are related to the
function of organs (2.3,
Investigation 1, Investigation 2)
describe the fluid mosaic structure
of cell membranes (2.2)
illustrate and explain important
cellular processes, including their
functions in the cell, the ways in
which they are interrelated, and
the fact that they occur in all living
cells (2.1, 2.2, 2.3)
identify new questions and
problems stemming from the study
of metabolism in plant and animal
cells (2.3)
explain how scientific knowledge
of cellular processes is used in
technological applications (2.2, 2.3)
analyze ways in which societal
needs have led to technological
advances related to cellular
processes (2.2)
FIGURE 2.1 The diagram of a plant cell indicates the importance of the cell wall,
choroplasts, and central vacuole. These are all structures that are not present in
animal cells.
36
A ll living things are made of cells, but despite the amazing diversity of life
on Earth — everything from microscopic bacteria to giant squids to
humans — all cells contain similar basic parts. Each part or structure has
a specific job or function to perform. For instance, the cell membrane reg-
ulates everything that enters and exits a cell, the nucleus controls all of the
cell’s activities, and vesicles transport materials from place to place within
a cell. If any structure fails, the operation of the entire cell is compromised.
For example, when a basic cell structure called a lysosome malfunctions in
a human cell, it may cause one of thirty diseases collectively known as
lysosomal transport diseases.
In this chapter, you will be introduced to cells and basic cell theory. You
will study the relationship between surface area and volume, which explains
why cells are so small. You will learn to differentiate between the two basic
types of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. You will investigate the types of
structures mentioned above as well as other important cell structures such
as the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, and mitochondria. You will
examine how each structure manages a different cell function. As you proceed
through the chapter, you will gain an understanding of some of the serious
health problems that result when any one of the cell’s structures malfunctions.
Discovering Biology
Cells
What do you remember about cells? You have probably looked at cells under
the microscope in previous science classes. Sketch a diagram of a cell from CHECKPOINT
memory. Include structures in your drawing and label them. Compare your
Make a chart to list what
drawing with those of other students. Were you reminded of some organelles
you know about cell struc-
you had forgotten by looking at others’ drawings?
tures and how they func-
tion.
Structure Function
37
2.1 A Background to Cell Structure

Key Understandings
explain the cell theory
describe the relationship between surface area and volume
understand why cells are small
WEBLINK Cells had been observed since the 1600s, • All living things are composed of
when Robert Hooke made his first ob- cells.
Robert Hooke, Antonie van servations of cells in cork, but their im- • Cells are the basic units of living or-
Leuwenhoek, and Henri portance as the basic unit of life was not ganisms.
Dutrochet contributed to the
cell theory. Research the role
realized until the 1800s when the cell • All cells come from pre-existing cells.
of each of these scientists and theory was developed from the work
prepare a written report to of many scientists. Schleiden, Schwann,
summarize your information. and Virchow each made a proposal that Cell Size and Shape
Begin your research at contributed to the development of the Most plant and animal cells are similar
theory. Schleiden was the first to observe in size—they are very small, ranging
that all plant tissue was composed of somewhere between 10 and 100 µm. In
cells; Schwann soon extended the ob- this chapter you will be seeing actual
servation to animal tissue and then to photos taken through a microscope of
all living tissue. Later, Virchow extended cells and cell structures. These photos
the theory by adding that all cells could are called photomicrographs.
arise only from other cells. Virchow’s Why are most cells small? There are
contribution laid to rest the theory of good reasons. A cell needs a constant
spontaneous generation. supply of energy and a method to rid
M AT H L I N K
Even today, the cell theory is the itself of waste products. Cells obtain en-
Remember the formulas:
foundation used by biologists to try to ergy and get rid of waste products
a) Volume of a cube = s3 understand life on Earth. The modern through their cell or plasma membrane.
b) Surface area of a cube = 6s2 cell theory states: It is therefore better for a cell to have the
Image omitted due to Image omitted due to Image omitted due to

copyright restrictions. copyright restrictions. copyright restrictions.
FIGURE 2.2 From left to right Schleiden, Schwann, and Virchow. Each contributed
to the cell theory, in 1838, 1839, and 1858 respectively.

maximum membrane surface area pos- 100 m

sible, while at the same time minimiz-
ing the distance within the cell that blue whale
important molecules have to travel.
10 m
Minimizing distance also minimizes the
time taken for cell processes. With this
in mind, it is easy to show mathemati- human
cally why it is better for cells to be small. 1m
a)
10 cm
chicken egg
1 cm
Image omitted due to copyright
restrictions.
frog egg
1 mm
100 µm
b) plant and
animal cells
10 µm
cell nucleus
most bacteria
Image omitted due to copyright mitochondrion
restrictions. 1 µm
smallest bacteria
100 nm large virus
c) 10 nm
proteins
lipids
1 nm

restrictions.
0.1 nm atoms
1 centimetre (cm) = 10–2 (1/100) metre

1 millimetre (mm) = 10–3 (1/1000) metre
1 micrometre (µm) = 10–6 (1/1 000 000) metre
1 nanometre (nm) = 10–9 (1/1 000 000 000) metre
FIGURE 2.3 Hidden life. Microscope enlarge-
ments of the point of a pin show living organ-
isms, bacteria, present on an object that we
might think unsuitable for supporting life.
a) 85; b) 425; c) 2100) FIGURE 2.4 Little and big. The size of various objects.
CHAPTER 2 Cell Structure and Function 39

As you can see in Table 2.1, smaller spheres and a great variety of shapes
cells, such as those on the right, bene- exist. For example, human nerve cells
fit from a much larger surface area to can be very long, but to maintain a high
volume ratio than do larger cells. In re- enough surface area to volume ratio to
ality, no cells are perfect cubes or survive, they are very slender.
TABLE 2.1 The Effect of Size per Cube Side on Surface Area and Volume
One (2 2 2)-cm cube Eight 1-cm cubes Sixty-four 0.5-cm cubes
Surface Area (cm2) 24 48 96

3
Volume (cm ) 8 8 8
Surface Area to Volume Ratio 3:1 6:1 12:1
INFOBIT Section 2.1 Review

Although most cells are about Understanding Concepts Use this information to explain how
the same size, there are excep- nerve cells can be very large (up to
tions: Mycoplasma (at approxi- 1. Biologists accept that life begins at the 1 m in length).
mately 0.2 µm in diameter) is cellular level of organization. Provide
the smallest cell yet discovered two pieces of evidence to support this 5. Cells were observed as early as 1665.
and the single-celled view. Since that time, important new dis-
Acetabularia sp. (at 5–7 cm) is coveries about the cell have been made.
2. What is the normal size range for most Research and construct a time-line of
one of the largest cells.
cells? Explain why it is an advantage observation and discovery.
for cells to be small.
6. Assume you are a 19th-century re-
3. Calculate the volume and surface area porter assigned to explain the impor-
of 512 cubes with sides of 0.25 cm. tance of the discovery of cells and the
cell theory. Write a supported para-
Applying Inquiry/ graph to tell your readers why such
Communication Skills discoveries are important to them.
4. Two different types of cells have the fol-

lowing dimensions. Cell #1 is 2 mm Making Connections
2 mm 8 mm and cell #2 is 1 mm 7. An understanding of cells informs and
2 mm 16 mm. affects everyone.
a) Calculate the volumes of cell #1 and a) Explain how the cell theory relates
#2. How do they compare? to other living organisms besides
b) Calculate the surface areas of the humans, e.g., to a dog or an
two cells. How do they compare? amoeba.
c) Calculate the surface area to vol- b) Describe four ways that cells have
ume ratio for the two cells. How do affected your life.
these values compare?
d) What do the values in c) tell you
Investigation about the importance of cell shape?
Refer to page 58,
Investigation 1

2.2 Cell Structures

Key Understandings
distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
describe how cell structures manage various cell functions
explain the fluid mosaic structure of membranes
There is no such thing as a typical cell, are all unicellular. Bacteria and other
but all cells can be classifed according similar cells of the kingdoms
to certain characteristics. Every organ- Archaebacteria and Eubacteria are the
ism must be either a prokaryote or a only prokaryotes. All other cells are eu-
eukaryote. Prokaryotic cells lack inter- karyotic and have a membrane-bound
nal compartments and membrane- nucleus and organelles. Eukaryotes may
bound organelles, and these organisms be single-celled or multicellular and in-
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
DNA
in “nucleoid” region
within membrane-bound nucleus
Size
usually smaller
usually larger
Organization
usually single-celled often multicellular
O2 O2 O2
Metabolism
O2 O2
O2 O2
may not need oxygen usually need oxygen to exist FIGURE 2.5 Comparison of
prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells. Prokaryotes, the
Archaebacteria and
Organelles Eubacteria, are single-celled
organisms. Eukaryotes may
be single- or multicelled and
include protists, fungi, plants,
no organelles membrane-bound organelles
and animals.

WORD ORIGIN clude all protists, fungi, plants, and an- allow a sufficient number of food
imals. Protists are organisms like molecules, such as glucose, to pass in
Prokaryote is from a mixture Amoeba and Paramecium. and must also allow for the prompt re-
of Latin and Greek; the Latin Eu is a Greek word meaning “good.” moval of waste products, such as car-
Pro, meaning “before,” and
karyote from the Greek karyon, Therefore eukaryotes have a “good” or bon dioxide. Without this control the cell
meaning “kernal”—a reference real nucleus as well as other cell struc- will die.
to the appearance of the nu- tures. Eukaryotic cells are divided into The cell (or plasma) membrane is
cleus through early micro- compartments by membranes. These dif- made of a double layer of phospholipid
scopes. The combination of the ferent compartments have specific func- molecules called the phospholipid bi-
two terms indicates that
prokaryotes originated before tions and are called organelles. Each type layer. Because it is too small a structure
cell structures such as the of organelle has its own unique function. to be seen clearly with a microscope, sci-
nucleus evolved. Throughout the rest of this chapter you entists have developed a model to ex-
will learn about the structure and func- plain what they think it looks like. This
tion of the various cell organelles. model is known as the fluid mosaic
model. The term “fluid” is used because
the phospholipid molecules and proteins
Cell (Plasma) Membrane that make up the membrane are free
The cell membrane is the only thing be- to drift around in fluid motion. The term
tween a cell and its outside environment. “mosaic” is used to describe the position
It has a crucial role to play in the life of of the protein molecules. The molecules
a cell: it must control what enters and are placed randomly and there is no set
leaves the cell. The cell membrane must pattern.
THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
1 phospholipids 2 cholesterol 3 proteins
peripheral integral
cytoskeleton protein
protein
a. b.
1 A double or “bilayer” of 2 Cholesterol molecules 3 Proteins, which are integral, meaning bound to
phospholipid molecules, that act as a patching the hydrophobic interior of the membrane, or
with their hydrophilic substance and that help peripheral, meaning not bound in this way.
“heads” facing outward, the cell maintain an Membrane proteins serve four main functions:
toward the watery optimal level of fluidity.
a. Structural support, b. Recognition. Binding
environment that lies both
inside and outside the cell, often when attached to sites on some proteins can
and their hydrophobic parts of the cell’s serve to identify the cell to
“tails” pointing inward, scaffolding, or other cells, such
FIGURE 2.6 The toward each other. “cytoskeleton.” as those of the immune
system.
plasma membrane

discovery that certain bacteria and wastes, they produce more enzymes
fungi thrive upon pollutants that to break down more waste. The cycle
forms the basis for what is known as continues until all the waste material
“bioremediation technology.” There is gone. Then the bacteria either
Waste Not, are about 1000 species of bacteria become inactive and/or die from star-
known to have the ability to break vation. Companies that specialize in
Want Not down toxins and/or pollutants for use this form of biotechnology grow and
as their food source. They then re- study many types of micro-organ-
As it turns out, environmentally lease far less damaging waste prod- isms, so that they know which type
harmful substances that would kill ucts themselves. of organism can be used to effectively
most organisms—such as crude oil, Bacteria produce enzymes that clean up a certain type of industrial
gasoline, diesel fuel, and other or- break down waste materials into sub- waste.
ganic pollutants—serve as a source stances that they can more readily di-
of food for other organisms. It is the gest. As the bacteria digest these
The phospholipid bilayer is com- The hydrophobic fatty acid tails from
posed of two rows or layers of phos- each layer face one another in the mid-
pholipid molecules. The hydrophilic dle of the membrane (Figure 2.7). If you
heads of the phospholipids are found on disorganize a membrane, the phospho-
the outside and inside of the mem- lipid molecules will return to their orig-
branefacing the watery environment inal arrangement because of their
located both inside and outside a cell. reaction to water. The polar heads will
4 glycocalyx
sugar
chains
c. d.
4 The glycocalyx. Sugar

chains that attach to
communication or
recognition proteins,
serving as their binding
c. Communication. Receptor d. Transport. Proteins can
sites. The glycocalyx can
proteins, protruding out from the serve as channels through also lubricate cells and act
plasma membrane, can be the point which materials can pass as an adhesion layer for
of contact for signals sent to the cell in and out of the cell. them.
via traveling molecules, such as
hormones.

(human-made) vaccine. Dr. Jennings glycoprotein chains of the meningitis

has spent 24 years developing a vac- bacteria very closely. As a result, cells
cine to prevent a disease known as from your immune system think that
group B meningitis. Meningitis is a the meningitis bacteria has invaded
Membrane Glycoprotein disease caused by bacteria that kills your body and produce antibodies to
about 40 people a year in Canada— fight the bacteria. However, since the
Chains Play a Key Role about half of whom are infants—and carbohydrate-protein vaccine is
in the Fight Against often leaves the survivors with brain harmless, you gain protection against
Disease damage that causes mental retarda- meningitis without risk of becoming
tion and blindness. ill. Human trials for this vaccine are
Dr. Harry Jennings of the National Dr. Jennings’s research resulted currently under way, and if success-
Research Council has contributed to in the making of a combination car- ful, it should become available for
a medical breakthrough—the pro- bohydrate-protein molecule that republic use soon.
duction of the first fully synthetic sembles the cell membrane
orient toward the watery environment ment sites for molecules that need to
while the non-polar lipid tails will mix enter or carry a message to the cell. They
with other non-polar molecules. are highly specific to each individual and
The protein molecules embedded in help the cells of your immune system to
the membrane are called integral or in- recognize your body cells while also
trinsic proteins. They have different identifying foreign cells in your body so
functions. Some serve as special carri- that they can be destroyed.
ers or transport channels for molecules Cholesterol is also found within cell
that are either too large or too hy- membranes. Its function is to help keep
drophilic to pass through the phospho- the membrane fluid. At low tempera-
lipid bilayer. The transport proteins tures cholesterol keeps the phospholipids
allow these molecules to enter the cell. apart. This keeps the membrane fluid.
Other membrane proteins have sugar At higher temperatures (around 37ºC) it
chains attached to them. These carbo- attracts the phospholipids and helps
hydrate and protein combinations, stabilize the membrane.
known as glycoproteins, act as attach-
N watery
+ extracellular
polar
head fluid
P –
FIGURE 2.7 The
hydrophilic
phospholipid bilayer.
A double layer or bi-
layer of phospholipids nonpolar
form the plasma tails hydrophobic
membrane. The hy-
drophobic tails form
the interior of the hydrophilic
membrane, while the
hydrophilic heads hydrophobic molecules hydrophilic molecules watery
point toward the wa- pass through freely do not pass through cytosol
tery environment in- freely
side and outside the
cell. a) Phospholipid molecule b) Phospholipid bilayer

Cell Wall
Cell walls are not found in animal cells,
but they are found in Archaebacteria,
Eubacteria, some protists, fungi, and
plant cells. Plant cell walls are mainly
made of the polysaccharide cellulose.
Cell walls are much stronger and thicker
than cell membranes, and in plants pro-
vide structural support to the cell. It is
because of cell walls that trees are able
to grow to such enormous heights and
that wood, composed of cell walls with
the compound lignin attached, is as
strong as it is.

restrictions.

restrictions.
FIGURE 2.8 Strength from

cell walls
a) Cell walls play a role in both
living and dead cells. Here they
make up part of the bark.
b) A tree can reach enormous
heights because of the strength
a) b) of the wood, which is mostly
made up of lignified cell walls.
Discovering Biology A Model of the Cell Wall
Caution: Do not do this activity if you have a latex allergy unless you are sure the balloons
are non-latex balloons.
1. Take a party balloon and blow it up until it bursts.

2. Cut a length from the leg of some pantyhose.
3. Take the same type of balloon as used in Step 1 and put it inside the length of
pantyhose.
4. Blow up the balloon as far as possible. Try to make it burst.
5. Observe the result.
The material of the pantyhose acts like the cell wall and prevents the balloon from
bursting. This is due to the cross-linking of fibres that makes the pantyhose very
strong. In a similar way the cell wall prevents the cell membrane in a plant cell
from bursting. Compare this to the animal cell shown in Figure 3.7, page 71.

WEBLINK Cell Walls and Antibiotics Antibiotics are produced was highly effective in killing
medicines that kill bacteria. Many scien- bacteria. The mould was later identified
Penicillin no longer functions tific discoveries are the result of hours of to be a species of Penicillium.
effectively as an antibiotic for research and countless setbacks. Other The discovery of penicillin is an
some people. Research why
this is so, as well as three discoveries appear to occur quite by ac- example of how observation can lead to
alternative antibiotics that can cident. The discovery of penicillin, the first further experimentation. Fleming was
be prescribed. Summarize your antibiotic by Alexander Fleming in 1928 working against the background of late
information in a summary is one example of a seemingly acciden- nineteenth-century studies in microbi-
paragraph and data table, tal discovery. Fleming discovered that one ology by Pasteur and others that
including the name and
description of the alternative. of his Petri plates growing bacteria had had indicated an effect of mould on
Begin your research at been contaminated with mould, a type of bacterial growth. He had himself already
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11. fungus. Fleming noticed that no bacteria discovered other substances that caused
were able to grow around the area of the bacteria to burst. So he was able to
mould. Rather than throw the plate away, appreciate the importance of an appar-
Fleming investigated the mould further. ently chance observation and to carry
His studies revealed that a chemical it the scientific process forward in his
INFOBIT
experiments.
Cell without a nucleus Today it is known that penicillin
Mature red blood cells are works by preventing the formation of
unique; they no longer have a bacterial cell walls. This leads to the
nucleus! These oxygen-carry- death of the bacteria. Since eukaryotic
ing cells actually expel their
cells, including human cells, do not have
nuclei to make more room for
oxygen in the cell. This has two cell walls, penicillin targets only the
important results. Lacking the invading bacteria for destruction and not
instructions contained in the
nucleus, red blood cells cannot
reproduce themselves and so
new red blood cells are formed
in bone marrow instead. Also,
nucleolus
DNA testing of blood actually
Image omitted
uses the DNA in the disease- nuclear
fighting white blood cells. No
due to copyright
envelope
nucleus means no DNA, so the restrictions.
DNA
red blood cells cannot be used.
FIGURE 2.9 The nucleus. In eukaryotic

cells the DNA remains in the nucleus.
Compounds pass into the nucleus
through nuclear pores. The nucleolus
specializes in the production of ribosomal
RNA, a substance found in the ribosomes.
(Transmission electron micrograph
DNA 4400)
mRNA
inner membrane
outer membrane
nuclear pore

the cells of the infected person. Countless The nucleus is separated from the
lives have been saved by penicillin since rest of the cell by the nuclear envelope,
its discovery. The discovery of penicillin a double membrane with many nucleo-
opened the door for the successful spores in it to allow materials to pass in
search for many more antibiotics. and out of the nucleus (Figure 2.9). Also
Antibiotics must always be prescribed within the nucleus is the nucleolus.
and taken with care. For example, some Under the light microscopes the nucle-
people are allergic to penicillin. olus appears dense. It is composed of
DNA, granules, and fibres, and is the lo-
cation where other cell structures called
Nucleus
ribosomes are made. The dense-ap-
The nucleus is the genetic control cen- pearing material contains many copies
tre of the cell. It is usually spherical of the region of the DNA that determines
in shape and is often the most easily the formation of the RNA in ribosomes.
seen structure when cells are viewed
through a light microscope. The nu-
cleus houses the cell’s DNA. In eu- Cytoplasm
karyotes, the DNA is combined with The cytoplasm in eukaryotic cells includes
proteins into a fine, thread-like struc- the interior of the cell between the nu-
ture called chromatin. Occasionally, clear envelope and the cell membrane.
just before cell division occurs, the Once thought to be composed mainly of
chromatin condenses to form chromo- fluid, the cytoplasm has been revealed
somes. Chromosomes are also visible by electron microscopy to be a highly or-
through a light microscope. Because ganized area. Approximately one half of
the nucleus is a large structure that is the space in the cytoplasm is taken up by
easily stained and readily visible under other organelles. The other half of the cy-
the light microscope, it was one of the toplasm is the liquid portion known as
first cell structures to be studied. In the cytosol. The cytosol contains a con-
1882 the German scientist Walter centrated mix of ions and molecules such
Flemming discovered chromatin as well as enzymes, amino acids, ATP, and car-
as the stages of cell division (mitosis). bohydrates.
Section 2.2 Review

1. What two cell structures do most cells
have in common? 5. Imagine that your cell membranes sud-
2. Describe the structure and function of denly became cell walls made of cellu-
a) the cell membrane lose. List three possible effects of this
b) the nucleus change.
c) the cytoplasm
3. Explain why the fluid mosaic model Making Connections
is used to describe the appearance of
the cell membrane. 6. In what ways did the discovery of peni-
cillin affect society?
4. Describe the differences between
prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Relate 7. Prepare a cost/benefit analysis of the
these differences to their distribution use of bioremediation in cleaning the
on Earth. environment.

2.3 Cytoplasmic Organelles
Key Understandings
describe how cell organelles manage various cell functions
relate cell functions to the functions of organs
WORD ORIGIN The activities in eukaryotic cells are or- mitochondria in the cell use oxygen to
ganized in ways that can be compared produce ATP. In the process, carbon
Vesicle from the Latin to the body as a whole. Using the anal- dioxide is produced and is excreted
vesicula, meaning “little blad-
ogy of the body’s organ systems, struc- through the cell membrane. This
der or container.”
tures that perform specialized functions transport process is similar to the way
Endoplasmic from the Greek in cells are called organelles. Your di- that your respiratory system supplies
endon, meaning “within” and gestive system breaks down food mate- oxygen and removes carbon dioxide.
plasm, derived from the term rials into substances accessible to other
“cytoplasm.”
parts. There are organelles called lyso-
Advances in Microscopy
somes, that are powerful in digestive
functions within each cell. As your blood Our understanding of cells and their
system acts to transport the products of functions has increased dramatically due
digestion, so the cell’s vacuoles and vesi- to improvements in microscopy. The de-
cles store and/or transport substances signing of the microscope began with the
within the cell. Just as your body has a work of Dutch lens makers in the 1500s.
system of blood vessels, the cell has Until about 50 years ago scientists were
membranous transportation channels restricted to using light microscopes.
called the endoplasmic reticulum. The Clear colour images of living tissue or
prepared and stained non-living tissue,
can be obtained using the light micro-
scope. However, there are limits to the
resolving power—the ability to distin-
guish between two closely positioned ob-
jects. Also magnification is limited to
about 1000.
The transmission electron micro-
scope (TEM) was invented in 1938 by
Canadian scientists James Hillier and
Albert Prebus, and perfected by John
L. Watson to a point where it was use-
ful for biological research. As the name
suggests, electron microscopes use a
beam of electrons instead of rays of light
to produce an image. The two types of
electron microscopes, scanning electron
microscopes (SEMs) and transmission
electron microscopes (TEMs), work in
different ways and for different pur-
poses. TEMs send a beam of electrons
through a thinly sliced sample of an
FIGURE 2.10 Transmission electron micrograph of important nuclear structures. object and produce a finely detailed view
The arrows indicate nuclear pores. A vesicle (V) approaches the nucleus. of parts of its inner structure. The sci-

entist must re-create the three-dimen-

sional relationships of the various struc-
tures. SEMs scan the outer surface of an
object and produce pictures that look
three-dimensional. Scanning tunnelling
microscopes (STMs), are one of the lat-
est advances in microscope technology
nuclear
and provide a three-dimensional view of envelope
molecules. (See Section 1.3.)
Vacuoles and Vesicles ribosomes

rough
Vacuoles and vesicles are both contain- endoplasmic cisternae
ers, bags made of membrane, filled with reticulum
water and dissolved molecules. Vacuoles cisternal
spaces
are found mainly in plant cells and are
used for storage of starch molecules or
water and to give support to the cell.
They are surrounded by a single-layered
membrane called a tonoplast. Vesicles FIGURE 2.11 The rough endoplasmic reticulum: where proteins take shape.
are used for transporting materials Polypeptide chains made at the ribosomes drop into the cisternal space of the rough
throughout the cell rather than for stor- endoplasmic reticulum. The chain then folds up into its protein shape and may undergo
age and keep the different parts of the processing; for example, the addition of a side chain of carbohydrate. The protein is then
surrounded by a vesicle and transported to the Golgi complex.
cell in contact.
membranes
Ribosomes without
ribosomes
Ribosomes are dense-looking dark gran-
ules located on the surface of parts of the
endoplasmic reticulum and also floating ribosomes
Image omitted Image omitted
within the cytoplasm. They are made of due to copyright due to copyright
a combination of RNA and protein, and restrictions. restrictions.
cisternal
are the sites where amino acids are as- spaces
sembled into proteins in a process known
as protein synthesis.
a) b)
Endoplasmic Reticulum
FIGURE 2.12 The endoplasmic reticulum. a) The smooth endoplasmic reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum is a series
lacks ribosomes: it is involved in the synthesis of lipids and carbohydrates. b) The
of interconnected small tubes (tubules) rough endoplasmic reticulum has attached ribosomes where proteins are synthe-
made of membranes that branch out sized (TEM 90 500)
from the nuclear envelope. Part of the en-
doplasmic reticulum has ribosomes at- manufactured on the rough endoplasmic
tached to it. The ribosomes give the reticulum, in response to the need for
endoplasmic reticulum in this location a membranes by other organelles.
rough-looking appearance; therefore, this The smooth endoplasmic reticu-
portion is known as the rough endoplas- lum (SER) lacks ribosomes and takes its
mic reticulum. The rough endoplasmic name from its resulting smooth-look-
reticulum (RER) is where protein syn- ing appearance (Figure 2.12a). The func-
thesis takes place at the ribosomes, par- tion of the smooth endoplasmic
ticularly the synthesis of those proteins reticulum is to make lipids—including
for use outside the cell (Figure 2.11, phospholipids and steroids. It also serves
2.12b). Additional membranes are also as a storage site for calcium ions.

INFOBIT Golgi Complex (Apparatus) that make compartments in the cell to

allow digestion. They contain hydrolytic
Named after the Italian scientist who dis-
DNA segments coding for enzymes and have a variety of roles.
fluorescent molecules from a covered them, Golgi complexes are nu-
In unicellular organisms, lysosomes may
jellyfish were fused with DNA merous and important to the operation
be used to digest food, while certain
coding for proteins of the Golgi of the cell. They consist of flattened
apparatus so that these proteins types of human white blood cells (neu-
stacks of membrane, whose function is
would become fluorescent too. trophils and macrophages) use them to
to receive, modify, and transport pro-
Scientists were then able to destroy invading bacteria.
follow the movement of these teins produced by the endoplasmic retic-
Lysosomes are also used to break
proteins in the cell. Scientists ulum. If the destination of the protein is
down damaged organelles within a cell.
believe that these proteins outside of the cell, the Golgi packages
were immobilized in the Golgi For example: human brain cells survive
it into a vesicle and sends it to the cell
complex. Other proteins move from birth until death but have organelles
membrane for export out of the cell.
out of the Golgi complex and within them such as mitochondria and
head to the part of the cell ribosomes that are usually less than one
where they will carry out their Lysosomes
specific function. It remains a month old. Therefore the cells them-
mystery why some proteins are Both the Golgi complex and the endo- selves are, with the help of the lyso-
not transported. plasmic reticulum produce lysosomes. somes, breaking down old organelles
Lysosomes are membrane-bound sacs while continually forming new ones.
from RER
cisternae
Image omitted due
cisternal
to copyright
Golgi space restrictions.
complex
vesicle
to plasma
membrane
to cytosol for export

out of cell
FIGURE 2.13 The Golgi

complex. Vesicles from the
rough endoplasmic reticulum
fuse with the Golgi mem-
P P brane. Side chains may be
modified as the protein
passes through the cisternae
of the Golgi complex. The
1. Side chains are edited 2. Vesicle formed protein is then encased in a
(sugars may be trimmed, for protein transport. vesicle for further transport
phosphate groups added). inside or outside the cell.

Researchers now think that lyso- a number of human diseases known as WEBLINK
somes may also play a role in the age- lysosomal storage diseases. Among them
ing process. Apparently lysosomes is Tay-Sachs disease, a hereditary con- Research lysosomal storage
cannot digest all of the outdated mate- dition that results in deterioration of the diseases. Compile a list of the
types of disease, the specific
rial in a cell. As these compounds ac- brain. When working correctly, the en- causes, and the treatments
cumulate within the lysosomes over zyme involved breaks down excess fat available. Begin your research
time, they cause a decrease in cell func- in the brain. Without this enzyme, fat is at the Pearson Education Web
tions such as is associated with ageing. allowed to build up in the lysosomes site at
stored within the brain cells. This causes www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
Lysosomes in Human Disease A missing increasing, irreversible damage, and even-
or defective enzyme in lysosomes causes tually leads to death at around age five.
CELLULAR RECYCLING Investigation

Refer to page 60,
Investigation 2
worn-out lysosome
organelle
digestive
enzymes
fusion
digestion
small
molecules molecules
recycled to returned to FIGURE 2.14 Lysosomes:
make new cytosol
cellular recycling.
organelles
When a lysosome fuses with a
worn-out organelle, its enzymes
break the organelle down into
small molecules that can be re-
turned to the cytosol and used
elsewhere. Lysosomes expel
materials that they cannot di-
gest from the cell. In unicellu-
wastes expelled lar organisms lysosmes also
from cell digest food particles for use in
the cell.

Other diseases such as gangliosido-

Discovering Biology sis, Sly syndrome, and Hurler syndrome
are caused by other defective lysosomal
Watching a Paramecium’s Organelles
enzymes. There are approximately 30
human diseases in total involving mal-
Interaction between living organisms can show their physiology functioning lysosomal enzymes. The
1. Prepare and observe a slide of a live Paramecium culture under number of diseases caused by improp-
the low power objective of a microscope. erly working lysosomes clearly indicates
2. Obtain a small sample from a yeast solution that has been the importance of this structure to the
treated with an indicator that changes colour as the acidity of cell.
the solution changes. Transfer a small drop of the yeast solu- Lysosomes are also responsible for
tion to the edge of the slide using a toothpick.
changes in whole organisms. Examples
3. Observe the Paramecium through the microscope for five min-
of tissues digested by lysosomes are the
utes and record your observations.
What changes did you observe in the Paramecium? What or- tail of a tadpole, any unwanted tissue
ganelles did you see at work within the Paramecium? during insect metamorphosis, and tissue
that exists between the fingers in the
human embryo, giving them a webbed
Caution: Wash your hands after handling living cultures.
appearance.
lysosomes then destroy the cancer answers that will eventually lead to
cell. The lysosomes in the sick chil- a cure to this group of dreaded child-
dren, however, lack these enzymes. hood diseases.
Normally, enzymes are delivered
Vett Lloyd, Cell to the lysosomes in tiny cargo pack-
ets called vesicles. Unfortunately, in
Biologist the children, the vesicles get lost. It
is as if the post office has lost the
package because the wrong address
Dr. Vett Lloyd is a professor of cell bi- was written on it. “The enzymes
ology at Dalhousie University in don’t get into the lysosomes so the
Halifax, Nova Scotia. Her cell biology lysosomes don’t work, and if the lyso-
research has focused on lysosome somes don’t work the immune sys-
storage and transport diseases. tem cells cannot kill the cancer cells,” Image omitted due to
Children with these diseases experi- says Lloyd. copyright restrictions.
ence a lot of pain and eventually die Her first big breakthrough came
of cancer, usually in late childhood. a number of years ago when she dis-
“What happens in these sick children covered fruit flies that were dying
is that the lysosomes inside their cells from the same lysosome problem that
do not work properly,” says Lloyd. was killing human children. Lloyd is
One of the roles of lysosomes is now using the fruit flies to help her
to help your immune system to de- in her studies. The big advantage of
stroy cancer cells. If a cell in your using fruit flies is that you can test
body turns cancerous, your immune the safety and effectiveness of new
system sends out a killer cell that en- drugs on them before you give the
gulfs the cancer cell. Powerful en- drugs to children. She believes the FIGURE 2.15 Dr. Vett Lloyd studies lyso-
zymes inside the immune cell’s fruit fly’s cells will provide the somal storage and transport diseases.

Mitochondria
Mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion)
are found in both plant and animal
cells. These organelles play a vital role
in energy-transforming activities.
Mitochondria are composed of an outer
membrane, an inner membrane orga-
mitochondrion
nized into folds called cristae, and an
inner liquid solution known as the cristae
matrix.
The mitochondrion is the site of cel- matria
lular respiration in eukaryotic cells. The
process of cellular respiration involves
extracting energy from food molecules Image
outer
such as glucose and using that energy to membrane omitted due
make ATP. In the process CO 2 is pro- to copyright
duced, to be later excreted by the cell. restrictions.
inner
membrane
Chloroplasts
These green organelles, found only in food water
cells of plants and some protists (like oxygen carbon dioxide
algae), are responsible for producing ATP
food for most of the life on Earth. The
organelles produce food by the process
of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis FIGURE 2.16 Mitochondria. Mitochondria convert the energy contained in the
enables plants and some protists to chemical bonds in food into a form more easily used by the cell, the ATP molecule.
convert the energy of sunlight into chem-
ical energy in the form of carbohydrates.
This unique form of inheritance is fairly constant rate, researchers are

useful for scientists because it allows able to compare modern mtDNA with
them to study human evolution using that from early human remains and
changes in the structure of molecules. determine how related certain pop-
A Unique Gift Because mtDNA is passed from ulations may be. For example, sci-
mother to offspring it is fairly easy to entists recently compared the mtDNA
from Your Mom, trace its course through a population. of prehistoric human bones found in
and Her Mom..., For example. although you had eight a cave in Wales with mtDNA from
great-grandparents, you inherited volunteers throughout Europe. To
your mtDNA from only one of them their surprise, the closest match was
Mitochondria contain their own DNA, (your mother’s grandmother on her found belonging to a man living in a
separate from the DNA in a cell’s nu- mother’s side). It is also possible to nearby Welsh town. This proved that
cleus. Unlike nuclear DNA, which is analyze mtDNA from sources such as the man was a direct descendant
inherited from both parents, mito- teeth and bones—often still available from the cave person and that the
chondrial DNA (known as mtDNA), even from ancient human remains. man’s ancestors had lived in that
is inherited along maternal lines—or Because DNA is known to change area of Wales for at least 30 000
in other words, from your mother. naturally over time (or mutate), at a years!

outer membrane
inner membrane

restrictions.
water sugar (food)

carbon dioxide oxygen
minerals
FIGURE 2.17 The chloroplast. Surrounded by a double membrane, chloroplasts are

the sites of photosynthesis. Chloroplasts enable plant and some protist cells to use
the energy of sunlight to transform water, carbon dioxide, and a few minerals into
food materials that sustain most of the life on Earth. Micrograph: 13 000
Chloroplasts have a double mem- once free living cells; bacterial cells and
brane surrounding them and also have algal cells, respectively. She proposes
an internal membrane system contain- that about 1.4 billion years ago, these
ing light-capturing molecules of bacterial and algal cells found a better
chlorophyll. The internal membranes life living inside other cells. There is ev-
are interconnected and frequently form idence to support this theory. For ex-
a stack of pancake-shaped structures ample, mitochondria and chloroplasts
called grana (singular: granum). A thick reproduce on their own, separately from
fluid, the stroma, that contains enzymes the rest of the cell. They contain their
and other molecules, occupies the re- own DNA and ribosomes. Both mito-
mainder of the space in a chloroplast chondria and chloroplasts are about the
(Figure 2.17). same size as bacteria.
Chloroplasts are the best known of Margulis’s theory took a long time
a diverse group of organelles called to gain acceptance. Many scientists re-
plastids that occur only in plants and jected the concept when it was proposed
algae, and some other protists. As well in the early 1960s. However, Margulis
as photosynthesis in chloroplasts, plas- persevered in her investigations, slowly
tids store nutrients and give colour to accumulating more evidence for her hy-
many cells by storing pigment. pothesis and more supporters among
her colleagues.
The Endosymbiotic Theory Did you know An accidental discovery by Dr. Kwang
that you have ancient bacteria living in Jeon added strong support to Margulis’s
your cells? According to Dr. Lynn theory. Jeon found that among amoebas
Margulis, a professor of botany at the infected with bacteria, some survived the
University of Massachusetts, you do. infection while still harbouring up to
Early in her career she developed the 40 000 bacteria living inside of them.
endosymbiotic theory, proposing that Even more remarkably, he also found,
mitochondria and chloroplasts were upon trying to remove the bacteria from

Image omitted Image omitted Image omitted

due to copyright due to copyright due to copyright
restrictions. restrictions. restrictions.
Microfilaments Intermediate filaments Microtubules
7 nm 10 nm 25 nm
Main function: changes Main function: maintenance
in cell shape Main functions: maintenance
of cell shape
of cell shape, movement of
organelles, cell mobility (cilia
and flagella)
FIGURE 2.18 The cytoskeleton. Three types of fibres

form the cytoskeleton: microfilaments, about 7 nm; in-
termediate filaments, about 10 nm ; and microtubules,
about 25 nm.
INFOBIT
their hosts, that the amoeba could no in relaying messages back and forth be-
longer live without the bacteria. Jeon, tween the cell membrane and the inte- Many of our sensory structures
then, proved that it is possible for an or- rior of the cell. may have evolved from cilia.
ganism to become dependent on an in- The basic cilia-like form is
vading organism, and that, rather than found in: the light-sensitive
Cilia and Flagella portions of our eye; the fibres
have the bacteria destroy the amoeba, it
Cilia and flagella are made of fine pro- located in our noses that allow
was possible for them to co-exist. us to sense smells; and the tiny
tein fibres that function to provide
hairs of our internal ear that
movement to some cells. The most ob- are used to help us maintain
Cytoskeleton vious difference between them is their our balance.
The cell membrane gives very little sup- length: flagella are long; cilia are short.
port to an animal cell. Plant cells have a Also cilia may be very numerous and
cell wall to support their shape. However, cover the cell while flagella are few in
animal cells are able to maintain their number. Many protist cells use these
WORDORIGIN
shape due to the cytoskeleton: a sup- structures for locomotion: Paramecium
portive network of fine protein fibres. is covered with tiny cilia that beat in a
Endosymbiosis from the
These protein fibres, the microfilaments, coordinated fashion to propel it through Greek symbiosis, meaning “liv-
intermediate filaments, and microtubules the water, Euglena moves by way of its ing together” and endo, mean-
are shown in Figure 2.18. Besides of- two whip-like flagella located at the ing “within.” When combined,
fering support to the cell, the cytoskele- anterior. Human sperm cells are able to the two words nicely represent
endosymbiosis, meaning “one
ton helps anchor the organelles within move due to the presence of a single
organism living inside another.”
the cytoplasm and may also play a role flagellum (Figure 2.19).

Image omitted due to copyright restrictions. Image omitted due to copyright restrictions.
a) b)
FIGURE 2.19 Functions of microtubules

a) Electron micrograph of protist cell covered with hair-like cilia for locomotion.
b) Human sperm cell; notice the long flagellum on the sperm cell.
Section 2.3 Review

Understanding Concepts Margulis’s endosymbiotic theory?
Explain.
1. What are organelles?
2. How do lysosomes function to digest
materials?
Making Connections
3. Describe the location of the endoplas- 7. A patient being treated for a form of
mic reticulum. Make a table to show cancer known as leukemia, had his
the differences in appearance and func- spleen removed—a common treatment
tion between the rough and smooth for this type of cancer. Soon re-
endoplasmic reticulum. searchers discovered that the man’s
spleen cells produced a protein that ac-
4. Explain the function of the Golgi com-
tually helped fight the cancer. The re-
plex (apparatus).
searchers patented the cells and the
5. The table below shows the observa- patient—upon discovering that his cells
tions made of three different cells. were being used this way—sued for a
Determine as much as you can about share of the profits but eventually lost
each type of cell. For example, are the lawsuit. Do you think the re-
the cells prokaryotic or eukaryotic; searchers were correct in their use of
plant or animal? the cells without obtaining the patient’s
6. If scientists were able to remove mito- consent? Do you think the patient was
chondria or chloroplasts from cells and treated fairly? How would you have
turn them into free functioning organ- voted if you were on a jury deciding
isms once more, would this help, hin- this issue? Provide the reasons behind
der, or have no effect upon Dr. Lynn your decision.
Cell wall Cell membrane Chloroplasts Mitochondria Nucleus

Cell A Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Cell B No Yes No Yes Yes
Cell C Yes Yes No No No

Defining the Issue
Case Study
Ethics and Stem Cell Justifying the Course of Action
Research
Stem cells and their potential uses in the treatment of

disease are the focus of heated social controversy. There
are two types of stem cells, those that are totipotent (that
is, make all cell types), and those that are tissue restricted
(that is, make one type of tissue only). Totipotent cells
(sometimes called embryonic stem cells) have been
thought to provide a way to treat diseases like
Parkinson’s, juvenile diabetes, and Alzheimer’s by re-
generating tissue.
Stem cells may be obtained from different sources.
Many people believe that using the stem cells from human
embryos for research and medical purposes is morally Image omitted due to copyright
wrong. Others believe that it is the responsibility of the restrictions.
medical community to use whatever knowledge they pos-
sess in their research to decrease human suffering. They
feel society has an obligation to do the research required
for the people who are living with these diseases.
Dr. Mickie Bhatia, Scientist at The John P. Robarts
Research Institute in London, Ontario, has discovered
that when adult blood stem cells are given a protein
present during human blood development earlier in life,
these blood stem cells will grow and reproduce in a sim-
ilar manner to embryonic blood stem cells. If these blood
stem cells could be induced to form other types of tissue,
such as neural or muscle cells, these adult cells could
provide a potential alternative to the use of totipotent FIGURE 2.20 Dr. Mickie Bhatia studies adult blood stem
embryonic stem cells in the treatment of disease. Will the cells.
controversy continue? Wherever ethics come into a ques-
tion, there will most likely always be differing opinions.
Analyzing the Issue

1. What are the ethical perspectives relating to the con- 4. Research stem cells and their use in the treatment of
troversy about stem cell research? Parkinson’s disease.
2. What additional factors influence society’s response to 5. Prepare a risk-benefit analysis to summarize your find-
stem cell research? Explain. ings. Write a position paper to address the following
3. Propose what impact Dr. Bhatia’s discovery may have question. If faced with a degenerative or potentially fatal
on attitudes toward stem cell research and treatment disease, should a person be able to refuse medical help
with stem cells. because of his or her own moral principles if that help
is available to them?

Inquiry Skills

Estimating an Object’s Size Analyzing and Interpreting
with the Microscope
While it may be interesting and informative to view
objects under a microscope, it often difficult to
know the actual size of the object being observed.
Magnification causes us to lose our perspective on
size. In this lab you will learn how to estimate the
size of an object by comparing it with something you
already know—the diameter of the field of view.
Problem
How is the compound microscope used to estimate
the size of microscopic specimens?
Materials
microscope
transparent metric ruler FIGURE 2.22 Adjust the position of the ruler so that you
prepared slides can measure the diameter of the field of view.
4. Measure the diameter of the low power field to

Procedure the nearest tenth of a millimetre. Record this mea-
1. Obtain a microscope and place a transparent met- surement in your notebook.
ric ruler on the stage so that it covers about half 5. Use a ratio to calculate the diameter of the high
of the stage, as shown in Figure 2.21. power field (the magnification of objectives is in-
versely proportional to the field size).
high power low power

field diameter magnification

low power high power
field diameter magnification
FIGURE 2.21 Set-up
for measuring the di-
ameter of the field of 6. Record the high power field diameter in mi-
view. crometres. Show your work.
7. Estimate the size of objects you view under
the microscope by comparing them with the
diameter of the field of view. For example, if an
organism takes up one-half of a field of view
that is 500 µm in diameter, then its size is about
one-half of 500 µm, or 250 µm.
2. Observe the ruler under low power. Adjust the po- 8. Obtain prepared slides of various organisms and
sition of the ruler so that its view is similar to practise estimating their lengths and/or widths.
Figure 2.22. Record the name of the organism or structure you
are viewing and its estimated size in µm in the
3. Move the millimetre ruler so that you are mea-
data table.
suring the diameter (width) of the low power field
of view from left to right. 9. Return your microscope and slides to their proper
storage locations once you have finished this ac-
tivity.


(continued)
Analyzing and Interpreting Concluding and Communicating

1. Set up a data table similar to Table 2.3 in your 3. How many micrometres are in one millimetre?
notebook. 4. How many micrometres are in one metre?
5. Describe what happens to the field of view when
TABLE 2.3 Size of Field Diameters you switch from the low power magnification to
the high-power magnification.
Field Field diameter 6. How many times is the magnification increased
Magnification in mm when you change from the low power lens to
the high power lens?
Low power
7. How many times is the field diameter decreased
From measurement:
when you change from the low power lens to
High power the high power lens?
From calculation: 8. Approximately 400 bacteria fit across the field
of view of the low-power lens. What is the esti-
mated size of one bacterium?
For calculation, see the equation given in proce- 9. Approximately six of a certain species of protist
dure step 5. can fit across the high-power field of vision. What
2. Gather the necessary information to complete is the size of one protist?
Table 2.3 and copy it into your notebook. Copy 10. If a microscope has a low-power magnification of
and complete Table 2.4 in your notebook. 100, a high power magnification of 450, and
a low-power field diameter of 1800 µm, what is
TABLE 2.4 Size of Objects the high power field diameter in micrometres?
11. If 16 protists fit across a low-power field of view
Name of object Estimate of object’s size whose field diameter is 4800 µm, what is the
approximate size of each protist?
12. You have determined the field size of the low and
high-power objective lenses. How do you think
you would calculate the field diameter of the
medium-power lens?
Extending
13. Make a wet-mount slide of a protist culture.
Choose one protist and observe it under low and
high power. Estimate its length in micrometres.

Inquiry Skills

Characteristics of Cells Analyzing and Interpreting
Cells are the basic units of structure and function

for all living things. All cells fall into one of two major 6. In your notebook, draw and label the appearance
divisions—prokaryotic or eukaryotic. How might you of the specimen under high power.
classify an unknown cell? You will determine the dif-
7. Repeat steps 3–6 for the other prepared slides pro-
ferences through an examination of prepared slides.
vided by your teacher.
You will then use these differences to help you clas-
sify a test specimen. 8. Repeat steps 3–6 for an unidentified prepared slide
provided by your teacher.
Problem 9. Once you have finished the lab, return all of the
equipment to its proper place.
What differences can be observed between prokary-
otic and eukaryotic cells? Analyzing and Interpreting
1. Based on your observations, do all cells have a
Materials common shape? Explain your answer.
(per group)
2. Under which magnification can you see the dif-
microscope ferent structures?
prepared slides of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells 3. What cell structures were common to all cells?
CAUTION: Observe proper technique with the microscope

and slides to ensure safe handling of equipment.
4. What cell structures are found only in eukary-
otic cells?
Procedure 5. Explain how you decided on the cell type of the
1. Set up your data table in your notebook in a man- unknown specimen.
ner similar to Table 2.2. 6. Why do different types of cells have different
2. Obtain a microscope. shapes and sizes?
3. Obtain a prepared slide to examine.
4. In the data table, write the name of the specimen Extending
you are examining. Sketch its shape. Place a check 7. The procedure of DNA fingerprinting relies on ex-
mark under the cell structures you are able to tracting DNA from the nucleus of a cell in order
identify on this slide. Examine the slide under low, to identify a suspect. Explain why DNA finger-
medium, and high power to help you locate as printing will not work if DNA is extracted from a
many cell structures as possible. blood sample that contains only red blood cells.
5. Based on your observations, decide if each cell 8. Prokaryotes have no nuclear membrane but con-
is a prokaryote or a eukaryote. tain DNA in the cell. How can these cells carry out
cell activities without a nuclear membrane?
TABLE 2.2 Characteristics of Cells
Cell Specimen Shape Cell Structures Prokaryotic or Eukaryotic?

Nuclear Envelope
Cell Membrane
Cytoplasm
Cell Wall
Vacuoles
Nucleus
Plastids

Key Terms
cell membrane chromosomes flagella nuclear envelope rough endoplasmic

cell theory cilia fluid mosaic model nucleolus reticulum
cellulose cytoplasm Golgi complex organelles smooth endoplasmic
cell wall cytoskeleton (apparatus) photosynthesis reticulum
chloroplasts cytosol lysosome phospholipid bilayer surface area
cholesterol endoplasmic reticulum mitochondria prokaryote vacuole
chromatin eukaryote nucleus ribosome vesicle
Cell Organelles in Plant and Animal Cells

Name Location Function
Cell (Plasma) membrane Surrounds cytoplasm Regulates what enters and leaves the cell
Nucleus Within nuclear envelope Contains the DNA
Cytosol Cytoplasm Fluid containing organelles and important molecules such as proteins
Vacuoles and vesicles Cytoplasm Vacuoles store food or water; vesicles transport molecules
Ribosomes Rough endoplasmic reticulum Site of protein synthesis
Free-floating in cytoplasm
Rough endoplasmic reticulum Cytoplasm Processing of proteins
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Cytoplasm Lipid synthesis
Golgi complex Cytoplasm Processing and packaging of protein
Lysosomes (in animal cells only) Cytoplasm Digestion of molecules, bacteria, or damaged organelles
Mitochondria Cytoplasm Produce ATP from energy released from glucose
Cytoskeleton Cytoplasm Maintains cell shape and helps hold organelles in place
Cilia and flagella Outside cell membrane Permits cell movement
Cell wall (in plant cells only) Outside cell membrane Provides shape and support for the cell
Chloroplasts (in plant and some Cytoplasm Uses energy of sunlight to produce carbohydrates (photosynthesis)
protist cells only)
2.1 A Background to Cell Structure Eukaryotic cells have specialized structures called
Cells are the basic units of life and are present in organelles.
The phospholipid-containing cell membrane sepa-
all living things.
Cells come only from pre-existing cells. rates the cell from the environment.
In eukaryotes the volume inside the cell membrane
Cells are small so that they can maximize their sur-
face area. is divided into nucleus, cytoplasm, and organelles.
An increased surface area helps cells obtain energy 2.3 Cytoplasmic Organelles
and rid themselves of waste products through their
Organelles are structures located within the cyto-
cell membranes.
plasm that perform specialized functions for the cell.
2.2 Cell Structures Cell organelles include vacuoles and vesicles, ribo-
Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and other mem- somes, smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum,
brane-bound organelles. Golgi complex, lysosomes, mitochondria, chloro-
plasts, cytoskeleton, cilia, and flagella.
1. Revisit the Checkpoint on page 37 and review your chart 3. Prepare an analogy to describe the structures and func-
listing the structures and functions of cells. Revise your tions of the cell to an elementary school class. Suggest
chart based on what you learned in this chapter. illustrations or models to support your presentation.
2. Construct a concept map to show the relationship be- 4. Reflect on your learning. Explain why theories like the
tween the following key terms: cell theory, prokaryote, cell theory are important to the process of scientific
eukaryote, organelle, cytoplasm, cell membrane, and nu- discovery.
cleus.
CHAPTER 2 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts 9. Under a microscope a cell was found to contain many mi-
tochondria, chloroplasts, a nucleus, a cell wall, cytoplasm,
1. The genetic control centre of the cell is the as well as other organelles. This cell is most likely a
a) nucleus a) bacterial cell
b) cytoplasm b) human cell
c) mitochondrion c) plant cell
d) lysosome d) none of these
2. The structure of the cell between the nucleus and cell 10. Which of the following structures is not involved in cell
membrane is called the support or movement?
a) mitochondrion a) cytoskeleton
b) cytoskeleton b) cell wall
c) chloroplast c) cilia
d) cytoplasm d) lysosome
3. Which of the following organisms have prokaryotic cells? 11. Sketch a typical animal cell to show all of the struc-
a) humans tures and organelles it is likely to contain. Do the same
b) bacteria for a typical plant cell.
c) fungi
d) plants 12. Which structures are found in plant cells but not in an-
imal cells?
4. As the surface area of a cell increases, the surface to
volume ratio: 13. Explain the difference between the nucleolus and
a) increases as much as the surface area nucleus.
b) does not change
c) decreases 14. Living cells are sometimes compared to factories. Explain
d) none of these what part of a cell may match the function of each of
these: security guard, shipping centre, power plant, fac-
5. Cells that need a large amount of energy would usually tory manager, and storage tank.
contain many
a) mitochondria 15. Sketch a diagram of the cell membrane and identify
b) chloroplasts the structures present. Using your diagram as a refer-
c) vesicles ence, explain why the term “fluid mosaic model” is ap-
d) Golgi complexes propriate to describe the cell membrane as we know it.
6. Organisms whose cells do not contain a nucleus are called 16. Prepare a speech for a meeting of cell biologists. The title
a) prokaryotes of your speech is to be: It is better for organisms to be
b) eukaryotes made of many small cells than a few large ones.
c) plants
d) fungi 17. Compare the information obtained from transmission
electron microscope and scanning electron microscope
7. Which structure is the site of protein synthesis? images.
a) nucleus
b) lysosome 18. How did the evidence accumulated by Dr. Kwan Jeon
c) smooth endoplasmic reticulum support the endosymbiotic theory?
d) ribosome
19. Make a flow chart to show the way that bacteria may be
8. Where in a cell would you expect to find the cytoskeleton? used to break down waste materials.
a) within the nucleus
b) within a mitochondrion 20. Explain why secretory cells like the thyroid gland cells
c) within the cytoplasm might be expected to have an active Golgi complex?
d) between the cell membrane and the cell wall

Applying Inquiry/ 24. Prepare a concept map illustrating how the ribosomes,
Communication Skills rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, and cell
membrane may function together.
21. Draw a diagram of three cells with the same volume but
different surface areas. 25. Robert Hooke coined the term cells while looking at dead
cork cells through his homemade microscope. Some years
22. a) Complete the following chart in your notes to perform earlier, Dutch tailor Antonie Van Leuwenhoek observed
a mathematical comparison of surface area (S.A.) and a number of different living specimens using microscopes
volume (V) for a hypothetical cube-shaped cell. of his own design, but did not describe cells. Why do you
think this is so?
Dimensions Surface Volume S.A.: Index =
26. Liver cells have hundreds of mitochondria, while fat cells
of “cube” Area (cm3) Volume S.A./V
have only a few. Why do you think there is such a dif-
cell (cm) (cm2) (ratio) ference between the two cells in the number of mito-
05 × 0.5 × 0.5 chondria? Provide reasons for your answer.
1.0 × 1.0 × 1.0
27. When a specialized white blood cell defends your body
1.5 × 1.5 × 1.5 against bacteria many cell systems are involved in the
2.0 × 2.0 × 2.0 process. Set up a T-chart to show the organelles involved
and their functions in defense of the body.
2.5 × 2.5 × 2.5
3.0 × 3.0 × 3.0
Making Connections
b) Plot a graph of your calculated values for the index
versus the length of cube side of the cube-shaped 28. Scientists believe that originally all life on Earth con-
cell. Plot the index on the vertical axis. sisted of prokaryotic cells and that eukaryotic cells
c) Describe the shape of your graph. evolved later. Based on what you know about the dif-
d) Now relate this mathematical relationship to the op- ferences between the two cell types, explain why this
eration of a cell as it increases in size. Why must view does or does not make sense.
the majority of cells ultimately divide using mitosis?
29. a) Explain why an understanding of cell processes is
23. Copy the graph below onto a separate piece of paper. essential to the development of vaccines.
Add data points to the graph for cubes with sides of b) How might this understanding have impact on
2 cm, 3 cm, 4 cm, and 5 cm. (In order to do this, you Canada’s health system and allocation of resources?
will need to first calculate the surface area for each of
the cubes, and then calculate the surface area to volume
ratio.) Complete the graph and indicate what informa-
tion can be obtained from the graph.
6
Surface area/volume
1 2 3 4 5
Length of cube side (cm)
FIGURE 2.23

CHAPTER 3
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS Cell Transport
M any cellular functions involve the transport of materials in, out, and
through cells. Cells, particularly those in multicellular organisms, are
surrounded by a complex and constantly changing liquid environment con-
these processes are related to the sisting of many dissolved molecules: gases such as oxygen, compounds such
function of organs (3.1, 3.2, 3.4)
as glucose, ions such as sodium, and chemical messengers such as pro-
describe the fluid mosaic structure
of cell membranes and explain the
dynamics of passive transport and
the processes of endocytosis and
exocytosis of large particles (3.1,
3.2, 3.3, 3.4, Investigation 1)
design and carry out an investiga-
tion on cellular function, controlling
the major variables (Investigation 2)
present informed opinions on ad-
vances in cellular biology and pos-
sible applications through related
technology (3.1, 3.3)
analyze ways in which societal
needs have led to technological ad-
vances related to cellular pro-
cesses (3.3)
FIGURE 3.1 Colour enhanced scanning electron microscope image of a lymphocyte,

natural killer cell attacking a cancer cell (orange).
64
teins. Literally billions of events involving these various molecules must occur
daily to ensure your survival. The cell membrane plays a vital role in these
events: it regulates what enters and leaves the cell; it ensures the cell receives
a non-stop supply of nutrients from its surroundings; and, at the same time,
it steadily allows waste products to pass through it in order to exit the cell.
In the transport of large molecules and even other cells into the cell’s
interior, the cell membrane rearranges its structure to form a vesicle.
The membranes of organelles within the cell, such as the mitochondrion
and endoplasmic reticulum, must also regulate what substances enter and
leave them. And the membrane of some organelles, such as the Golgi com-
plex, must not only be able to regulate the passage of molecules, but must
also be able to package, send, and receive “shipments” from other organelles.
This chapter will outline the transport methods used to move materials
such as nutrients, water, and oxygen into cells, and waste products such as
carbon dioxide, out of cells. It will also highlight new information about some
disease states that have their origins in faulty cell processes.
Discovering Biology
Observing Osmosis
The movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane is called
osmosis.
1. Draw the apparatus your teacher has set up as a demonstration and
record the original fluid level on your drawing.
2. Observe the apparatus every 60 s for at least five minutes and record the
change in height of the fluid in the tube.
How would you explain the change in height of the fluid in the tube?
What is happening to the material on the inside of the tube?
thistle
funnel
beaker CHECKPOINT
containing
water Draw a diagram of the cell
membrane to illustrate
what you know about how
this structure functions.
FIGURE 3.2 Experimental set-up for observing osmosis.
CHAPTER 3 Cell Transport 65

3.1 Cell Membrane: Gateway to the Cell

Key Understandings
relate the fluid mosaic model of membrane structure to the function of membranes
explain the importance of permeability to transportation within and between cells
The cell membrane plays an essential bilayer is unique. The hydrophilic

role in regulating what enters and leaves phosphate heads point toward the liquid
the cell. This role depends largely on its environments inside and outside the cell.
structure. Because most membranes, in- The hydrophobic fatty acid tails making
cluding the cell membrane, allow some up the middle of the membrane,
substances to pass through them, they prevent some molecules from entering the
WORD ORIGIN are said to be permeable. In addition, cell. Because the phospholipids are tightly
because most living membranes are able packed together, molecules that are too
Permeable from the Latin to control what passes through them, large cannot pass through this portion
permeare, meaning “to pass they are described as being selectively of the membrane. Hydrophilic molecules
through.”
permeable. Non-living membranes that that are not fat-soluble cannot dissolve
prevent some molecules from passing and pass through the middle fatty acid
are called semipermeable membranes. portion of the membrane. The protein
Both the phospholipid bilayer and molecules embedded in the bilayer pro-
the protein molecules help to control the vide an entryway for certain small
passage of materials through the cell molecules that cannot enter through the
membrane. The construction of the bilayer portion of the membrane.
FIGURE 3.3 The

cell membrane. The
cell membrane is phospholipids proteins glycocalyx
selectively perme-
able. It freely al- cholesterol
lows the passage
of fat-soluble sub- sugar
stances through chains
the lipid bilayer
and small non-fat-
soluble molecules
through the protein
channels.
Communication. Receptor proteins, Transport. Proteins can The glycocalyx. Sugar

protruding out from the plasma serve as channels through chains that attach to
membrane, can be the point of which materials can pass communication or
contact for signals sent to the cell via in and out of the cell. recognition proteins,
traveling molecules, such as serving as their binding
hormones. sites. The glycocalyx can
also lubricate cells and act
as an adhesion layer for
them.

for the proper functioning of the activated by the receptor proteins, the
whole organism. kinases join together like Lego blocks
This cell-to-cell communication to carry the message to the proper
functions as follows: messenger location within the cell and allow the
Protein Kinases molecules from other cells (often hor- cell to respond to the command.
mones) travel through the blood- The understanding of this
stream and then attach to specialized method of cell-to-cell (called
protein molecules on the outside of intercellular) and within-cell (called
For many years the nucleus was con- the membrane of the target cell. The intracellular) communication has
sidered the exclusive control centre protein receptor molecule, which provided new insights into a number
of the cell. However, within the last spans the cell membrane, changes the of human diseases. For example, sci-
15 years, scientists such as Dr. Tony shape of its “tail” (which sticks into entists have learned that many types
Pawson at the University of Toronto, the cytoplasm). The shape change of cancers and some types of diabetes
have learned that the cell membrane then triggers a chain reaction that in- are caused by problems with the pro-
and molecules within the cell, called volves protein kinases in the cell. tein kinase intracellular communica-
protein kinases, have an equally Protein kinases transmit the tion system. New treatments aimed
important role in controlling cell commands of many hormones that at correcting these problems are cur-
function and allowing the communi- regulate cellular processes such as rently being tested in clinical trials.
cation between cells that is necessary cell division and specialization. Once
Membrane proteins have functions hydrate chains attached to them are

in addition to transporting molecules. involved in communication and cell
Some of the proteins provide structural recognition. These carbohydrote “sugar”
support to the cell by binding to the chains are called the glycocalyx. Other
protein fibres of the cytoskeleton. Other cells, such as those in your immune sys-
proteins have a communication function. tem, use these carbohydrate chains to
They receive chemical messengers sent recognize a cell or a molecule as being
by other cells. Proteins that have carbo- self or being foreign.
Section 3.1 Review

Understanding Concepts opinion on the effectiveness of new
treatments based on knowledge about
1. What is the function of the cell mem- protein kinases.
brane?
6. Cholesterol molecules are a normal
2. Name and describe the molecules that part of the cell membranes of mam-
make up the cell membrane. mals; however, some people have high
3. Describe the different types and func- levels of cholesterol in their blood that
tions of the proteins found in the cell can lead to heart and/or artery disease.
membrane. Some doctors have suggested that all
4. Contrast the terms “permeable” and adults should have their blood choles-
“selectively permeable.” terol level tested, and those who have
abnormally high cholesterol levels
should be given medication or put on
Making Connections a special diet. Research the cost to
5. Work with a partner to research the society if the Canadian government im-
role of protein kinases in cell biology. plemented a plan of this nature. Use
Investigate their involvement in a par- a PMI chart to organize the results of
ticular disease. Present an informed your research.

3.2 The Movement of Solutes and Water

Key Understandings
describe how organelles and cell components carry out various cell processes such
as transportation
explain the dynamics of diffusion and osmosis
Investigation Solutes are substances that are dissolved Diffusion

Refer to page 82, in fluid to form a solution. The liquid that
Particles, even those in solids, are con-
Investigation 2 the solutes are dissolved in is referred
stantly and randomly moving. As a result,
to as a solvent. Many of the molecules
over time, particles tend to spread them-
that must enter or leave cells, such as
selves out evenly. Diffusion is the ten-
glucose, oxygen, and carbon dioxide, are
dency of particles to move from an area
dissolved in water and can therefore
where they are more concentrated, and
be referred to as solutes. Many solutes
there are more random collisions, to an
must constantly make their way into and
area where they are less concentrated and
out of cells to ensure cell survival.
have fewer collisions (Figure 3.5). When
there is an equal concentration of parti-
cles in all areas, equilibrium is achieved.
sa Movement from an area of higher con-
lt
solute centration to one of lower concentration
is known as moving along the concen-
tration gradient. Movement along the
concentration gradient is referred to as
solvent water salt solution
water
passive transport. A common example
of diffusion occurs when someone is wear-
ing a strong cologne or perfume. Although
the concentrated source is located on their
body, the perfume molecules spread by
FIGURE 3.4 A solute dissolved by a solvent re-
diffusion to fill the room.
sults in a solution. A small amount of table salt
poured into water results in a solution of sodium Diffusion is the driving force behind
chloride. the movement of many molecules
through the cell membrane, including
oxygen, carbon dioxide, alcohol, and
Discovering Biology Diffusion small lipids. A number of factors deter-
mine whether a molecule can enter a cell
Particles diffuse along the concentration gradient. Add a drop of by diffusion. One of these factors is size.
dark food colouring to a beaker or glass of cold water and another Large molecules cannot squeeze through
drop to a beaker of hot water. Observe the changes to the ap- the tightly packed phospholipids easily.
pearance of the water over time. Another factor is lipid solubility. If a
What have you just observed in action? molecule cannot dissolve in the oily mix-
What comments can you make about the speed of the pro-
ture created by the membrane fatty
cess you have just observed? Suggest an explanation.
acids, it cannot diffuse through the mem-
brane. Physical factors such as the size
How might you test your suggestion? of the concentration difference and the
When did the process appear to stop? distance the molecule has to travel also
Did the molecules become stationary at this time? Why or why affect the diffusion process.
not? Your lungs rely exclusively on diffu-
sion to add oxygen to and remove carbon

Image omitted Image omitted Image omitted WEBLINK

due to copyright due to copyright due to copyright
For simulations of diffusion,

osmosis, and facilitated
diffusion, go to
a b c
water dye
molecules molecules
FIGURE 3.5 Diffusion. A few drops of red dye added to a beaker of water are initially very
concentrated in one area. Diffusion, the movement of particles along their concentration
gradient from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration, occurs until an
equilibrium concentration is produced throughout the solution.
dioxide from your blood. The air sacs of as the cell membrane. Despite the fact
the lungs, called alveoli, and the spe- that water molecules are not lipid solu-
cialized blood vessels known as ble, they can easily pass through the
capillaries that surround the alveoli, have phospholipid bilayer. This is apparently
adaptations to speed up the relatively slow because they are small enough to fit
process of diffusion. For example, both through gaps created by the moving
alveoli and capillaries are only one cell phospholipids. During osmosis, water
layer thick, providing the shortest distance molecules always pass from the side of
possible for the dissolved gases to travel the membrane that has a higher
through the respiratory membrane. Each concentration of water and less solute
alveolus is surrounded by many capil- concentration to the side that has the
laries, thus increasing the surface area lower concentration of water and higher
for diffusion to occur. Since the oxygen solute concentration until equilibrium, if
content is higher in the freshly breathed- possible, is established.
in air of the alveoli than in the deoxy- The osmotic conditions of the solu-
genated blood of the capillaries, the tions surrounding a cell are given spe-
oxygen travels along this concentration cial names. In a hypertonic solution, the
gradient, leaves the alveoli, and enters the fluid surrounding the cells has a higher
bloodstream. The carbon dioxide moves solute concentration than the cytoplasm
along its concentration gradient from the of the cell. As a result, water diffuses out
blood and into the alveolar air. of the cell by osmosis.
In an isotonic solution, the con-
centration of solutes in the fluid sur-
Osmosis rounding the cell is the same as it is in
Osmosis is a special type of diffusion. the cell’s cytoplasm; therefore, the so-
It is the diffusion of water through a lute concentrations are at equilibrium
selectively permeable membrane, such and no net movement of water occurs.

lt In a hypotonic solution, the solute

sa
concentration of the fluid surrounding
a) solute the cell is less than that of the cell’s
cytoplasm. As a result, water diffuses
into the cell by osmosis.
Osmosis is a very important process
in cells. Freshwater organisms generally
solvent have a higher solute concentration in-
side their cells than outside. As a result,
they are constantly taking on more water
by osmosis and have developed mech-
semipermeable membrane anisms to rid themselves of the extra
b)
FIGURE 3.6 Osmosis

a) A semi permeable membrane separates the
chamber on the left, containing water, from the
chamber on the right to which salt is added.
b) Water flows through the membrane in both
directions but there is a net movement of water
along its concentration gradient into the right
OSMOSIS chamber.
Discovering Biology Cell Size and Diffusion
The size of a cell affects the rate of diffusion.
Materials
• 3 different-sized blocks of agar • 300-mL beaker

made with water containing • test tube holders or tongs
phenolphthalein • scalpel
• 0.4% sodium hydroxide solution • metric ruler
CAUTION: Wear disposable non-latex gloves and safety goggles when using sodium
hydroxide. Do not allow sodium hydroxide to come in contact with your skin. If it does,
wash it off immediately. Be careful when using sharp instruments.
1. Obtain and measure the dimensions of three different-sized agar blocks.

2. Calculate and record the surface area-to-volume ratio for each block.
3. Place the three blocks of agar in a 300-mL beaker. Add 0.4% sodium hydroxide
solution until it completely covers the blocks.
4. After 8 min, use test-tube holders or tongs to gently remove the agar blocks
from the solution and then blot them dry. Cut each block in half with a
scalpel.
5. Use a metric ruler to measure the distance the pink material has diffused into
each block and record your measurement.
What was the diffusion distance in each block?
Which block had the greatest amount of pink material in it? Can you identify a
pattern between this answer and the surface area-to-volume ratios you
calculated?
Calculate the rate of diffusion in mm/min.

water. Some unicellular organisms such

as Paramecium have contractile vacuoles
that fill up with water and, when full,
contract. This squeezes the water out of
the organism. normal cell
You place your body cells in an os-
Hypertonic Isotonic Hypotonic Very Hypotonic
motic situation when you eat or drink.
The concentration The concentration The concentration This cell has burst
For example, when you drink a lot of of solutes outside of solutes outside of solutes outside due to the large
water, your blood develops a higher is higher than it is the cell is equal to is lower than it is amount of water
concentration of water. If the water en- inside the cell. that inside the cell. inside the cell. entering.
tered your cells by osmosis, every cell in
your body could be affected. However, FIGURE 3.7 The effects of solute concentration on cells
your kidneys regulate the water balance
of your blood, so if there is too much
water in your blood, the kidneys excrete
more water in your urine and in this way tration. This enables the kidneys to
Investigation
maintain equilibrium between your reabsorb water back into the blood by Refer to page 80,
blood and your cells. osmosis rather than having that water Investigation 1
Osmosis also helps the kidneys if you leave as part of the urine. The ability
don’t have enough water in your blood. to reabsorb water is an important adap-
Portions of the kidney tubules pass tation of all land animals.
through areas of high solute concen-
Section 3.2 Review

Understanding Concepts 7. Before refrigeration was invented,
many foods were preserved by storing
1. Differentiate between a solute and a them in salt. Explain why micro-
solvent. organisms may have a difficult time
2. Define the term “diffusion” and give an growing on food preserved this way.
example of diffusion in action. Compare the advantages of salt preser-
3. What is meant by the term “concen- vation and refrigeration. Provide two
tration gradient”? examples of foods that are preserved
using salt.
4. Define “osmosis” and provide an ex-
ample of osmosis in action.
5. House plants will wilt if you forget to Making Connections
water them. The stems will become 8. Many people suffering from kidney
limp. However, a few hours after you failure survive through dialysis treat-
remember to water them they will ment which artifically cleans their
appear normal again. Using your blood. Most dialysis patients have to
knowledge about the movement of travel to a hospital for treatment, al-
solutes and water, explain these though new technology is enabling
observations. some patients to have dialysis units
in their homes.
Applying a) Explain how this technique de-
Inquiry/Communication Skills pends on diffusion and osmosis.
6. If a cell whose cytoplasm was about 1% b) Analyze the social and economic
solute concentration were placed in a impact of a treatment like dialysis.
3% salt solution, what would you c) Evaluate home dialysis from the as-
expect to happen? Use a diagram to pects of patient care, affordability,
explain what would happen. and the health care system.

3.3 Protein Carrier-Assisted Transport
Key Understandings
describe how the cell membrane uses proteins to carry out transportation
explain the dynamics of facilitated diffusion
compare the processes of facilitated diffusion and active transport
relate certain disease states to a lack of function of cellular processes
describe how advances in cell biology can be applied through technology
Facilitated Diffusion perform facilitated diffusion. For this

Some molecules cannot travel through the reason facilitated diffusion is a form of
lipid portion of the cell membrane. They passive transport.
may be too large or may be hydrophilic. Glucose is an example of a molecule
Many of these molecules enter cells by fa- that is too large to travel through the cell
cilitated diffusion. Facilitated diffusion membrane without one of these special
occurs when molecules enter cells through protein carriers. Since glucose is con-
channels that exist in special transport stantly being used inside cells for energy
proteins that span the membrane (Figure to produce ATP, the concentration of
3.8). Transport proteins are specialized glucose inside cells is usually lower than
to carry only certain molecules into or out the concentration of glucose in the fluid
of cells. Because they only transport surrounding the cells. Therefore, glucose
materials along the concentration gradi- moves along the concentration gradient
ent, no energy from ATP is required to and into the cell by facilitated diffusion.
TRANSPORT THROUGH THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
Passive transport Active transport

simple facilitated
diffusion diffusion
phospholipid
bilayer
transport
proteins ATP
a) b) c)
FIGURE 3.8 Transport through the plasma membrane

a) In simple diffusion, molecules move along their concentration gradient.
b) In facilitated diffusion, molecules move along their concentration gradient but pass
through the membrane with the assistance of a transport protein.
c) In active transport, molecules move against their concentration gradient with the
assistance of a transport protein and the use of energy from ATP.

Active Transport WEBLINK

its cost: active transport requires energy
Sometimes cells need to move molecules released from the breakdown of ATP to Investigate the contribution
or ions against a concentration gradient. move substances against the concen- of Canadian scientists to
Cells cannot rely on any type of diffusion tration gradient. diabetes research. Compile a
to do this since diffusion only moves par- The sodium/potassium (Na + /K + ) timeline of discovery.
ticles from a high concentration to a low pump in nerve cells (neurons) is an im- Begin your research at
concentration. Therefore, cells have de- portant example of active transport. In
veloped another transport method order to function properly neurons must
known as active transport to move maintain a higher concentration of
molecules or ions against a concentra- sodium ions outside the cell compared
tion gradient. to inside the cell. They must also main-
Like facilitated diffusion, active trans- tain a higher concentration of potassium
port relies on transport proteins to allow ions inside the cell compared to outside.
substances to pass through the mem- In order to maintain this imbalance, spe-
brane. This time, however, the molecules cialized transport proteins in neurons
or ions bind to the proteins and are then pump sodium out of the cell and potas-
pumped across the membrane. Moving sium in. See Figure 3.9 for further
molecules or ions this way is not without explanation.
glucose. This causes the glucose level that enable this human protein to be
of the blood to increase to danger- made by micro-organisms.
ously high levels when the person Dr. Michael Smith, another Nobel
eats a meal. The symptoms of Prize winner and Canadian re-
Diabetes: A Problem untreated diabetes include thirst, searcher at the University of British
moodiness, blindness, circulatory Columbia, contributed to the im-
with problems, and unconsciousness lead- proved treatment of diabetes. In
Facilitated Diffusion ing to death. 1988, Zymogenetics, a biotechnology
The first step in the successful research firm he co-founded, used his
treatment of diabetes came with Dr. Nobel Prize–winning technique to im-
Frederick Banting’s discovery of in- prove the purity of insulin available
Diabetes is a disease that has a long sulin in 1922 while working at the for treating diabetics. This was
history of death and destruction as University of Toronto with his col- another important step toward im-
well as a long history of research and leagues Best, Collip, and Macleod. proving the lives of diabetics.
discovery by Canadian scientists. Banting and Macleod (who provided Even more recently, researchers
Diabetes, a disease caused by the in- lab space and advice to Banting) at Kinetek Pharmaceuticals, a
ability to transport glucose into cells, shared the Nobel Prize in 1923. Vancouver-based biotechnology com-
currently affects about two million Identifying and purifying insulin al- pany, have developed a new treat-
Canadians. lowed diabetics to inject themselves ment that may eventually free
Diabetics are unable to produce with insulin after eating. This discov- diabetics from their daily ritual of in-
a protein-based hormone called ery has been called “one of the most sulin injections. The new treatment
insulin that binds to transport pro- revolutionary moments in medicine” affects signalling pathways within the
teins on the cell membrane and and has saved the lives of an estimated cell, between the cell membrane and
allows glucose to enter cells by 15 million diabetics worldwide. the nucleus, and is currently under-
facilitated diffusion. Without insulin, Biotechnology has assured a plentiful going clinical trials.
the cells are unable to take up supply of insulin through techniques

extracellular Na+
fluid K+ potassium ion
Na+
Na+
Na+ Na+
phospholipid
bilayer Na+ Na+ K+
Na+
K+
Na+
P P K+
cytosol sodium ion P
ATP ADP
1 Three sodium ions 2 ATP gives up a 3 The binding of phos- 4 Two K+ ions bind to the 5 The loss of the
(Na+) from inside the high-energy phate causes a shape transport protein, phosphate group
cell bind to a transport phosphate group change in the protein. resulting in the release returns the protein to
protein. to bind to the The channel opens to of the phosphate its original shape. The
transport protein. the extracellular fluid; group from the protein. K+ ions are released
the Na+ binding sites inside the cell and the
are lost and the ions transport protein is
are released outside ready to bind more
the cell; binding sites Na+ ions.
for potassium ions (K+)
FIGURE 3.9 Active transport: the sodium-potassium pump are created.
Cystic fibrosis is due to a faulty active trans-

Discovering Biology A Concentration Situation port protein Cystic fibrosis is a devas-
tating inherited disease that affects about
The cell membrane controls the movement of ions and molecules. one in 2500 Canadian children. The dis-
The graph below shows the concentration of different ions in- ease, characterized by the buildup of
side an animal cell (in green) and outside the cell (in blue). mucus in the lungs and other organs,
Use the graph and what you have read in the previous sections to
slowly destroys lung tissue.
answer the following questions:
The problem is caused by a faulty
Explain which ions are transported into the cell by active
membrane-based protein that should
transport.
function to actively transport chloride
Explain which ions are transported out of the cell by
ion out of the cell. Due to the defect, less
active transport.
chloride ion is released than normal.
This results in decreased reabsorption
of sodium ion, dehydration of the mem-
160 branes lining the respiratory and diges-
outside
140 tive passages, and the formation of a
inside
thick mucus. The abnormal secretions
Concentration (mmol.L-1)
120
also have a reduced ability to kill in-
100 vading bacteria. A cycle of infection and
80 inflammation takes place.
Research on cystic fibrosis over the
60
past twenty years included the 1989 dis-
40 covery of the gene that causes the de-
20 fect. Improved antibiotics, physiotherapy
and concentration on improving nutri-
0
Sodium Magnesium Chloride Potassium tional health have led to better lung
health and an increased life span. Heart
and lung trasnsplants are also a possi-
FIGURE 3.10 Concentration of ions inside and outside the cell.
ble treatment. The estimated median
survival age for people born with cystic
fibrosis in the 1990s is 40 years.
Section 3.3 Review

Understanding Concepts Investigate why the movement of these
ions is required to facilitate nerve cell
1. Provide an example of a molecule that communication to and from your brain.
must use facilitated diffusion to cross Illustrate, using a diagram of the move-
membranes. Explain why it cannot ment of the ions during a nerve im-
enter cells by some other means. pulse.
2. Describe the process of active trans- 6. Each transport protein is specific to the
port. substance it channels across the cell
3. Explain why active transport requires membrane. Suggest ways that the speci-
energy in order to function. ficity of the transport protein for the
4. Construct a table to show the similar- molecule being transported is ensured.
ities and differences between diffusion,
facilitated diffusion, and active trans- Making Connections
port.
7. Research one of the following: Type I
or Type II diabetes, or juvenile-onset or
Applying Inquiry/ mature-onset diabetes. Prepare a brief
Communication Skills report, explaining the importance of diet,
5. Nerve cells rely on the Na+/K+ pump medication, and lifestyle in the manage-
in order to function properly. ment of the form of diabetes you have
chosen to investigate.
3.4 Transport Requiring Vesicles

Key Understandings
describe the processes of endocytosis and exocytosis of large particles
explain how these processes are related to the function of organs
Simple diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated are too large to fit through a protein car-
diffusion efficiently transport substances rier they must use another method to
of a small size through the cell mem- enter or exit the cell.
brane. However, some situations, for ex-
ample, defence against infection, require
the movement of large particles into the Endocytosis
cytoplasm. Others, for example, the se- Moving material into the cell by
cretion of hormones, require the removal endocytosis involves the pinching in of a
of large particles from the cell. These sit- portion of the cell membrane around the
uations require the formation of vesicles material to be transported into the cell.
and involve some rearrangement of the The pinched-in portion eventually breaks
cell membrane. Proteins and polysac- free from the cell membrane and forms
charides are examples of very large a vesicle in the cytoplasm. This allows the
molecules that need to pass into and material within the vesicle to travel to its
out of cells. Because these molecules final destination within the cell.

There are three types of endocyto- enter cells in this way. Cholesterol, is
sis. The first type, called phagocytosis necessary for the production of certain
WORD ORIGIN involves the movement of large sex hormones, and is itself a component
molecules and sometimes even whole of cell membranes. However, cholesterol
Endocytosis from the Greek, cells into the cell’s interior. Phagocytosis can lead to heart and artery disease if
endon, meaning “within,” and literally means “cell eating.” Specialized too much of it is present in the blood.
kutos, meaning “vessel or white blood cells, known as Normally, due to RME, excess cholesterol
cell.”
macrophages, may phagocytose whole in the blood enters liver cells and is
bacteria as part of your body’s defence safely removed from the blood.
against disease. However, some individuals inherit
A second type of endocytosis, called varying degrees of a disease known as
pinocytosis or “cell drinking,” involves hypercholesterolemia. In this disease,
the transport of liquids into vesicles. the cholesterol receptors on the liver cells
From the descriptions and Figures 3.11 are either absent or greatly reduced in
and 3.12, you can see why phagocytosis number. People who completely lack
and pinocytosis are well named. cholesterol receptors are unable to re-
The third type of endocytosis is move excess cholesterol from their blood
known as receptor-mediated endocyto- and may die from heart disease while
sis (RME), and it is the way a number of still in childhood. Others who have fewer
nutrients and proteins, such as the hor- than normal receptors are also at risk,
mone insulin, enter the cell. During RME, but may be treated with a low-fat diet
the molecule that is to enter the cell binds and cholesterol-lowering drugs.
to special receptor proteins located on the Researchers are trying to determine the
WEBLINK
outside of the cell membrane. These re- possibility of stimulating the action of
ceptor proteins move within the cell liver cell cholesterol receptors as a way
membrane towards other identical re- to treat patients with high blood choles-
For animations of phagocytosis, ceptor-molecule complexes. Once enough terol levels.
pinocytosis, receptor-mediated molecules have gathered in an area, the The rearrangement of the cell mem-
endocytosis, and exocytosis, cell membrane pinches in, forming the brane needed for vesicle-formation is an
go to
vesicle that will transport these molecules energy requiring process. All three types
into the cell. (Figure 3.13) of endocytosis involve vesicle formation.
RME is currently the subject of ex- For this reason all three types of
tensive research. One reason for inter- endocytosis require energy from the
est in RME is that cholesterol molecules breakdown of ATP.
Phagocytosis
bacterium pseudopodium
(or food particles)
vesicle
FIGURE 3.11 Phagocytosis. In phagocytosis, particles including whole bacteria are

taken in by pseudopodia that surround them. The cell membrane of the pseudopodia
fuses and forms a vesicle that moves into the cell’s interior.

Pinocytosis
extracellular fluid
plasma membrane
vesicle
cytosol
FIGURE 3.12 Pinocytosis. In pinocytosis, the cell membrane sinks in to surround

molecules in the extracellular fluid. The membrane then fuses to pinch off a vesicle
that can then move within the cell.
Exocytosis bodies. Hormones are made within cells

Exocytosis is the opposite of endocyto- but act outside of these cells, sometimes
sis and is used to export large molecules at a great distance. For example, spe-
out of the cell (Figure 3.14 on the next cialized cells in the pancreas make the
page). Large molecules such as proteins blood-sugar-controlling hormone insulin.
are surrounded by a membrane at the Like other hormones, insulin travels
Golgi complex and a vesicle is formed. throughout the body by way of the
In this vesicle the substances make their bloodstream. The process of exocytosis
way to the cell membrane where the carries the insulin molecules out of the
vesicle membrane joins with the cell pancreatic cells and allows them to enter
membrane and the large molecules are the blood. In another example, digestive
expelled from the cell. Exocytosis, like enzymes, made by specialized cells lin-
endocytosis, also requires energy from ing the intestine, are released by the pro-
the breakdown of ATP molecules. cess of exocytosis into the interior of the
Exocytosis, like endocytosis, is a intestine where they are used to digest
common process in many cells in our food materials.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
receptors captured coated

molecules pit
vesicle
FIGURE 3.13 Receptor-mediated endocytosis. Many receptors bind to molecules.

The receptors move laterally within the cell membrane, forming a coated pit that
pinches off to form a vesicle.

extracellular fluid
protein
plasma membrane

restrictions.
transport vesicle cytosol
a) b)
FIGURE 3.14 Movement out of the cell

a) In exocytosis, a transport vesicle moves to fuse with the cell membrane. The cell
membrane rearranges, opens, and releases the contents of the vesicle outside the cell.
b) Material being expelled by exocytosis.
Section 3.4 Review
Understanding Concepts needed to keep the cell membrane at

this constant size. Suggest ways to test
1. Describe the process of endocytosis your hypothesis.
in its three forms.
6. Predict the consequences if your body
2. Outline the similarities and differences cells could not perform a) endocytosis
between phagocytosis and pinocytosis. or b) exocytosis.
3. Explain the process of exocytosis and 7. “An amoeba is like a free-living
describe two examples in human cells. macrophage.” Write a supported para-
4. Use a T-chart to compare phagocyto- graph to agree or disagree with this
sis and receptor-mediated endocytosis. statement.
Applying Inquiry/ Making Connections

8. Recently it has been discovered that
5. Cells involved in large amounts of most cold-causing viruses bind to a
exocytosis, such as pancreatic cells, protein on the cell membrane and
may seem to run out of cell membrane enter the cell they are about to infect
quite quickly if they are constantly by an endocytosis-like process. How
sending pieces of it away with exported might researchers working for a
materials, yet the cell membrane re- pharmaceutical company utilize this
mains a fairly constant size. Make a information? Suggest an experiment
hypothesis about what processes are that could be performed.

Defining the Issue
Case Study
Drug Addiction and the Cell Justifying the Course of Action
Whatever the causes of drug addiction, once addic-

tive drugs are introduced into the body, the chem-
istry of brain cells is altered. Scientists believe that
mesolimbic dopamines, neurotransmitters in the
central nervous system (CNS), control a person’s
mood. These specialized molecules control commu-
nication from one neuron to another.
Some addictive drugs enhance mesolimbic
dopamine’s role in the brain, which elevates a per-
son’s mood, giving them a “high.” Heroin, for ex-
ample, increases the rate at which nerve cells in the
CNS release dopamine. As a result, those who use
heroin experience a brief feeling of extreme eupho-
ria, followed by an extreme “low.” In order to main-
tain the same level of response, they must take
higher doses of the drug to achieve the same high.
This is due to the way brain cells adapt to the on- FIGURE 3.15 Drug addiction is often complicated by
going use of the drug. loneliness.
Scientists believe that, over time, the actual num-
ber of dopamine receptors is reduced. As a result,
not only does the user require more of the drug more argue that addiction is an illness, and while
frequently, but other activities such as being with willpower is important in overcoming addiction, ad-
friends no longer bring pleasure. This also con- diction requires medical treatment. Recent research
tributes to the frequency and amount of drug used indicates that addiction occurs at the cellular level
by the addict. in the brain.
The turning point for the addict is the decision Understanding the causes of addiction is vital
to end the addiction. There are a variety of thera- in developing treatments to help addicts recover.
pies available to help combat addiction. Some peo- Scientific studies that look at the genetic and social
ple believe that addiction can be overcome with factors influencing addiction may hold the key to
willpower and strength of personal character. Others prevention.
Analyzing the Issue

1. Describe the social and economic factors that influence 3. Plan a class debate that focuses on one of these drug
the search for a cure to drug addiction. therapies. As a class, identify the question for the focus
2. Research two different drug therapies, one that focuses of the debate. Set the criteria you will follow (e.g., time
on working with the psychology of the addict, and a sec- allotted to speakers, how many participants will speak).
ond that focuses on using drug treatment. Compare the Participants must support their point of view with
two therapies by preparing a P M chart. Identify the cir- research data and real examples.
cumstances under which both would be appropriate. 4. When the debate has concluded, evaluate the arguments
that were presented.

Inquiry Skills

A Study of Osmosis: Determining the Solute Analyzing and Interpreting
Concentration of Potatoes
Even though potatoes may no longer be growing on TABLE 3.1 Solute Concentration
their plants, they are still alive, and their cells, like all
others, have selectively permeable cell membranes. In Test Tube Number 1 2 3 4 5 6
this lab you will study osmosis; the diffusion of water Volume of Water (mL) 10 8 6 4 2 0
from an area of high water concentration to an area Volume of Sucrose (mL) 0 2 4 6 8 10
of lower water concentration. You will determine
how osmosis affects potato sections. Solute Concentration (mol.L–1) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Problems Part 2: Preparation of the potatoes
What is the solute concentration of potatoes? Prepare 6 equal-sized potato sections.

cork borer
Materials
test tubes
10-mL graduated cylinder
potato
2 100-mL beakers
10-mL, 5-mL, 2-mL pipette board
test-tube rack
#5 cork borer
single-edged razor blade or scalpel and handle
ruler
centigram balance/electronic balance
potato
potato section
1 mol •L–1 sucrose solution
distilled water
marker for test tubes FIGURE 3.16 Set up for preparation of potato sections
grid paper
paper towels 1. Set up the data table in your notebook as shown in
Table 3.2.
CAUTION: Work carefully with sharp instruments. 2. Use a #5 cork borer to bore a section of potato. Cut
the skin off both ends and then use a razor blade
to trim the section to a length of 4 cm.
Procedure: 3. Rinse the sections with distilled water and blot them
dry with paper towel.
Part 1: Preparation of the solutions
4. Use a balance to determine the mass of each potato
Prepare six test tubes, each with a different solute con- section. Record this mass, I, in Table 3.2, and place
centration, as follows: each section in its corresponding test tube; that
is, the first potato section you weigh goes into test
1. Label the tubes #1–6 and place them in a test-tube
tube 1, the second section you weigh goes into test
rack.
tube 2, and so on.
2. Using a pipette, add the correct amount of water
5. After 24 hours, remove each potato section and
to each tube and then the correct amount of
gently blot it dry. Record the final mass, F, of each
1 mol •L–1 sucrose solution to prepare the intended
potato section in Table 3.2.
solute concentration for each tube. See Table 3.1.
6. Calculate the change in mass for each potato sec-
tion as follows:


(continued)
TABLE 3.2
Test Tube # Solute Initial Mass Final Mass Change in Mass Percent Change
Concentration I (g) F (g) (F – I) (g) in Mass
(mol.L–1)
(F – I)
I 100
1 0
2 0.2
3 0.4
4 0.6
5 0.8
6 1.0
(Final Mass – Initial Mass) = (F – I ) = change in mass. Concluding and Communicating

(If the potato lost mass, this number should be
negative.) 4. Do you think your experimental results are accu-
rate? Explain why or why not.
7. Calculate the percent change in mass for each
potato as follows: 5. Describe possible changes to the procedure of this
lab that would produce more accurate results.
F –I I 100
6. You can restore wilted flowers or vegetables by
= % change in mass soaking them in water. From your knowledge of
osmosis, would it be better to soak them in distilled
(Any negative signs from step 6 will cause a nega- or tap water? Explain.
tive result here, too.)
8. On grid paper, plot the Percent change in mass vs. Extending
Solute concentration. Include both negative and
7. Explain why it is important for intravenous fluids
positive numbers (if necessary) on your y axis. Use
to be of the same solute concentration as human
a line of best fit to represent your data points.
blood.
8. If you prepared a solution with the same solute con-
Analyzing and Interpreting centration as you determined in question one, what
1. Determine the solute concentration of the potatoes change in mass would you expect to find from a
by interpolation (Hint: what percent change in mass potato section that had soaked in that solution for
would you expect if the sucrose solution had the 24 hours? Explain your answer.
same solute concentration as the potato section?). 9. Road salt that has been accidentally spilled on grass
2. Indicate on your graph those solutions that were often kills the grass. Use the knowledge you have
hypotonic or hypertonic to the potato cytoplasm. gained in this investigation to help explain why this
3. Explain your results. For example, explain why happens.
some potato sections gained mass and others lost
mass over the 24-hour period.

Inquiry Skills
Investigation 2 (section 3.2)

Effects on Permeability
Your teacher will demonstrate a model of a selec- Analyzing and Interpreting

tively permeable membrane made from simple house-
hold materials. The demonstration will consist of a 1. What can you conclude about the plastic bag used
solution of cornstarch added to a plastic bag that is in this experiment?
placed in a beaker of distilled water with 20 drops of 2. Explain, using your knowledge of diffusion, how
iodine added to it. the factors you investigated influenced diffusion or
osmosis in this system.
Problem 3. How would the rate of diffusion change if some of
these factors were applied together?
What factors or variables might influence diffusion or
osmosis in this experimental system? 4. Suggest two ways of changing the rate of diffusion.
Experimental Design Concluding and Communicating

1. Describe what you observe from the demonstra- 5. What criteria did you apply to developing your pro-
tion. cedure?
2. Write a list of the variables that you think might in- 6. Describe which observations you felt provided ev-
fluence the diffusion or osmosis across the mem- idence as to how much diffusion or osmosis had
brane. taken place.
3. Write a hypothesis for how each variable would af- 7. Account for any experimental errors that may have
fect the movement of particles. affected your conclusion.
4. Design a procedure to test the hypothesis about each 8. Describe the changes, if any, you would make to
variable. your procedure if you repeated your experiment.
5. Have your teacher check your procedure before you

proceed with your investigation. Extending
6. Present the results of your investigation in a clear 9. Using what you have learned from this activity, de-
and well-organized manner. Use a data table and vise a method to get rid of unwanted weeds in the
graphs. cracks of a driveway.

Key Terms
active transport exocytosis permeable sodium potassium pump

concentration gradient facilitated diffusion phagocytosis
diffusion osmosis pinocytosis
endocytosis passive transport selectively permeable
Summary table
Name of Transport Method Description

Diffusion Movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration (along a
concentration gradient) until equilibrium is established
Osmosis Movement of water along a concentration gradient until equilibrium is established
Facilitated Transport Movement of large or polar molecules through a membrane along a concentration gradient by
means of a carrier protein. This method does not require energy from ATP.
Active Transport Movement of molecules through a membrane against a concentration gradient by means of a carrier
protein. This method requires energy from ATP.
Endocytosis The cell membrane forms a vesicle around large objects that must enter the cell. This method
requires energy from ATP.
Exocytosis A vesicle fuses with the cell membrane to rid the cell of large objects. This method requires energy from ATP.
3.1 Cell Membrane: Gateway to the Cell In active transport, cells use energy to move sub-
The cell membrane controls movement of substances stances against their concentration gradients.
into and out of the cell. Active transport requires the use of carrier proteins
in the membrane similar to those used in facilitated
3.2 The Movement of Solutes and Water diffusion. It requires energy from ATP.
Some substances pass through the cell membrane
by diffusion, the movement of a substance from high 3.4 Transport Requiring Vesicles
to low concentration. Endocytosis without a transport protein occurs in
Water enters or leaves cells by the process of os- one of two forms: phagocytosis, the intake of large
mosis, the diffusion of water through a selectively molecules or whole cells, and pinocytosis, the
permeable membrane in response to its concentra- intake of liquids.
tion gradient. Some molecules enter the cell by receptor-mediated
endocytosis involving a membrane transport
3.3 Protein Carrier-Assisted Transport protein.
In facilitated diffusion, substances move from re- Exocytosis involves the export out of the cell of large
gions of high concentration to low concentration by molecules such as proteins.
means of carrier proteins in the membrane. No en-
Both endo- and exocytosis require energy from ATP.
ergy use is needed.
1. Revisit the Checkpoint on page 65 and review your di- 3. Cellular biologists require a variety of employability skills.
agram of the cell membrane. Revise your drawing based Research careers in cellular biology and list what you
on what you learned in this chapter. think are the five most important skills cellular biolo-
2. Construct a concept map to show the relationship be- gists require. Explain your choices.
tween the following key terms: cell membrane, perme- 4. Reflect on your learning. Evaluate the skills you used
ability, diffusion, molecules, concentration gradient, to complete the Investigations in the first three chapters
osmosis, facilitated diffusion, active transport, endocy- of the Unit. Begin a database inventory of lab skills
tosis, exocytosis, glucose, and proteins. that you can add to throughout the year.

CHAPTER 3 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts 8. Endocytosis is used to bring _______________ molecules

into cells.
1. The process in which molecules of a substance other a) small, lipid soluble
than water move from an area of higher concentration b) water
to an area of lower concentration is called c) large
a) osmosis d) oxygen
b) diffusion
c) selective permeability 9. Facilitated diffusion differs from diffusion because in fa-
d) active transport cilitated diffusion
a) energy from ATP is required
2. Energy from ATP is needed in b) protein carriers are used
a) active transport c) molecules move against the concentration gradient
b) diffusion d) smaller molecules are transported
c) facilitated diffusion
d) osmosis 10. Active transport differs from facilitated transport, be-
cause in active transport
3. Materials that cannot diffuse through the cell membrane a) protein carriers are used
can be brought into the cell by b) energy from ATP is required
a) endosymbiosis c) molecules are moved against the concentration
b) osmosis gradient
c) endocytosis d) both b and c
d) exocytosis
11. Explain why you agree or disagree with the following
4. In the fluid mosaic bilayer, the term fluid refers to the statement: Membranes are the most important struc-
a) shifting phospholipids in the cell membrane tures in cells.
b) the fluid surrounding the outside of the cell
c) the fluid portion of the cytoplasm known as the 12. What would happen if a solution with a higher concen-
cytosol tration of water than is in your body cells was added to
d) the liquids that enter the cell by the process of your bloodstream? Explain your answer.
pinocytosis
13. Write a story entitled: “A Day Without Diffusion.”
5. Protein molecules embedded in the cell membrane
may 14. Explain why the phospholipid “heads” of the cell mem-
a) function as transport proteins to help molecules brane phospholipids are always pointing toward the cy-
enter and exit cells tosol or the fluid surrounding the outside of the cell, while
b) bind to the cytoskeleton to provide structural the “tails” are always pointing toward the middle of
support the membrane.
c) have carbohydrate chains that are involved in cell
communication attached to them 15. Soft drinks and other beverages contain different con-
d) all of these centrations of solutes. Some of these drinks have low so-
lute concentrations and, as a result, are a source of water
6. Solutes are for your body cells. Other drinks have a high solute con-
a) fatty acid molecules present in the cell membrane centration and can dehydrate your body cells. Which of
b) substances dissolved in a fluid these drinks should be marketed as “thirst quenchers”?
c) the liquid portion of a solution Explain your answer.
d) molecules that can only move against the concen-
tration gradient 16. If cell membranes were completely permeable, what
effect would this have on cells?
7. Molecules that can diffuse through the cell membrane
are 17. Living yeast cells placed in a particular type of red dye
a) small (called Congo red) remain colourless. However, dead
b) lipid soluble yeast cells placed in the same dye turn red. Explain
c) water soluble this observation.
d) both a and b
18. In this chapter the structure of the cell membrane was
considered in detail. All membranes within cells have
similarities. What differences would you expect to find
among membranes in the interior of the cell?

19. A beaker containing two salt solutions is divided by a 23. Draw one diagram to illustrate active transport and
membrane. The level of solution is higher on the right another diagram to illustrate facilitated transport. Label
of the beaker than on the left side. The membrane is per- the diagrams and indicate clearly how the two types of
meable only to water. Which side of the beaker originally transport differ.
contained a hypertonic solution? Explain your answer
24. The red blood cell in humans behaves as an indicator of
20. The graph below shows the relative sizes of some the concentration of a solution. Justify this statement.
molecules that can diffuse across a cell membrane. Use a series of diagrams to support your position.
Predict which substances will diffuse across the mem-
brane the most quickly, the most slowly, and which will 25. Using the information gathered in question 24, discuss
diffuse across at about the same speed. Explain your an- the statement: “Human life depends on the integrity of
swers in each case. the red blood cell membrane.”
26. Design an experiment to determine the water concen-

carbon dioxide tration of an uncooked French fry. As a hint, remem-
ber that potatoes are made of cells with cell membranes,
alcohol and will either gain or lose water due to osmosis.
Substances tested
.
glucose
27. Prepare a working model of the cell membrane. Use ma-
terials such as Styrofoam®, marbles, string, thread spools,
glycerol
or other equipment. Label the structures that you are using
oxygen to represent the phospholipid bilayer, transport proteins,
etc. Add the functions of each structure as well.
water
28. The inside of your stomach is very acidic. This acid
0 50 100 150 200 condition is created by some of the cells lining your stom-
Relative size of molecules ach; they pump hydrogen ions into your stomach against
FIGURE 3.17
the concentration gradient.
a) What process is involved in creating the acidic en-
Applying Inquiry/ vironment of your stomach?
b) Research how surrounding cells are protected from
the effects of low pH.
c) Predict the result of problems with this protection
21. Design an experiment to test the effect of temperature
mechanism.
on the rate (speed) of diffusion. Use the following mate-
Write a supported paragraph on the environment of the
rials in your experimental design: food colouring and
inside of the stomach.
three beakers of water. One of the beakers is at room
temperature, the other is filled with ice-cold water and
the third is filled with hot water. Predict what will hap- Making Connections
pen to the water and include an experimental control.
29. One way of growing crops in particularly dry areas of
22. The container in the following diagram has a selectively the country, such as the prairie provinces, is to irrigate
permeable membrane separating two solutions. Assume the crops. However, the water tends to contain salts that
that the starch molecules are too large to pass through are left behind in the soil as the water evaporates. Based
the membrane. What will happen to the water level on on what you know about the movement of salts and
either side of the membrane? Explain your answer. water, explain what might occur as a result. Predict the
long-term economic effects on the area. Propose solu-
semi permeable membrane tions to this problem.
30. Protein kinases, the important molecules of communi-

cation within cells, are being heavily researched because
of the possibility that they can be used to stop the spread
of cancer and treat diseases like diabetes. Propose a way
to prioritize the focus of research on specific diseases.
pure starch
water solution
FIGURE 3.18
CHAPTER 4
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS Cells at Work

F undamental molecular principles and mechanisms control energy-
transforming activities in all living things. Most life on Earth depends on
the sun, the energy source for photosynthesis. The amazing amount of en-
ergy provided daily by the sun is about 15 billion times more than the total
these processes are related to the
function of organs (4.3, 4.4) yearly amount of electricity generated in Canada. Photosynthesis is the
explain the flow of energy between

photosynthesis and respiration (4.5)
compare anaerobic respiration and
aerobic respiration and state the
advantages and disadvantages for
an organism or tissue of using ei-
ther process (4.5)
illustrate and explain important cel-
lular processes including their func-
tion in the cell, the ways in which
they are interrelated, and the fact
that they occur in all living cells
(4.1, 4.2, 4.3)
Catch: Cells 60
identify new questions and prob-
lems stemming from the study of
metabolism in plant and animal
cells (4.2, Investigation 1,
Investigation 2)
explain how scientific knowledge
of cellular processes is used in
technological applications (4.2, 4.3,
4.5)
FIGURE 4.1 Almost all life on Earth depends on the energy of the Sun. This elk is
a herbivore and depends on vegetation for food.
86
process that plants, some bacteria, and some protists use to capture the sun’s
energy and produce carbohydrates. Only about 1% of the sun’s energy is
actually captured through photosynthesis.
Plants are not the only organisms to benefit from this arrangement.
Although photosynthetic organisms can make their own food, other organ-
isms must obtain their food in some other way. This is usually by eating plants
or eating other organisms that eat plants, or both. This chain of consump-
tion means that practically all living things on Earth rely on the Sun as their
ultimate energy source.
Life also depends on the interconnection between the energy-converting
systems of photosynthesis and cell respiration. The products of photosyn-
thesis, oxygen and sugars, are the reactants for cell respiration and the prod-
ucts of cell respiration, carbon dioxide and water, are reactants in
photosynthesis. This chapter will focus on ways in which cells work to
convert energy and to use the energy in protein synthesis.You will also be
introduced to the alternative methods some cells have developed to metabo-
lize nutrients.
Discovering Biology
Identifying a Substance Produced During
Energy Reactions in Cells
Every reaction in your body uses reactants and produces products that
must be reused or removed. Perform these tests to identify end products of
metabolism.
1. What happens when you exhale on the surface of a mirror? What sub-
stance forms on the surface of the mirror?
CHECKPOINT
2. Place a plastic bag over some leaves on a plant and seal the bag with a
tie or elastic band. Place the plant in sunlight. What substance eventu- Draw a cycle diagram to
ally forms on the inside of the bag? show what you know about
the stages of photosynthe-
What substance have you identified as a product of cell metabolism? sis. (Your diagram may
include more stages than
are shown in this example.)
Photosynthesis
87
4.1 Cell Reactions and Energy

Key Understandings
list the fundamental molecular principles and mechanisms involved in energy-
transforming reactions in cells
describe how ATP functions as the energy molecule of cells
Thousands of different chemical reac- ATP: The Energy

tions occur constantly within cells. The Molecule of the Cell
term metabolism refers to the sum of
these chemical reactions. These reac- ATP is a molecule made from a nu-
tions are crucial to providing cells with cleotide. It consists of adenine, the five-
energy. Recall that endergonic reactions carbon sugar ribose, and three phosphate
require energy in order to proceed. In groups. It is the energy molecule of cells
fact, the term endergonic means “energy and is necessary for cell membrane func-
in.” Most biological endergonic reactions tions like active transport and also for
produce molecules containing covalent muscle contraction.
bonds that store energy. For example, ATP is well suited to its role as the
photosynthesis is a series of endergonic energy molecule. It contains specialized
reactions that produces energy-rich glu- bonds, known as high energy bonds, be-
cose molecules. tween its phosphate groups. It is also a
Exergonic reactions release energy; small molecule and releases energy in
FIGURE 4.2 Energy storage the term exergonic means “energy out.” small enough quantities to be useful to
and release. Energy is Cells use an exergonic reaction, known the cell. Cells are very efficient in their
needed to build up complex
as cellular respiration, to release use- energy use. Consider a carbohydrate such
molecules like glycogen from as glucose to be equivalent to a dollar coin
simpler molecules like able energy from carbohydrates.
Cellular respiration is the name for a and the smaller ATP molecule to be equiv-
glucose. Such an anabolic
reaction is endergonic, or series of reactions in cells that release alent to a penny. When the cell needs en-
energy-requiring in nature. energy from glucose molecules to form ergy, it can spend an appropriate number
Energy is released in the
molecules of adenosine triphosphate of small ATP molecules and not waste
breakdown of complex extra energy by spending the larger car-
molecules into simpler ones. (ATP). ATP serves as a manageable form
of chemical energy for the cell to use. bohydrate or lipid molecules.
Such catabolic reactions are
exergonic or energy-releasing When energy is needed for a reac-
in nature. tion in a cell, the bond is broken between
glycogen the second and the third phosphate
molecule group in the ATP. Once this phosphate
has been removed, the molecule has two
ENDERGONIC phosphates and is referred to as adeno-
REACTION sine diphosphate or ADP. The result of
this conversion is the release of about
30kJ of energy per mole of ATP. This re-
ENERGY
action is commonly represented as
IN
ATP → ADP P Energy
Product
contains more ENERGY
energy than
ADP molecules can be converted
OUT back into ATP. Cellular respiration is the
the reactants.
process involved in turning ADP back
EXERGONIC
REACTION into ATP. The relationship is often shown
as a cycle.
glucose Product contains
molecules less energy than
the reactants.
NH2
N
Adenine N
– – –
O O O
N
ON O P O P O P O–
Adenosine O O O
Ribose Phosphate groups

OH OH
ATP
Energy is stored. Energy is released.
NH2 ADP P Energy
N
N
FIGURE 4.3 Energy release from breakdown of
O– O– O ATP. ATP stores energy in chemical bonds. When
N
ON O P O P O– P O– Energy the bond between the second and third phos-
phate groups of ATP is broken, the phosphate
O O O group separates with the release of energy. ATP
becomes ADP. If ADP picks up another phos-
phate group, the reaction is reversed.
OH OH
Section 4.1 Review

Understanding Concepts Activity kJ consumed per hour
by an average person
1. Define metabolism.
running 3260
2. Describe and give an example of an en-
dergonic reaction. walking 660
3. Describe and give an example of an ex- cycling 340
ergonic reaction. swimming 2240
4. List the components of an ATP molecule.
5. Why is ATP well suited for its role as
the energy molecule in cells? per day, how long would you have to
exercise each day to burn off the extra
6. Write the equation for the breakdown energy by a) running; b) walking;
of ATP, and list some of the cell func- c) cycling; d) swimming? Use the table
tions that can occur due to the energy above to help determine your answer.
released.
7. Most exergonic reactions are also
catabolic and most endergonic Making Connections
reactions are anabolic. Justify this 9. For an organism to survive, what
statement. would you predict about the number
of endergonic reactions versus the
Applying Inquiry/ number of exergonic reactions occur-
ring in its cells? How might you extend
this reasoning to the worldwide
8. The average adult person requires depletion of fossil fuels? Present a sup-
9000 kJ of energy per day. If your diet ported opinion.
provides you with 10 500 kJ of energy
CHAPTER 4 Cells at Work 89

4.2 Enzymes
Key Understandings
describe the importance of enzymes to the metabolic reactions of all living cells
understand why enzymes act on specific reactions
INFOBIT Enzymes are specialized protein site of an enzyme is designed to precisely

molecules that function as biological cat- fit and accept the substrate molecule(s).
Some enzymes require helper alysts. Catalysts facilitate chemical reac- This observation has led to what is
molecules called coenzymes in tions. Enzymes allow reactions to be known as the “lock and key” model of
order to function properly.
Vitamins often function as
completed up to 10 billion times faster enzyme action. Once the “key” or sub-
coenzymes. This is why an ap- than they would be without the presence strate is in place in the “lock,” or enzyme
propriate amount of vitamins is of the enzyme. Life on Earth depends on the chemical reaction can begin.
important in the diet. A lack of enzymes, because although essential re- Occasionally, a molecule similar in
vitamins in the diet can cause actions could still occur without them, the shape to the substrate may bind to the
diseases such as scurvy, rick-
ets, or certain forms of anemia.
reactions would not occur fast enough to enzyme’s active site, preventing the
maintain life. actual substrate molecule from binding.
Enzymes speed up reactions by Such molecules are known as competi-
binding to the reactants known as tive inhibitors; they compete with the
substrates. The enzyme-catalyzed substrate for the active site of the en-
reaction occurs at a location on the zyme and if they bind to the enzyme,
enzyme known as the active site. The they inhibit its function. The poisons
joining of the enzyme to the substrates cyanide and arsenic work in this way. If
produces an enzyme-substrate com- present in the body, they compete with
plex. It is during the formation of the the intended substrate, bind to key en-
enzyme-substrate complex that the re- zymes involved in important metabolic
action occurs. Following the reaction, pathways and prohibit them from func-
WEBLINK the enzyme releases the products. See tioning. This inhibition leads to death
Figure 4.4. Enzymes are reusable, so if not treated immediately.
Enzymes can be used in clean- once the products are released, the en- By binding to their substrates,
ing up oil spills on the ocean zyme is ready to bind to more substrate. enzymes are able to lower the amount
by metabolizing or breaking
Each enzyme generally catalyzes of energy that must be supplied for the
down organic chemicals.
Research how this process oc- only one chemical reaction. As a result, reaction to occur. This energy, known as
curs and describe the process enzymes are said to be specific to their activation energy, can be compared to
using a flow chart diagram. particular substrate(s). Recall how struc- a barrier that must be overcome in order
Begin your research at ture is critical to any protein’s function. for a chemical reaction to occur. Figure
Enzyme specificity occurs because the 4.5 compares the activation energy with
three-dimensional shape of the active and without an enzyme present. The
enzyme enzyme-substrate
Complex
Substrate
FIGURE 4.4 An enzyme-catalyzed reaction. The intermediate form, products

the enzyme-substrate complex, is short-lived.

reduce the amount of toxic waste, in- zyme. The outcome was the produc-
cluding PCBs, produced by the tion of a modified xylanase
bleaching process used to produce enzyme that could withstand the high
white paper. However, xylanase temperatures necessary in the pulp
Canadian breaks down and does not function mills. The presence of this enzyme re-
at temperatures greater than 55˚C, duces the toxic output of the mills by
Biotechnological and the temperature during the ma- 10 % and reduces the operating costs
Breakthrough ufacturing process for pulp is usually of each mill by $500 000 per year.
higher than xylanase can withstand An Ottawa-based biotechnology
Many species of micro-organisms (55°C–70°C). firm, Iogen, collaborated with Dr.
produce enzymes that are important Dr. Wing Lam Sung, working at Sung to test and market the product,
in cleaning up waste materials— the National Research Council, took which became known as BioBrite.
including oil spills and other toxic up the challenge of redesigning the Tests showed that although other
wastes. An enzyme known as xylanase enzyme—a challenge many xylanase enzymes were available
xylanase is produced naturally other scientists had predicted to be from competing companies, none of
by fungi such as Trichoderma impossible. However, Dr. Sung proved their products worked as well as
harzianum and bacteria such as them wrong by successfully changing the xylanase designed by Dr. Sung.
Bacillus circulans. Xylanase was the order of the amino acids making Iogen is now the world’s leading
being used in pulp and paper mills to up the protein of the xylanase en- supplier of this enzyme.
presence of the enzyme makes the ob- a) Without enzyme

stacle, or hill, smaller, and as a result,
the reaction can occur faster; more en-
ergy is available to be used in more re- sucrose glucose
+
actions, rather than being wasted on fructose
overcoming the obstacle.
Thousands of different chemical activation energy
without enzyme
reactions must occur in cells to make life
possible. Each reaction requires its own
specialized enzyme in order to proceed net energy released
efficiently. For example, cellular respi- from splitting of
sucrose
ration and photosynthesis are both com-
plex metabolic processes that involve
many reactions and therefore many en-
zymes. The digestion of food also re-
quires the production of enzymes,
known as digestive enzymes, by spe- b) With enzyme
cialized cells located in the stomach,
small intestine, and pancreas. sucrase
sucrose
glucose fructose
FIGURE 4.5 Enzymes lower activation energy. activation energy

a) Without an enzyme, the amount of energy with enzyme
needed to activate the split of sucrose into
net energy released
glucose and fructose is high. b) In the presence
of the enzyme sucrase, the activation energy is
low, so the reaction proceeds more easily. The
energy release per molecule is the same under
both conditions.

Section 4.2 Review

1. Define an enzyme. Explain the aspects
of enzyme function shared by all living 8. Construct a flowchart to explain the
cells. role of competitive inhibitors.
2. Draw a diagram to show the progress
of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction.
Making Connections
3. If more substrate is added to a reac-
tion vessel, what happens to the num- 9. Scientific knowledge of cellular pro-
ber of enzyme molecules? cesses is sometimes used in anti-social
ways. The nerve gas Sarin was used in
4. Explain why “lock and key” is or is not
a recent terrorist attack on a Japanese
a good analogy to use with enzymes.
subway station. Research and report
5. When Dr. Wing Lam Sung synthesized on the international regulations in
the heat-resistant xylanase enzyme, he place that address the production and
changed the order of some of the use of nerve gas.
amino acids in the protein. Some char-
10. The symptoms of influenza and other
acteristics of the protein must not have
viral diseases are often caused by the
changed. Explain why.
enzymes produced by the virus. Based
6. “Life on Earth depends on enzymes.” on your knowledge of enzyme function,
Write a supported paragraph to defend suggest some possible ways to treat the
or deny the statement. flu. Propose how these methods might
7. The text compares the amount of ac- be incorporated into the health care
tivation energy to be overcome in a re- system.
action with an obstacle or hill. Propose 11. What relationships do scientists and
a second analogy that helps to clarify business share as new technologies are
the meaning of activation energy. developed?
because it contains DNA from more that codes for synthesis of the in-
than one organism. Since the reac- sulin protein is inserted into the DNA
tions that implement the genetic code of an organism that reproduces
of DNA—protein synthesis—are quickly and can be grown cheaply,
The Link Between essentially the same in all living such as yeast or bacteria. Since DNA
things, scientists have used this is DNA, no matter what organism it
Biotechnology and knowledge to create the field of comes from, the yeast or bacteria now
Protein Synthesis biotechnology. have the instructions to make the new
For example, certain human pro- protein, in this case insulin, and they
teins such as insulin are necessary for begin to manufacture it. The insulin
The nucleotides that make up DNA treating human diseases such as di- is then extracted from the organism,
are the same in all organisms. It is abetes. However, scientists are unable purified, and packaged for delivery to
only the order and arrangement of to make insulin and many other or- pharmacies and clinics.
the bases that is different from ganic molecules from scratch; they Many other proteins have also
species to species. This means that must rely on other organisms. This is been prepared in a similar manner
DNA from one organism can be added where the universality of the genetic to fight diseases such as cystic fi-
to a different organism. The result- code and protein synthesis come in: brosis, and different forms of cancer.
ing DNA is called recombinant DNA, quite simply, the human DNA segment

4.3 Protein Synthesis

Key Understandings
illustrate the process of protein synthesis
explain how cell organelles work together
describe how organelles carry out transportation
Protein Synthesis
Proteins are essential to the life of the cell.
They have many functions. The cy-
toskeleton provides support. Enzymes cat-
alyze reactions. Intrinsic proteins in the
cell membrane act as chemical receptors
and transport substances. Hormones pro-
vide chemical communication between
cells. A continuing supply of new pro-
tein is therefore needed for the health of nucleus
the cell. All the organelles of the cell work 1 Instructions from
DNA are copied onto
together to produce protein through the mRNA.
process of protein synthesis.
The manufacture and export of a
2 mRNA moves to
protein is a complex process (Figure 4.6). ribosomes ribosomes, where
However, protein synthesis can be con- instructions are “read.”
sidered as two main steps. In the first rough
step, known as transcription, the pro- 3 Amino acid chain
endoplasmic
reticulum growing from ribosomes
tein-making instructions on DNA are is dropped inside
copied into a molecule of RNA called endoplasmic reticulum
messenger RNA (mRNA). This form of membrane. Chain folds
into protein.
RNA is transcribed from one of the
strands of the DNA molecule. The mRNA
is then carried to the ribosomes attached
to the rough endoplasmic reticulum 4 Protein moves to
Golgi
Golgi complex for
(RER). Here, the second step, known as complex
additional processing
translation, occurs. During translation and for sorting.
another form of RNA, known as trans-
fer RNA (tRNA), brings the required
amino acids one at a time to build the pri-
mary structure of the protein according
plasma 5 Protein moves to
to the instructions on the mRNA membrane plasma membrane
molecule. Each amino acid links to the for export.
next by a peptide bond. For this reason,
the protein at this stage may be called a
polypeptide.
Once the polypeptide has been as-
sembled at the ribosome it enters the
RER. In the RER the molecule assumes
the final shape of the protein. This may
involve several protein subunits coming FIGURE 4.6 The path of production of a protein
together in a quaternary level of structure.

WEBLINK The RER sends the protein out by way drink a glass of water containing ra-
of a vesicle to the Golgi complex, where dioactive iodine (131I). The hormone pro-
Nuclear medicine has an the protein may undergo further duced by the thyroid gland is a protein
important role in diagnosing changes. If the protein is to be used out- that consists of many iodine-containing
disease. Write a report on how
nuclear medicine is used in the side the cell, it is placed in yet another amino acids. Radioactive iodine will be
treatment of cancer. Begin new vesicle and travels to the cell mem- taken up and incorporated into this pro-
your research at brane. At the cell membrane the protein tein. In a normal thyroid gland the ra-
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11. will be exported from the cell by the pro- dioactivity is soon detectable and is
cess of exocytosis. captured on film by a special nuclear
medicine camera. Images of the thyroid
Nuclear medicine: using the knowledge of gland are taken over a period of time.
cell functions and technology Nuclear The length of time it takes for the ra-
medicine is a number of techniques that dioactivity to appear and the amount
use the knowledge of cellular functions of radiation detected in the thyroid gland
such as protein synthesis to diagnose both provide important information to
diseases. For example, to diagnose physicians about the health of the thy-
problems with the hormone-producing roid gland and its ability to produce hor-
thyroid gland, patients are asked to mone molecules.
X-ray Crystallography
Image omitted due to
of Proteins
copyright restrictions.
Dr. Gil Privé loves his career as an X-

ray crystallographer at the University
of Toronto. Dr. Privé studies the struc- Image omitted due to
ture and function of the protein
molecules found in cells, and his spe- FIGURE 4.7 Computer-generated diagram
cial interest is proteins found in cell of the PLZF protein
membranes.
As opposed to electron micro-
scopes, which use a beam of elec- protein known as PLZF that is among
trons to form an image, the process other things involved with causing
of X-ray crystallography uses X rays, leukemia. Dr Privé claims that learn-
special sensors, and computer tech- ing the structure of this molecule is
nology to allow scientists to view the the first step in understanding how
smallest level of detail in molecules. it works and ultimately learning how FIGURE 4.8 Dr. Gil Privé
Dr. Privé describes X-ray crystallog- to control it. Dr. Privé states that “in
raphy as the “perfect intersection of biological systems, out of fairly sim-
physics (the X rays), chemistry (the ple interactions you get very complex
structure of the molecule), and biol- behaviours that allow cells to make else knows about.” He claims that you
ogy (the problem you are trying to decisions such as whether to divide may be cut out for a career in science
solve with regard to the molecule’s or not to divide.” “It makes for fas- if you are naturally curious and like
function).” cinating research,” says Dr. Privé. to solve puzzles; he also states that
Recently, Dr. Privé and his col- “You get to discover things that have the ability to be a scientist is an atti-
leagues discovered the structure of a existed since life began but that no tude more than an aptitude.

Section 4.3 Review

1. Name and describe the two steps of
protein synthesis. 6. Outline the steps necessary for a pan-
2. Describe the roles of mRNA and tRNA creatic cell to manufacture and ex-
in building a protein. port the protein-based hormone insulin
into the blood. Include a diagram in
3. Explain how other organelles become
your answer.
involved in protein formation after the
polypeptide is assembled at the
ribosome. Making Connections
4. List at least five types of proteins that
7. Nuclear medicine contributes to the di-
are important to cells.
agnosis of many abnormal metabolic
5. Acromegaly is a condition caused by conditions. Research and report on
the overproduction of growth hormone how radioactivity is used to diagnose
in adults. Investigate the symptoms of disease.
this disease. Write a paragraph to sum-
marize your findings.
4.4 Photosynthesis and Food Production

Key Understandings
illustrate and explain the process of photosynthesis
describe organisms that do not depend on photosynthesis as their source of energy
Photosynthesis produces the oxygen that are able to capture the energy of light.
nearly all living things must have in The captured light energy is used to con-
order to survive and it allows plants to vert carbon dioxide from the air and
feed themselves as well as to become water from the soil into glucose
food sources for other organisms. Most (C6H12O6).
of the molecules that now make up your Photosynthesis is a complicated
body originated in a plant as a result of endergonic process that can be
photosynthesis. simplified into two main stages: the
Plants, some bacteria, and some light-dependent reactions and the light-
protists like algae have the unique independent reactions. In the light-
ability to convert the energy of sunlight dependent reactions, water molecules Investigation
into the energy of chemical bonds are broken down into oxygen and Refer to page 104,
within carbohydrates. This ability hydrogen. The oxygen is released as a Investigation 2
defines photosynthesis. The photosyn- product. In the light-independent
thetic reactions occur in specialized or- reactions, carbon dioxide from the air
ganelles called chloroplasts. Within the is added to the hydrogen atoms acquired
chloroplasts, specialized pigmented com- from water in the first stage to form the
pounds known as chlorophyll molecules carbohydrate glucose.

The reaction below shows the net of the arrow. Although a number of
equation or “ingredient list” a plant enzymes are involved in the process, they
must have in order to produce one are not included in the equation.
molecule of glucose. Both of the products of photosynthe-
In this equation, the reactants are sis are extremely important to other
shown on the left side of the arrow and living things. The glucose produced
the products are shown on the right side provides energy not only for the plants
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6 O2

carbon water glucose oxygen
dioxide
light energy
glucose + oxygen
6 CO2 + 6 H2O C6 H12 O6 + 6 O2
FIGURE 4.9 The process of

photosynthesis. The interac-
tion of light energy, pig-
mented chlorophyll in
chloroplasts, carbon dioxide,
and water results in the for-
mation of sugars and oxygen.
Discovering Biology Plants and Oxygen

Joseph Priestly, an 18th-century English clergyman and scientist, proved the ex-
istence of oxygen by the decomposition of mercury II oxide. Priestly also per-
formed a famous experiment with plants.
1. Light a candle, place it on a plate, beside a small potted plant, such as mint,
and place a large beaker upside down over the candle. After a short time the
candle will go out.
2. Place the apparatus near a sunny window for two to three days.
3. Remove the beaker just enough to re-light the candle. The candle should light
and burn temporarily.
What substance was consumed by the candle?
What must have been added to the beaker to allow the candle to burn the sec-
ond time?
Where did the oxygen come from?
What would happen if the apparatus were put back in the window for a fur-
ther few days?
What would happen if the plant and beaker were put in a dark cupboard for
a few days? Would the candle burn again?
What was the contribution of the plant?

themselves but also for organisms that survive. Instead, they produce their own
eat plants, and also for the organisms that food chemically. These unique organisms
eat those organisms. The oxygen pro- release the energy stored in inorganic
duced is needed by almost all living molecules such as hydrogen sulphide,
things—including the plants themselves— carbon dioxide, or iron-containing com-
for the process of cellular respiration. pounds to provide energy for themselves
and to make the organic compounds
such as carbohydrates and amino acids
Alternative Forms of
necessary to support life.
Food Production: Many scientists believe that the
The Chemoautotrophs chemoautotrophic bacteria are related
Photosynthetic organisms are called to the first life forms on Earth. They
autotrophs, meaning they can make would have been well suited to the con-
their own food. Most other organisms ditions that probably existed on this
are heterotrophs. Heterotrophs must young developing planet. Inorganic
eat other organisms to obtain energy. compounds from Earth’s crust were
However, another highly specialized common, and little or no oxygen existed
method of energy acquisition does exist. to support autotrophs.
Because of that we must say that tech- Today, the chemoautotrophs live in
nically, not quite all life on Earth relies environments where conditions similar
on photosynthesis. Certain species of to those of a primitive Earth still exist,
bacteria, known as chemoautotrophs, in deep-sea hot vents, deep in the soil of
do not rely on either photosynthesis wetlands, or in the near-boiling water of
or the products of photosynthesis to hot springs.
Section 4.4 Review

Understanding Concepts Making Connections
1. Explain the importance of photosyn- 7. The greenhouse effect is caused by the
thesis to all living things. buildup of carbon dioxide in the at-
2. In what cellular organelle does photo- mosphere from the burning of fossil
synthesis occur? fuels. Investigate:
3. Where do the substrates (reactants) a) how the greenhouse effect may af-
of photosynthesis come from? fect photosynthesis in plants.
b) the possible economic results of
4. Write the net equation for photosyn-
effects on photosynthesis in plants.
thesis.
c) the consequences of choosing not
5. Compare the lifestyle of chemoau- to acknowledge the greenhouse
totrophs and single-celled photosyn- effect.
thetic organisms.
8. Rain forests, such as those in the
Amazon river basin, actually create
Applying Inquiry/ much of their own rainfall. Cutting
Communication Skills down the rain forest decreases the
rainfall in the area. Crops are grown
6. In the process of photosynthesis, can on the cleared rain forest land. Prepare
you tell if the oxygen atoms for the a chart that lists the pros and cons of
product oxygen originate from the such action.
reactant carbon dioxide or from the re-
actant water? Design an experiment to
determine which reactant supplies the
oxygen atoms.

4.5 Cellular Respiration

Key Understandings
describe the results of cellular respiration
explain the flow of energy between photosynthesis and respiration
state the advantages and disadvantages to an organism or tissue of using aerobic res-
piration or anaerobic respiration
INFOBIT The metabolic process of cellular respi- The first steps of cellular respiration,
ration supplies cells with energy in the known as glycolysis, occur in the cyto-
36 or 38? Cellular respiration form of ATP. ATP is used to provide en- plasm in the cytosol. Glycolysis splits the
can produce different amounts ergy for important cellular processes such glucose into two molecules of pyruvic
of ATP; some cells are better at
making ATP than others. In the as active transport, muscle contraction, acid. Two molecules of ATP are also
human body, the cardiac and all other endergonic reactions oc- formed. Gloyolysis does not require oxy-
(heart) muscle cells produce 38 curring in the cells of all living things. gen and occurs in all cells. In eukaryotic
ATP molecules per glucose Cellular respiration also provides the heat cells, if oxygen is present, the remain-
molecule. All of the other cells to keep warm-blooded animals, such as ing steps of cellular respiration and the
in our bodies are less efficient
and produce only 36 ATP per humans and other mammals, warmer remaining ATP production occur in the
glucose molecule. It is not sur- than their environment. mitochondria. Because prokaryotic cells
prising that heart muscle cells Glucose is the fuel for cellular respi- do not have organelles such as mito-
are so efficient considering ration. During cellular respiration, the co- chondria, they can only perform glycol-
how important your heartbeat valent bonds in glucose are slowly broken ysis, and are, therefore, much less
is to maintaining your life.
down in a series of reactions that are efficient at producing ATP than eukary-
overall exergonic. The energy released is otic cells.
used to make ATP. The process of Figure 4.10 shows the major stages
cellular respiration can be summarized in cellular respiration and the locations
by the equation in the diagram below. in the cell where these stages take place.
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy (in the form of 36 or 38 ATP)

glucose oxygen carbon water
dioxide
Reactants Products
glucose GLYCOLYSIS 2 ATP
2 pyruvic acid
cytosol further processing mitochondrial
membrane
6 carbon dioxide
6 oxygen
34 ATP
FIGURE 4.10 The harvest of 6 water

energy from cellular mitochondrion
respiration

The Energy Flow on Earth Sources of Energy

Compare the equations for photosyn- Although glucose is the cell’s most effi-
thesis and cellular respiration. What cient source of fuel to make ATP, cells
do you notice? Did you recognize that may also use other molecules for energy.
the reactions are opposites? This is an For example, polysaccharides are poly-
important feature of life on Earth. The mers of glucose; therefore they can be
energy that fuels life on earth cycles easily broken down to glucose and used
between photosynthesis and cellular res- for energy. Such polysaccharides are
piration. Photosynthesis uses light often called complex carbohydrates.
energy to produce glucose and other Other molecules, such as lipids and
organic molecules and cellular respira- proteins, may also be used for energy.
tion releases the energy stored in the These substances can enter the cellular
bonds of glucose to make ATP to fuel respiration pathway but at different
cellular functions. stages from where carbohydrates enter
The products of each of these the pathway. Generally, cells will use car-
metabolic processes become the sub- bohydrates for energy first, fats second,
strates for the other metabolic process. and then finally break down proteins in
Life on Earth depends on photosynthe- order to continue the cellular respiration
sis to continuously supply the glucose and process. Without a steady supply of ATP
oxygen needed by cellular respiration. molecules, cells die within seconds.
Cellular respiration supplies the carbon Figure 4.11 shows the entry of different
dioxide and ATP energy that allow plants types of molecules into the cellular res-
to continue to photosynthesize. piration pathway.
food
proteins carbohydrates fats
amino acids sugars glycerol fatty acids
glycolysis
glucose
pyruvic acid
NH3 (ammonia)
FIGURE 4.11 Molecules other than glucose can enter the cellular respiration pathway. These
reactants enter the respiratory pathway at different stages.

WORD ORIGIN Forms of Respiration acid. Lactic acid fermentation is ineffi-

cient when compared to aerobic cellu-
The summary equation for cellular res-
Aerobic from the Greek, aer, lar respiration, but it remains in humans
meaning “air,” bios, meaning piration, shows that oxygen is required.
as a way to get a little extra energy in
“life” and suffix ikos meaning See Figure 4.10, page 98. Cellular respi-
an emergency situation.
“of the nature of”. The an in ration using oxygen is known as aerobic
anaerobic is from the Greek for Lactic acid fermentation is also used
cellular respiration. However, most cells
“not.” in the dairy industry to make cheese and
are able to continue to produce some ATP
yogurt. The process involves providing
without oxygen. Producing ATP in the
a suitable carbohydrate source to the
absence of oxygen is often called anaer-
proper species of bacteria under anaer-
obic respiration or fermentation.
obic conditions. The products are har-
Prokaryotic cells such as bacteria use a
vested once the fermentation has been
INFOBIT number of different strategies to accom-
completed. Fermentation by bacteria, a
plish anaerobic respiration. Eukaryotic
Lactobacillus, results in the production
If you like murder mysteries, cells usually rely on one of two pathways:
you may have heard of the of yogurt and sour cream.
lactic acid fermentation or alcoholic
poisons arsenic and cyanide. fermentation.
Both are deadly, and although
arsenic works slowly and Alcoholic Fermentation
cyanide works very quickly, Lactic Acid Fermentation Yeast, a type of fungus, and a few other
they both affect cellular
respiration in the mitochondria: When faced with anaerobic conditions, kinds of micro-organisms utilize another
they prevent certain reactions many eukaryotic cells can convert the method of fermentation called alcoholic
of cellular respiration from pyruvic acid obtained from glycolysis fermentation. In this process, pyruvic
occurring and, therefore, pre- into another product, called lactic acid. acid is broken down into ethanol and
vent ATP formation.
This conversion, known as lactic acid carbon dioxide. Similar to lactic acid
fermentation, occurs in the cytoplasm. fermentation, alcoholic fermentation
Although lactic acid fermentation does does not contribute any more ATP
not add to the ATP already produced by molecules to those already produced
glyolysis, it is necessary in order to by glycolysis; it is necessary to regen-
regenerate a coenzyme that allows erate a coenzyme allowing glycolysis
glycolysis to continue. to continue. The equation for alcholic
fermentation is:
pyruvic acid → lactic acid
pyruvic acid → alcohol + CO2
Did you ever wonder why your mus-
cles hurt after exercise? Fermentation is Humans have utilized this process
the reason. When you exercise vigor- for thousands of years. This was one of
ously, your circulatory system cannot the earliest examples of biotechnology.
provide enough oxygen to your muscle The rising of yeast-bread dough is the
cells. As a result, your muscles rely on result of carbon-dioxide production by
the anaerobic process of lactic acid the yeast cells. Brewing wine and other
fermentation to provide at least a little alcoholic beverages relies on the ability
bit more energy. However, the product— of yeast to ferment sugar to alcohol and
lactic acid—is toxic to the cells and carbon dioxide. In order to make wine,
causes pain as it continues to accumu- grape juice and yeast cells are mixed and
late in the muscles. Because of its poi- left in anaerobic conditions. The yeast
sonous effect, the lactic acid must be ferments the sugar into alcohol, but dies
changed back to pyruvic acid in the once the alcohol concentration reaches
presence of oxygen. This explains why about 12%. Therefore, in order
Investigation you need to breathe deeply after intense to produce alcohol of a higher concen-
Refer to page 103 exercise—you are supplying the oxy- tration, further processing, called
Investigation 1 gen needed to break down the lactic distillation, is required.

To Ferment or Not to Ferment Clearly, it some 3.5 billion years ago. As a result,
is a major advantage for organisms to the first creatures to appear on Earth re-
be able to aerobically metabolize glu- lied on fermentation to supply their en-
cose. The organism obtains 36 or 38 ATP ergy needs. They were probably similar
per glucose, compared to only 2 ATP per to anaerobic bacteria that exist today.
glucose obtained by fermentation. Later the composition of the atmosphere
In fact, a full 90 % of the energy in changed as photosynthetic bacteria
glucose is unavailable to those evolved to produce oxygen as a prod-
organisms that rely on anaerobic uct of photosynthesis. As the oxygen con-
metabolism. Why is fermentation centration on Earth increased, the
important? The answer is probably organisms that relied on fermentation
linked to the conditions that existed on were replaced by other organisms that
a very young planet Earth. Scientists be- could carry out aerobic respiration. Now
lieve that fermentation developed before they are found only in environments
aerobic respiration because oxygen was where there is no oxygen, such as deep
not present in the atmosphere when the in the soil or in the bodies of other or-
earliest forms of life appeared on Earth ganisms.
Section 4.5 Review

1. Why do cells perform cellular respira- 8. Uncoupling proteins (UCPs) are pro-
tion? teins that are found in hibernating
2. Write the overall equation for cellular bears and interfere with a mitochon-
respiration. From what reactant is the drion’s ability to make ATP. Instead of
oxygen in the product, water, obtained? making ATP the energy is lost as heat—
used to keep the bears warm. UCPs are
3. Explain the flow of energy between cel-
currently being studied as a possible
lular respiration and photosynthesis.
weight-loss solution in humans.
4. Describe the difference between aero- Research UCPs and prepare a PMI
bic and anaerobic cellular respiration. chart on the prospects of their use as
Write a paragraph to discuss the a weight-loss solution.
advantages and disadvantages of each
9. Mark McGuire was using a perfor-
process to a tissue or an organism.
mance supplement known as creatine
5. Make a T-chart to show the differences phosphate the year he broke baseball’s
between the two types of fermentation. all-time home-run record. Find out
6. What would be the effect on your more about the number of athletes
metabolism if your mitochondria using creatine phosphate and its ad-
stopped functioning? Refer to Figure vantages and dangers. Conduct a
4.10 in your answer. risk/benefit analysis and report your
findings to your class in the form of a
7. Make a diagram to show how lipids
presentation or a poster.
can be used as alternative sources of
energy for cellular respiration. 10. Creatine phosphate is naturally found
in your cells and enhances their abil-
ity to make ATP in anaerobic condition.
Although creatine phosphate is not a
banned substance, in your opinion, is
it ethical for athletes to use this sub-
stance to enhance performance?
Explain.

Defining the Issue
Case Study
Ethanol or Fossil Fuels?

Justifying the Course of Action
Ethanol, a clean-burning fuel, is a renewable re-

source made from the fermentation of sugar or
starch. Cheap agricultural waste, like corn stalks
and straw are used in this process as a sugar source.
Until now, ethanol has been more expensive to pro-
duce than gasoline or diesel fuels. However, with in- Image omitted due to copyright restrictions.
creased understanding of the effects of fuel emissions
on the environment, ethanol is becoming a more
cost-competitive alternative. Over 500 service sta-
tions in Canada sell ethanol blends. Benefits to the
environment of a 10 % ethanol blend include re-
duction in carbon dioxide emissions by up to 30 %
and reduction of carbon monoxide emissions up to FIGURE 4.12 Vehicles burning fossil fuels produce pollution.
10 %. Ethanol is also high octane. In fossil fuels,
octane enhancers like methyl manganese trycar-
bonyl (MMT) are used. Manganese is a neuro-toxin
and has recently been banned.
In 1997, Canada and over 160 other countries emissions by 6 % below 1990 levels between 2008
met in Kyoto, Japan and established the Kyoto and 2012. An evaluation of the cost and benefits of
Protocol. These countries agreed to target continued use of ethanol and fossil-fuels will be an
reduced green-house gas (GHG) emissions to fight important step in Canada’s assessment of how it can
climate change. Canada’s target is to reduce GHG best meet this target goal.
Analyzing the Issue

1. Research the use of alternative fuels, focusing on the 3. In groups, have a round-table discussion about sus-
potential of ethanol as the fuel of the future. Your tainability and the long term impact on the planet of use
research focus should include information on the of current and alternative fuel-types. Every member of
process of creating ethanol, current testing and results, the group should have an opportunity to express his or
as well as the cost of production. her opinion. When you have heard the opinion of every
2. In a group, identify the advantages and disadvantages person in the group, come to a consensus about whether
of replacing fossil fuels with ethanol. Organize these or not Canada should have a plan for implementation of
under the headings science, technology, society and alternative fuels for the future.
environment. 4. Prepare a brief report, based on the round-table
discussion, that supports your opinion.

Inquiry Skills

Factors Affecting Fermentation Analyzing and Interpreting
In this lab exercise, you will study the effect of tem- 3. Obtain six beakers. Add an equal volume of bro-
perature on the process of alcoholic fermentation by mothymol blue solution to each of three of the
yeast. You will conduct experiments at three different beakers. Each beaker should be approximately half
temperatures and compare the rates of production of full.
a product of fermentation. To test for a product of 4. Label the three remaining beakers: Cold, Room
fermentation you will use bromothymol blue, an indi- Temperature, and Warm. Add ice and water to the
cator solution that turns yellow-green in the presence beaker labelled Cold, add tap water to the beaker
of carbon dioxide. marked Room Temperature, and add hot water to
the beaker marked Warm. Use a thermometer or a
Problem temperature probe to measure the actual temper-
ature of the water in the beakers. Record the mea-
What is the effect of temperature on alcoholic fermen- surements in Table 4.1 in your notebook.
tation by yeast? 5. Place one of the yeast-containing test tubes into
each of the beakers from step 4. Place the free end
of the rubber hose from each test tube into a sep-
Materials arate beaker of bromothymol blue.
yeast suspension 6. Record the time taken for each beaker of bro-
3 test tubes mothymol blue to change colour in Table 4.1 in your
test tube rack notebook.
6 beakers
bromothymol blue
stopwatch or clock with second hand
rubber stoppers with rubber tubing attached 1. What product of fermentation were you testing
graduated cylinder for in this investigation?
thermometer or temperature probe 2. Which beaker of bromothymol blue changed colour
fastest?
CAUTION: Bromothymol blue stains skin and clothing. 3. What must be included in the yeast suspension in
Wash your hands after handling living cultures. order for the yeast to carry out fermentation?
Procedure Concluding and Communicating

1. Set up your data table in your lab notebook: 4. If a fourth beaker with a temperature of 0˚C were
to be included in this lab, predict whether the
TABLE 4.1
rate of fermentation would be faster or slower than
the results that you obtained. Explain.
Beaker Temperature Time Taken for Colour Change
(˚C) (minutes:seconds) 5. If another beaker containing yeast were heated to
100°C, predict whether the rate of fermentation
cold
would be faster or slower than the results that you
room temperature obtained. Explain.
warm 6. Yeast are also used to produce alcoholic beverages
such as wine. Usually the fermentation process to
2. Add yeast suspension to three test tubes to within make wine takes at least 30 days. What would you
3 cm of the top of each tube. Place a stopper with suggest to speed up the process?
a rubber tube attached to it on each test tube. Set 7. If you have access to a colourimeter, you could mea-
the tubes in a test-tube rack. sure the decrease of colour in the beaker over time.
Suggest a method by which you could calculate the
rate of product production.


(continued)
Extending 11. Enzymes, such as those involved in fermentation,

are sensitive to a number of different factors in-
8. Design an experiment to test the effectiveness of cluding temperature and pH. In this lab you have
different carbohydrate sources on fermentation. investigated the effect of temperature. Design and
9. Why do muscle cells sometimes participate in test a procedure to determine the effect of pH on
fermentation? fermentation.
10. Explain what could be added to this experiment
to act as an experimental control?
Inquiry Skills
Investigation 2 (section 4.4)

Factors Affecting the Rate of Photosynthesis Analyzing and Interpreting
Introduction 5. Have your teacher check your procedure before you

proceed with your investigation.
To a test tube containing bromothymol blue solution
that has been previously exposed to carbon-dioxide 6. Present the results of your investigation in a clear
gas, your teacher will add a piece of Elodea canadi- and well-organized manner, using a data table and
ensis and then seal the test tube with a stopper. Wait graph.
at least one day and examine the test tube for any
changes. Elodea canadiensis is available in Canada. It Analyzing and Communicating
is a slightly narrower form of the Elodea sp. often used 1. Explain, using your knowledge of photosynthesis,
in plant physiology experiments. how the factors you investigated influenced the rate
of carbon dioxide uptake.
Problem
How could the Elodea test system be used to investigate Concluding and Communicating
a factor or variable that affects photosynthesis? 2. What criteria did you apply to develop your
procedure?
CAUTION: Wash your hands after handling living organisms.
3. Describe which observations you felt provided ev-
idence about how quickly photosynthesis occurred.
4. Account for any experimental errors that may have
Experimental Design affected your conclusion.
1. Describe what you observe in the demonstration test 5. Describe the changes, if any, you would make to
system. your procedure if you repeated your experiment.
2. Write a list of the variables that you think might in-
fluence the rate of photosynthesis. Extending
3. Write a hypothesis about the way each variable 6. What application of this investigation could be used
would affect the reaction rate. by farmers and agriculturalists?
4. Design a procedure to test your hypothesis about
each variable. include your materials and safety
considerations.
104 CU H
N AI TP T1E R Cellular
4 Cell Functions
at Work
Key Terms
active site cellular respiration glycolysis pyruvic acid

activation energy coenzymes lactic acid fermentation tRNA
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) endergonic reaction metabolism transcription
aerobic respiration enzyme mRNA translation
alcoholic fermentation enzyme-substrate complex net equation
anaerobic respiration exergonic reaction photosynthesis
catalyst fermentation protein synthesis
4.1 Cell Reactions and Energy 4.4 Photosynthesis and Food production
Metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions in Photosynthesis is the process that plants and some
the cell. other organisms use to capture the energy of sun-
light and convert it to chemical energy.
Reactions may be either endergonic or exergonic.
The net photosynthesis equation is:
Energy for cell activities comes from ATP.
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6 O2
The high energy bonds in ATP are used for storing
Some organisms can use sources of energy other
and releasing energy.
than sunlight to produce organic compounds.
4.2 Enzymes 4.5 Cellular Respiration
Enzymes are proteins that function as chemical cat-
Cellular respiration is the release of energy from
alysts to speed up chemical reactions.
food molecules in the presence of oxygen.
Enzymes increase reaction speed by binding to sub-
The net cellular respiration equation is:
strates at their active site.
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy (ATP)
4.3 Protein Synthesis Glycolysis is the first step of cellular respiration; glu-
Protein synthesis consists of two main steps: tran- cose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvic
scription (occurring in the nucleus) and transla- acid with the formation of two molecules of ATP.
tion (occurring in the cytoplasm).
The remaining steps of cellular respiration occur in
The ribosome is the site of protein synthesis. the mitochondria and produce most of the ATP.
Messenger RNA and transfer RNA are essential for Some organisms can break down pyruvic acid under
protein synthesis. anaerobic conditions.
1. Revisit the Checkpoint on page 87 and review your cycle issues using the following categories: social, ethical, eco-
diagram of photosynthesis. Revise your diagram based nomic, environmental, technological.
on what you learned in this chapter. 4. Reflect on your learning. When you researched the Case
2. Construct a concept map to show the relationship be- Studies in this unit, you compiled data from a number
tween cellular respiration and photosynthesis. of sources. Describe the research process that you use.
3. Issues relating to the cell and biotechnology appear in In what ways could your process be more effective?
the media on an ongoing basis. In a chart, list some

CHAPTER 4 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts 10. What is the role of enzymes in providing energy for liv-
ing systems?
1. Which of these is the cell’s main energy-carrying
compound 11. Compare aerobic respiration and fermentation with
a) enzymes respect to energy input and energy output. Which
b) proteins process is more efficient and why?
c) vitamins
d) ATP 12. Explain how energy flows between cellular respiration
and photosynthesis.
2. Pyruvic acid is a final product of
a) cellular respiration 13. How are proteins important to the overall survival of a
b) photosynthesis cell? Of an organism?
c) fermentation
d) glycolysis 14. Identify a biologically important endergonic reaction,
and explain why it is so important to supporting life.
3. During strenuous exercise, the body’s muscles produce
a) alcohol 15. Describe how a competitive inhibitor affects an enzyme.
b) lactic acid
c) glucose 16. Define activation energy for a reaction. Use diagrams to
d) starch show how the presence of a competitive inhibitor will
affect activation energy in an enzyme-catalysed
4. Photosynthesis occurs in reaction.
a) chloroplasts
b) mitochondria 17. Compare and contrast autotrophs, heterotrophs, and
c) prokaryotes only chemoautotrophs. Write a supported paragraph on the
d) muscle cells contribution of each form to the environment.
5. An end product formed during fermentation in yeast is 18. Why do you suppose chemoautotrophs still exist on Earth
a) hydrogen today?
b) water
c) alcohol 19. What accounts for any differences in ATP production
d) glycogen among different kinds of cells?
6. The substrates of photosynthesis are 20. What advantage is there to having anaerobic respiration
a) oxygen and glucose available for certain human cells?
b) carbon dioxide and oxygen
c) carbon dioxide and water 21. Do you think yeast cells would grow more quickly
d) glucose and water when respiring aerobically or anaerobically? Explain
your answer.
7. Anaerobic respiration
a) only occurs in bacteria 22. Heart attack victims often have trace amounts of lactic
b) ends with glycolysis acid in the blood vessels leaving their heart. If you were
c) requires oxygen a medical researcher, what would this lead you to be-
d) yields no ATP lieve about the cause of heart attacks?
8. C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 23. Set up a Venn diagram to relate the terms: anabolism,

a) C6H12O6 + H2O + energy catabolism, endergonic reaction, exergonic reaction,
b) 6 O2 + 6 H2O + energy metabolism, photosynthesis, and respiration.
c) 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy 24. Explain why the minimum number of carbon dioxide
d) 6CO2 + 6 H2 + energy molecules needed to make a glucose molecule in pho-
tosynthesis is six.
9. Which is more efficient—aerobic respiration or fermen-
tation? Explain your answer. 25. Some desert dwellers, such as kangaroo rats, never have
to drink water. Use your knowledge of cellular
metabolism to identify how kangaroo rats obtain the
water they need from their diet of dry seeds.

Applying Inquiry/ 30. The greenhouse effect refers to the buildup of carbon
Communication Skills dioxide in the earth’s atmosphere. How do you think the
greenhouse effect will affect the process of photosyn-
26. Use a chart similar to the one below to compare aero- thesis? Explain.
bic cellular respiration and anaerobic respiration.
31. Glucose is the chief starting material for cellular respi-
ration but it is not the only starting material. Other
Characteristic Aerobic Anaerobic
carbohydrates as well as fats and proteins can be used.
Cellular Respiration Choose one of these alternative sources of energy and
Respiration research the way in which it enters the cellular respi-
Starting Material (substrates) ration pathway. Present your answer as a diagram.
Pathways Involved
End Products 32. If you eat an extra donut every day and do not increase
your activity, what happens to the extra energy that you
Energy Produced consume? If you want to work off the extra energy how
long would you have to exercise by a) running,
b) walking, c) cycling, d) swimming? Use the table to help
27. Use a chart similar to the one below to compare photo- determine your answers. Assume your excess intake
synthesis and cellular respiration. was 1200 kJ.
Characteristic Photosynthesis Cellular Activity kJ Consumed per Hour by an Average Person

Respiration
running 3260
Starting Reactants
(substrates) walking 660
Location of Process
cycling 340
within the Cell
Endergonic or swimming 2240
Exergonic
Sample Organism
that Carries Out Making Connections
this Process
33. The world’s oil supplies cannot last forever, and since oil
is a non-renewable resource within human lifespans,
28. What do you think would happen to a plant that was scientists are searching for other sources of fuel for
placed in an airtight jar by a window? Explain. automobiles and other motorized vehicles. One possible
solution is to use yeast to ferment plant waste such as
29. The table below shows the amount of energy released wheat straw into alcohol. What questions should be
from compounds during three different energy- considered in deciding whether this is a worthwhile
releasing reactions. How does the percentage of energy solution? How could some of these questions be
converted compare in each case? What happens to any answered?
energy that is lost?
34. The process of biotechnology using recombinant DNA
Compound Conditions Energy % of energy techniques allows scientists to make a number of human
converted converted proteins to treat diseases. What other human protein
into products would you like to have available to humans?
Explain your answer.
Glucose Burned in Heat, light 100
a fire
Glucose Used in ATP 40
cellular
respiration
Gasoline Burned in Motion 25
car engine

EXPLORING CAREERS
Taking the World by Storm
Biology is about to take the world by overshadowed by amazing developments

storm, making changes in our lives even in other fields, such as information
more rapidly than the arrival of the per- technology.
sonal computer and the Internet. Why? What has changed? Think about the
Biology has always had a profound im- various fields of science as blocks used
pact on both individuals and society to build the same structure—our
because it asks fundamental questions overall understanding of how things
such as: What are we? How do our work. Each change in a block changes
bodies work? Where do we fit within a the entire structure. In other words,
world of other living things? Finding these what is learned in any one field of sci-
answers is more than scientific curios- ence, including new technology, stimu-
ity—it’s essential to our survival. Yet, until lates and changes ideas in all the others.
recently, biology has been a rather quiet For example, increased computing
science, its important discoveries power gave biologists the tool they had
needed to make the next huge leap
forward, deciphering the genetic code
for living things, including ourselves,
in far less time than ever predicted.
Remote sensing devices in space
allowed biologists to view patterns
biochemistry
of change over the entire planet,
food science
while GPS satellite tracking
environmental chemistry
allowed them to follow animals
ecology
B I O L O G Y C H E M I S T R Y as diverse as sea turtles and
pathology
butterflies wherever they
travelled.
medical physics
How does this affect your
bioinformatics
investigation of possible
aquatic science
careers in biology? First, this
optical physics
physiology
is a field undergoing both rapid
biomechanics physical chemistry growth and rapid change.
acoustical physics molecular physics This means there are exciting
microbiology nuclear chemistry opportunities now as well as in the
paleontology polymer chemistry
FIGURE 1 In terms of what people do and

P H Y S I C S
their careers, the sciences are far from isolated
into biology, chemistry, or physics. Instead,
these fields overlap, have common information
and techniques, and new, specialized subfields
of science form between them all the time.
Most careers are found in such crossover areas.

foreseeable future, but it also means you nature of scientific endeavour involves
need to be flexible in your thinking and constantly adding new concepts and
planning. Second, the definition of testing existing ones. Regardless of the
working in biology is growing fuzzy at career you may choose—from a medical
the edges, as this field draws into itself physicist in a hospital to patent lawyer
more and more tools from other to a mycologist working in a redwood
sciences. This means there are a lot of forest—you’ll find keeping up with
careers that combine biology with other change won’t be a problem. In fact,
areas of science, as you can see in Figure 1. you’re likely to be the one telling
others what’s new in the world.
Be Prepared for Change
If advances in biology mean that new
careers are appearing almost daily, and
existing careers are changing, how does
anyone manage to keep up? When you
think about it, your career as a student
is changing with each new school term
and course. You manage. How? It’s a
matter of being prepared and willing
to learn.
1. Make a list of tasks and reminders

for a new student arriving at your
school. In that list, describe in
detail what the student will need to
do to be ready for the first day of FIGURE 2 A medical physicist viewing CAT scans
term. Once you have finished your
list, consider these questions.
Where did you acquire your
own knowledge of how to
prepare for school? Looking Outward
The student has moved from
2. Research a list of biology-related
another school. Most of the
careers. Use all the resources you
courses he’ll be taking at your
can, including those from your
school sound familiar, how
classroom, your guidance depart-
could the new student find out
ment, and the Internet. Compare
what may be as expected and
lists with other classmates until you
what may be different?

have as many different careers as
The student is a little worried.
you can find.
One of his courses will be in a Where do these careers fit
subject completely new to him.
within the diagram of crossover
If this were you, what could you
careers? Is there a pattern or
do to prepare for such a course?
trend you can find?
What does this suggest about
Learning is the best way to keep ready
how you can best prepare
for change. Fortunately, lifelong learning
yourself for a career in biology,
is more than an expression to someone
or any career likely to change
working in biology or other science
over time?
field—it’s one of the rewards. The

ACHIEVEMENT TASK
View Rubric
Health Care Research:

Making Informed Decisions
Background Information
As medical technology advances, there are increased expectations that cures
to previously untreatable diseases may be found. Diseases like cancer,
Parkinson’s disease, diabetes and many others, are often in the news, as sci-
entists make new breakthroughs and develop new theories about causes and
cures of the diseases being investigated. The government decides how to allot
its funding dollars for further research. In Canada, the Canadian Institutes
of Health Research allotted $340 million for research grants and awards in
its 2000–2001 budget.
Ordinary citizens also face decisions about which kinds of research will
receive their financial support. Their reasons may be personal. Perhaps a
family member is living with a disease, or they know someone affected by a
particular illness. The media also play a role in influencing the expenditure
of research dollars. Celebrities often associate themselves with an illness and
their appeal to the public can also influence donation decisions. Actors like
Michael J. Fox and Christopher Reeve have made a tremendous impact on
funding for Parkinson’s disease and spinal cord research. There are many
other illnesses that do not receive high profile publicity yet deserve funding.
In a society that has limited funds for medical research, which diseases should
be the priority? This question faces society every day.
SCENARIO
Choose one of the two suggested below.
1. You are members of a team hired by Health Canada to review potential public
health campaigns that publicize awareness of diseases that commonly affect
Canadians. Decisions to fund these campaigns will be based on your recom-
mendations.
2. You are members of a group submitting a proposal requesting funding from
Health Canada. The funds will be used for a public health campaign on one of
the diseases that commonly affect Canadians. Decisions to allocate funding will
be based on your submission.

Part A: Research the Disease Part B: Analyzing the Data

1. Brainstorm a list of the top five diseases 4. Prepare a public awareness campaign for
that you believe the public should be edu- the disease that you researched. Your plan
cated about. Explain the prioritization of should include consideration of your audi-
the list. ence and your objective. Propose a cam-
paign that includes consideration of (a)
2. In groups, choose one of the diseases from
likelihood of cure; (b) social impact of re-
your list to research. The following infor-
search. Include in your campaign, statistics
mation must be included:
and diagrams as a support for your mes-
the cause of the disease sage.
the cells of the body affected by the
5. Develop class criteria to evaluate group pre-
disease
sentations.
the symptoms
the prognosis
detection and prevention
the number of people in Canada and Part C: Reflection
the world with the disease.
6. In what ways do you believe that public
3. Some examples of major diseases affecting awareness campaigns influence (1) likeli-
Canadians include: hood of a cure; (2) prevention.
Breast cancer 7. Explain the social and economic impact of

Parkinson’s Disease directing funds to medical research.
AIDS 8. For diseases that are not regularly in the
Muscular dystrophy public eye, what alternative methods are
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis there to create public awareness? Is it ap-
propriate that the media highlight only high-
profile diseases? Why? Why not?
A c h i e v e m e n t Ta s k 111
UNIT 1 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts c) allows some substances to enter and all substances
to exit
1. Which is an ionic compound? d) allows only some substances to exit and all sub-
a) water stance to enter
b) sugar
c) carbon 10. The process that involves substances moving through
d) sodium chloride the cell membrane without requiring energy is called
a) endocytosis
2. A disaccharide is an example of a b) exocytosis
a) lipid c) active transport
b) protein d) facilitated transport
c) carbohydrate
d) nucleic acid 11. Which compound is the energy providing molecule for
the cell?
3. The monomer of a protein is a(an) a) DNA
a) sugar b) RNA
b) fatty acid c) cholesterol
c) nucleotide d) ATP
d) amino acid
12. How many molecules of ATP are produced by aerobic
4. Nucleic acids are composed of monomers called cellular respiration?
a) amino acids a) 29
b) saccharides b) 2
c) steroids c) 4
d) nucleotides d) 36 or 38
5. Who was the first person to view and name cells? 13. Which process is used by plants to make food?
a) Hooke a) fermentation
b) Dutrochet b) respiration
c) Van Leuwenhoek c) photosynthesis
d) Schwann d) glycolysis
6. The molecule that forms the bilayer of a cell 14. 6CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy →
membrane is called a a) C6H12O6 + 6O2
a) protein b) 6O2 + 6CO2
b) lipid membrane c) C6H12O6 + 6H2O
c) phospholipid d) C6H12O6 + 6CO2
d) cholesterol
7. Both mitochondria and chloroplasts contain 15. Fermentation occurs in the

a) vacuoles a) presence of ATP
b) DNA b) presence of oxygen
c) endoplasmic reticulum c) absence of ATP
d) cytoskeleton d) absence of oxygen
16. Distinguish between an acid and a base.

8. The site where ribosomes are assembled is called the
a) mitochondrion 17. Set up a T-chart to compare glycogen and cellulose.
b) DNA
c) chromosome 18. Outline at least five effects that would occur if hydro-
d) nucleolus gen bonds did not form between adjacent water
molecules.
9. The cell membrane is known as selectively permeable
because it 19. Explain the difference between a molecular formula and
a) allows all substances to enter and exit the cell a structural formula. Give an example of each type of
b) allows some substances to enter and some formula. What additional information is available if a
substances to exit the cell structural formula is used?

20. The hydrogen bond is particularly important in bio- theory. List the essential characteristics of the cell
chemistry. Illustrate this statement with regard to: theory.
a) fish in the Canadian winter
b) the secondary structure of a protein 36. What would happen if you added 3 mL of cola to
c) DNA structure 10 mL of water? Predict the movement and distribution
of the molecules in the solution.
21. Define dehydration synthesis. Use diagrams to show the
importance of dehydration synthesis in: 37. Associate faulty transport mechanisms in the cell with
a) formation of a complex carbohydrate diseases in humans.
b) formation of a protein
38. Draw a diagram to show the relationship in the cell
22. Phospholipids contain glycerol bonded to one or two fatty between ATP and ADP.
acids and to an organic base that is attracted to water.
Explain how this chemical structure is essential to the 39. After glycolysis occurs, what happens to pyruvic acid if
structure and function of the cell membrane. no oxygen is present?
23. Demonstrate the formation of a peptide bond by draw- 40. What does the term essential represent with respect to
ing a diagram. Use the structural formulas for glycine nutrients.
and alanine in your diagram.
41. Set up a concept map to show the relationships between
24. The polypeptide chain formed at the ribosome may not aerobic and anaerobic respiration and ATP production,
be ready to function in the cell. Discuss the role of the alcoholic fermentation, and lactic acid fermentation.
Golgi apparatus in producing the final, active protein.
42. Draw a flow chart to indicate the relationship between
25. Set up a T-chart to compare the types of information ob- photosynthesis and respiration.
tained from transmission electron microscopy and scan-
ning electron microscopy. 43. List three uses humans have made of the process of
fermentation.
26. Explain why you should not place an unopened bottle of
pop in a freezer. 44. Justify the following statement: “Chemoautotrophs are
the only living organism that do not depend on photo-
27. Which molecule is larger, ATP or ADP? Explain how you synthesis to surivive.”
know this and why there is a size difference.
45. Explain how DNA controls the production of proteins
28. Compare covalent, ionic, and polar covalent bonds. in cells.
29. List the components of the cell membrane. Indicate how 46. Explain why photosynthesis and respiration are consid-
hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties are important ered opposite processes.
for entry of substances through the cell membrane.
47. Outline the importance of the cell membrane to the sur-
30. Draw a diagram to show how the structure of water con- vival of the cell. Explain why it is important for the cell
tributes to its properties as a solvent. membrane to be selectively permeable.
31. Define specific heat. Indicate the importance of the 48. Describe in detail what would happen to a freshwater
specific heat of water for biological systems. organism if it were placed in salt water.
32. List three similarities and three differences between eu-

karyotic and prokaryotic cells.
Applying Inquiry/
33. Name and describe the cellular structure that contains
digestive enzymes. Explain the importance of this struc-
ture to the cell. 49. Some antibiotics act by binding to enzymes of the
disease-causing bacteria.
34. Draw a flow chart of protein synthesis. a) Draw a diagram to show one way that the antibi-
otic might affect the activity of the enzyme.
35. Draw a timeline of observation and discovery during the b) What effect of this binding on the bacteria would
19th century that led to the development of the cell you expect?
Unit Review 113

50. Consult Canada’s Food Guide or another nutritional in- 58. Copy and complete the following chart on aerobic and
formation source to determine the recommended con- anaerobic respiration.
sumption of saturated and unsaturated fat for a person
of your age. Then maintain a dietary journal—a record Aerobic Anaerobic
of what you eat for five days. Consult reference sources Respiration Respiration
to determine your approximate intake of saturated vs.
unsaturated fats. What changes, if any, should you make Substrate
to your diet in light of your findings. What are the
likely benefits to your health of making a change to the Products
amount of fat you consume?
Energy (# of
51. Use a T-chart to show the possible positive and negative ATP produced)
effects of constructing computer processors and other
circuits out of molecules as opposed to constructing them
out of elements as they are currently made? 59.Copy and complete the table below. Obtain a sheet of
grid paper and graph the data.
52. Design an experiment to compare the speed with which
polar and nonpolar compounds dissolve in water. Non- Size of Cube Surface area Volume Surface area
polar compounds include vegatable oil and sugar. Polar
(cm) (cm2) (cm3) Cube/Volume ratio
compounds include acetone and hydrogen chloride.
Predict the results of your experiment. 1
53. Imagine that a Canadian scientist has discovered a 2

new and greatly improved microscope that can greatly 3
increase the magnification and resolution of microscopes.
What effects might this have on our understanding of 4
cells?
5
54. People who have nearly drowned in sea water have to
be kept under medical supervision for several hours after 60. The average human requires 2200 kcal per day to
they have been revived. Using your understanding of os- meet their energy demands. If a person were to regu-
mosis, explain why this is necessary. larly consume 2500 kcal what effect would this have
on their body? Express these values in kilojoules.
55. Briefly describe a plan that would allow you to observe
the effects of water moving into a plant cell by osmosis. 61. All human cells metabolize glucose and human bones
actively metabolize calcium. Cancerous cells often me-
56. The table below shows the different amounts of energy tabolize at much faster rates than normal cells. Read the
released from glucose by two different processes. section: Nuclear Medicine: using the knowledge of cell
Compare the amount of energy released for each pro- functions and technology on page 94, and then describe
cess. Explain what has happened to energy that appears how you would design further nuclear medicine tests
to have been lost. to determine cancer in any body tissue as well as can-
cer in bones.
Fuel Fuel use Efficiency of
energy conversion 62. Use the table on the next page to answer the following:
a) What food in the table has the highest ratio of pro-
Glucose burned in laboratory 100% teins to lipids? The lowest ratio of proteins to lipids?
experiment b) If you were advised by your doctor to eat a low fat
diet, which of the foods listed should you eat less
Glucose metabolized during 40% of?
cellular respiration c) Calculate the number of grams of proteins, lipids,
and carbohydrates in the following breakfast: 1 cup
of orange juice, 1 boiled egg, 2 slices of fried bacon,
57. Design an experiment to demonstrate the effects of 2 slices of whole wheat toast, and 10 g of margarine.
different amounts of light on plant growth. Write a
hypothesis and submit your experimental design to your
teacher before you begin your experiment.

Nutritional Composition of Selected Foods
Food Proteins (g) Lipids (g) Carbohydrates (g)

breakfast cereal (30-g serving) 1.9 3.0 24
salad dressing (15-mL serving) 0.4 8.5 0.4
chocolate chip cookies (2) 1.9 7.8 17
light cream cheese (30-g serving) 2.2 5.2 1.2
whole wheat bread (1 slice) 2.6 1.0 13.0
fried bacon (1 slice) 2.3 4.0 0.25
margarine (10-g serving) 0 8.0 0.1
boiled egg (1) 6.5 5.8 0.5
orange juice (125 mL) 1.8 0.5 26
carrot (1) 0.5 0.1 4.9
macaroni (250 mL) 2.4 0.3 16.3
Making Connections 66. The function of molecules is often dependent on their three-
dimensional shape, which leads to yet another story about
63. Stem cell research is based on the principle that some performance enhancing drug use by Mark McGwire.
cells are capable of dividing and giving rise to different Besides using creatine phosphate, during his home-run
types of differentiated cells. The object of this research hitting record breaking season, he was also using an-
is to have transplanted stem cells assume the role of es- drostenedione—a legal steroid hormone that is identical
sential functions missing or lost due to diseases like to testosterone except for the placement of a single hy-
Alzheimer’s. Other research studies factors that may pre- drogen atom. While other anabolic steroids are banned
vent such diseases. Research dollars are limited. from use, androstenedione is not. What is your opinion of
McGwire’s use of this performance enhancing substance?
Set up a PMI chart to investigate support for these two Do you think he should be entitled to keep his record? If
types of research. Consider: you were a personal trainer to a world class athlete, what
a) data available currently from the two types of re- would your advice be regarding the use of androstene-
search dione? Write a supported paragraph on this topic.
b) short-term effects on society
c) long-term effects on society 67. Compose a letter to the bottlers of Coca-Cola outlining
your opinion of their use of HFCS sweeteners in their
64. Research possible chemical-based and biological-based products.
alternatives to fossil fuels. Set up a PMI chart for each
method you research. Include a consideration of: 68. You have recently been assigned to the federal govern-
a) the cost of the research ment cabinet position of Minister of Health. Draft a state-
b) the likely time-frame before the alternative fuel is ment outlining your official policy on performance
commercially available enhancing drugs, such as anabolic steroids.
c) effects on the environment
d) effects on the Canadian economy 69. Dr. Harry Jennings invented the first synthetic vaccine.
Other vaccines may cause the inoculated person to con-
65. Imagine that you are the director of medical imaging for tract the disease they are supposed to be protected against.
Health Canada. Recent research results point strongly to This is a rare occurrence. Synthetic vaccines do not cause
the possibility of harmful effects on humans through ex- diseases. Imagine you are a medical researcher. What
posure to strong magnetic fields. Outline at least five rec- other diseases would you suggest for the development of
ommendations you would make in this circumstance to synthetic vaccines? List the reasons for your choices.
hospitals and clinics that are currently using MRI scan-
ners. What other medical diagnostic tool may serve to
provide some guidelines for writing your proposal?
Unit Review 115

UNIT
Genetic Continuity
2
OVERALL
EXPECTATIONS
H
ow does a single cell manage to divide and eventually become a com-
plex multicellular organism, such as an elephant or a giraffe? How
does a species pass all of its special traits—a leopard’s spots, a zebra’s
By the end of this unit, stripes,—from one generation to the next? These abilities, found only in
you will be able to: living things, are known as genetic continuity. They are one of life’s great
mysteries. Or at least they were until recently. Scientists are now busy
demonstrate an understanding of
the necessity of meiosis and mapping the chromosomes, genes, and DNA—the hereditary information
describe the importance of genes inside the nucleus of all
b)
in transmitting hereditary cells—of many organ-
characteristics, according to isms including humans.
Mendel’s model of inheritance This new found genetic
perform laboratory studies of knowledge is already
meiosis and analyze the results of revolutionizing many
genetic crosses related to the laws aspects of our lives.
of heredity Genetic engineering
outline the scientific findings has been used to create
and some of the technological clones and to develop
advances that led to the modern designer organisms.
concept of the gene and genetic
technology, and demonstrate an c)
awareness of some of the social
and political issues raised by
genetic research and reproductive
technology
a) Binary fission in E. coli d)

produces two cells genetically
identical to the parent cell.
b) The members of three
generations in a family show
shared hereditary characteris-
tics but each person is geneti-
cally unique.
Genetic continuity over the
centuries can be observed.
c) A fossil sabre-toothed tiger
d) A modern-day tiger. a)
116
Genetic screening techniques have been used to detect birth defects in the
developing fetus. Research is being done with gene therapy to cure inherited
disorders such as certain cancers, hemophilia, heart disease, and cystic
fibrosis.
However, the ability to understand and manipulate DNA does have its
downside. How would you feel if you were denied a job because a DNA test
showed that you have a certain genetic defect? What if that blood sample
your doctor ordered fell into the wrong hands and was used to find out ev-
erything about you, without you even knowing it? What if a genetically
modified organism multiplied out of control in the wild and drastically altered
the natural ecosystem? These are just a few of the fears some people have
about unlocking the secrets contained in the genes.
Properly assessing the many pros and cons associated with genetic tech-
nology requires a good understanding of genetic continuity. In this unit, you
will examine mitosis, the process that ensures genetic continuity within an
individual from cell to cell. You will study meiosis, the process that ensures
genetic continuity from one individual to the next, from generation to gen-
eration, within a particular species. You will investigate the science of ge-
netics, the study of how genes operate, and the complex interaction between
genes and their environment. You will look at the various techniques and
technologies that have evolved to study and manipulate DNA. Finally, you will
examine some of the moral and ethical issues that surround these new
technologies. By the time you finish the unit, you will be better equipped to
form your own opinion about the proper use of genetic information.
BIOLOGY HEADLINES
Alzheimer’s allele unmasked There’s gold in them thar genes!

Scientists at the University of Wales expect to an- Knowledge of the human genome may hold the
nounce the location of a gene thought to be linked promise of healthier lives in the future, but right
to late-onset Alzheimer’s disease. In 429 pairs of now it’s all about big egos, competing technologies
siblings over the age of 65 with Alzheimer’s, all and wild stock prices. The race to commercialize
shared a particular allele of a gene located on chro- the human genetic code has produced a stock mar-
mosome number 10. ket frenzy.
Genetically altered athletes?

Swedish professor Bengt Saltin, an expert in ex-
ercise physiology, suggests that a form of gene ther-
apy used in flies, where genes are removed,
modified, and reinserted, could be applied to ath-
PREVIEW
letes as early as the next summer Olympic games. ACHIEVEMENT TASK
This could mean bizarre choices for athletes. A
At the end of the unit, you will demonstrate your learn-
sprinter could benefit from more fast-twitch mus-
ing by providing recommendations to an ethics panel
cles. A long-distance runner could choose the gene about the potential applications of genetic technologies.
form that produces more of the hormone ery- You will analyze the social, ethical, and economic im-
thropoetin to stimulate formation of red blood cells. pact of their use and propose a course of action for fu-
A high jumper could even have localized muscle ture application. See page 236.
growth in the take-off leg.
117
CHAPTER 5
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS Mitosis and Meiosis
the process and importance of
mitosis (5.1)
A single bacterium elongates, constricts near the middle, and miraculously
divides in two. A half hour later, the two daughter cells also divide in two.
A half hour after that, the four resulting cells divide to become eight. With
explain how the concepts of DNA, cell division continuing at this rate, fifteen hours later there are one billion
genes, chromosomes, and meiosis bacteria. In this scenario, offspring were produced by what is known as
account for the transmission of
hereditary characteristics from
generation to generation (5.2, 5.3)
explain the process of meiosis in
terms of the replication and
movement of chromosomes (5.2
explain the process of meiosis
with reference to your own
investigations with a microscope
(Investigation 1)
organize data that illustrate the
number of chromosomes in haploid
cells and diploid cells, and the
number of pairs of chromosomes in
diploid cells, that occur in various
organisms before, during, and as a
result of meiosis (5.2)
describe and analyze examples of
technologies that were developed
on the basis of scientific
understanding (5.1)
b)
FIGURE 5.1 When an egg cell and a sperm

cell fuse they produce a zygote, the first cell of
a new organism. Mitosis is the process that
transforms the single cell into an adult like the
mature elephant. a) Fusion of egg and sperm
b) A mature elephant. a)
118
asexual reproduction. With asexual reproduction, only one parent is required

and each offspring is genetically identical to the parent and to all the other
offspring.
After mating in mid-winter and following a 49- to 56-day gestation period,
a female red fox gives birth to four pups deep inside her den. She and her
mate then take care of the pups until they are old enough to fend for them-
selves. In this scenario, offspring were produced by sexual reproduction. With
sexual reproduction, two parents are required and each offspring carries ge-
netic traits from both parents. All offspring are genetically different from one
another.
Compared to sexual reproduction, asexual reproduction seems so much
more efficient: you don’t have to bother trying to find a mate and you can
produce many, many more offspring. If this is the case, why does Mother
Nature bother with sexual reproduction at all? Would the fact that a species
that reproduces asexually contains members that are all genetically uniform
affect the ability of the species to survive? What if the climate suddenly got
colder? Would a genetically uniform species be able to adapt to new condi-
tions as well as a genetically diverse species can? This chapter deals with the
scientific answers to these questions. You will gain a good understanding of
mitosis, the process of cell division used to reproduce asexually, and meio-
sis, the process used to reproduce sexually. By the end of the chapter, you
will be able to make an intelligent comparison of the pros and cons of each
of the methods of reproduction.
Discovering Biology
The Chromosome Numbers Game
Imagine an organism that has a characteristic chromosome number, the
diploid number, of six.
1. On a sheet of paper, sketch one of the cells of this organism and draw six
lines inside the cell to represent the six chromosomes. CHECKPOINT
2. Sketch two of these cells to represent the sex cells of this organism, Draw a comparison chart to
with each cell containing six chromosomes. list what you know about
mitosis and meiosis.
3. Sketch the results of fertilization involving these two cells. How many
chromosomes does the fertilized egg now contain?
Mitosis Meiosis
4. Sketch what would happen if this pattern were repeated for three more
generations.
Predict the effect this sequence of events would have on the character-
istics of this imaginary organism.
CHAPTER 5 Mitosis and Meiosis 119

5.1 Mitosis
Key Understandings
briefly outline the cell cycle and the stages of mitosis
distinguish between mitosis and cytokinesis
understand how one technique for cancer treatment depends on the scientific under-
standing of mitosis
M AT H L I N K Research on cell division results in new down. A current theory suggests that this
discoveries about cell function on an al- loss of function may also account for
The first cell of a new organ- most daily basis. Cell division is neces- the ageing process.
ism, the zygote, divides by mi- sary for the growth and development
tosis to produce a ball of cells
of any multicellular organism. It also
known as a blastula. In ani-
allows for tissue repair and the re- Mitosis and Genetic Continuity
mals where the egg has little
yolk, the total number of cells placement of ageing cells. The main function of mitosis has been
doubles every round of divi- Cell division does not occur at a fixed clearly identified by biologists. Mitosis
sion. How many rounds of divi- rate. Biologists have shown that cell di- occurs when a parent cell divides to
sion are necessary to produce produce two daughter cells. The daugh-
vision occurs rapidly in developing em-
a blastula with 1024 cells?
bryos and young organisms. The rate of ter cells are genetically identical to each
Hint: the mathematical formula cell division is also critical when you con- other. The hereditary information in the
is 2n = x where n is the number sider surfaces of the body that are ex- nucleus, the DNA, must be duplicated
of divisions and x is the total posed to daily wear and tear. The cells and an exact copy must be passed to
number of cells. each daughter cell. With every round of
on the surface of the skin or the lining
of the gut must replace themselves on mitotic division, the total number of cells
a regular basis as they are worn away is doubled, but the hereditary infor-
by constant exposure to the environment mation stays exactly the same. The
or to food materials and enzymes. transmission of the hereditary material
On the other hand, muscle and nerve through cell division is called genetic
cells lose the capacity for cell division at continuity. Because the hereditary in-
an early age. This means there is no pos- formation is stored on the chromosomes
sibility of replacing a cell that breaks within the nucleus, any consideration of
DNA wraps around protein Chromatin folds up

to make chromatin to make chromosomes
DNA chromatin duplicated chromosome cell
FIGURE 5.2 The chromosomes. The hereditary material in the nucleus is made up of long
strands of DNA that are condensed, folded and, in association with proteins, formed into
chromosomes.
120 UNIT 2 Genetic Continuity

mitosis must focus on the division and a) b)

distribution of these chromosomes
(Figure 5.2).
Chromosomes are made of DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) and associated
proteins. The long strands of DNA are Image Image
packaged in condensed, folded structures omitted due omitted due
to make the chromosomes found in the to copyright to copyright
nucleus of every eukaryotic cell. restrictions. restrictions.
The Need for Cell Division

In 1855 Rudolph Virchow stated that “all
cells are derived from pre-existing cells.”
This statement is accepted as part of the
Cell Theory but there are many ques-
FIGURE 5.3 These large cells have avoided the need to
tions still to be answered about the
divide. a) nerve cell b) striated muscle
production of new cells. Why is it nec-
essary for a cell to divide? Why do cells thin but they maintain nuclear INFOBIT
not simply continue to grow to four or control by having many nuclei within a
five times their initial size? common cytoplasm. Why some cells During interphase the cells of
Scientists have identified two key need to divide while others do not and an organism are actively
factors that restrict cell growth and ini- producing proteins. These
what factors trigger cell division in proteins may be used to
tiate cell division. First, as a cell grows, different cell types are questions that produce structures within the
its surface area and volume do not continue to challenge researchers. cell or they may act to regulate
change at the same rate. The volume processes in the organism.
of cytoplasm and cellular organelles in- For example, the cells of the
creases at a faster rate than the sur- The Cell Cycle pancreas produce the protein
insulin that leaves the
face area of the cell membrane. At some Cells do not divide continuously. In cells
pancreas via the bloodstream.
point in cell growth, the transport of ma- that are capable of dividing, the period This chemical then influences
terials through the cell membrane is not between cell divisions is termed the metabolism of glucose in
enough to satisfy the nutrient require- interphase. During interphase the cell cells throughout the body.
ments of the larger cell volume. When undergoes growth, duplicates the hered-
this happens, the cell becomes inefficient itary information, and prepares for
at performing its tasks. One impetus to mitosis. The length of this period varies,
cell division is to keep the surface area depending on the organism and cell type.
to volume ratio of the cells sufficient for Once a cell does begin to divide, two
effective exchange across the cell mem- separate processes must occur. The
brane. Unlike other cells, nerve cells are nucleus must first undergo mitosis, a
large and elongated but they do not process that ensures the distribution of
divide. Their long extensions and a complete set of chromosomes to each
infoldings maintain an efficient surface daughter cell. Then cytokinesis, the
area to volume ratio. division of cytoplasm and organelles,
The second factor that restricts cell follows. The result is a pair of daughter
growth involves the nucleus. As a cell cells, each with a genetic makeup iden-
grows larger, the nucleus has difficulty tical to the original parent cell.
controlling the activities of the increased Most of the life of the cell is spent in
volume of cytoplasm and organelles. Once interphase, when hundreds of specific
again, the efficiency of the cell is functions are performed. Obtaining
hindered. Cell division maintains the cell energy, synthesizing products like
contents at a manageable volume. An hormones, repairing damage, and fighting
exception to this rule is found in skele- disease, are just a few of these functions.
tal muscle tissue. The cells are long and Interphase has often been misnamed as

the “resting phase” of the cell cycle.

Cell growth Although the interphase cell is between
mitotic divisions, it is not at rest. It is ac-
tively growing and performing its func-
G1 phase tions. Before mitosis can occur, the
genetic information in the chromosomes
must be duplicated. This duplication
Cyt
oki
nes
(called replication) occurs during the pe-
is riod of interphase termed the synthesis
Telop
hase phase or S phase. Prior to this S phase,
erphase
Anaphase Cell the cell has been growing and prepar-
Chromosome
division
division and hase ing for replication. This is termed the G1
is
Metap
M it o s
distribution nt I
se (or first gap) phase. Following the S
n
ha
catio
P rop phase, the cell enters the G2 (or second
S phase
e p li
gap) phase as the cell begins its final
Ar
preparation for cell division. The cell
DN
G2 phase cycle is illustrated in Figure 5.4.
Pr
ep
ara
tion
for The Phases of Mitosis
m ito s i s
While a cell is in the interphase stage,
the chromosomes are not readily visible
FIGURE 5.4 The cell cycle can be divided into mitosis, cytokinesis, and the three through a microscope. However, the nu-
phases of interphase cleus is easily seen at this time. It has an
outer membrane, the nuclear envelope,
which controls the exchange of
materials between the nucleus and
cytoplasm. Within the nucleus, one or
more nucleoli are visible. These compact
centromere
chromatids
a) b)
FIGURE 5.5 A human chromosome.

a) A human chromosome as it appears through an electron microscope
b) A chromosome, made up of two chromatids held together by a centromere, as it
appears during late prophase

spherical bodies are rich in RNA, which chromatids at their centromeres and the WEBLINK
is involved in the production of ribo- chromosomes begin to migrate to the
somes. During interphase, the chromo- centre of the cell. See Figures 5.6 and 5.7.
somes are spread throughout the
For an animation of mitosis,
nucleus and appear as an irregular net- Metaphase Metaphase is characterized go to
work of strands and granules. In this by the lining up of the chromosomes www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
form, they are called chromatin. across the equator (middle) of the cell.
Although mitosis is a continuous This is sometimes called the metaphase
process, it is divided into four stages: plate. The chromosomes are held by
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and their centromeres midway between the
telophase. The results of mitosis and the poles and perpendicular to the spindle
movement of the chromosomes are sim- fibres. The chromosomes are now very
ilar in all eukaryotic cells but there are condensed and thick. Because metaphase
differences between different groups of chromosomes can be seen more clearly
organisms. Plant cells and yeast cells do than chromosomes at any other stage,
not have centrioles and their division they are often photographed for study.
spindles do not have the asters and The use of metaphase chromosomes to
astral rays clearly seen in animal cells. produce a karyotype is discussed in sec-
Yeast cells have structures analogous to tion 7.1. See Figure 7.1.
centrioles called spindle pole bodies.
Figures 5.6 through 5.10 show the sim- Anaphase Anaphase begins with the sep-
ilarities and differences in cell division aration of the chromatids at the cen-
in animals and plants. tromere to produce two identical
single-stranded chromosomes. Each sep-
Prophase Mitosis in animal cells begins arate chromosome is now slowly pulled
with the movement of the two pairs of toward opposite poles as the protein fi-
centrioles to the opposite sides, or poles, bres attached to the centromeres shorten
of the cell. The original pair of centrioles by a decrease in microtubule sub-units.
replicated during interphase, along with Anaphase ends as a complete set of chro-
the chromosomes. Tiny fibres of protein mosomes arrives at each of the poles.
called astral rays form around each pair
of centrioles. These astral rays and a Telophase Telophase is characterized by
given pair of centrioles take on a star- a return to interphase conditions. The nu-
like appearance and are termed asters. clear envelope reforms and the nucleoli
As the chromatin condenses into shorter, reappear. The chromosomes elongate by
thicker strands, the chromosomes uncoiling to become chromatin once again.
become clearly visible. The replication The spindle and aster disappear. Two nu-
process that occurred during interphase clei are visible within the single cell.
is now apparent. These replicated chro-
mosomes appear as strands joined at a Cytokinesis Cytokinesis, the division of
single point called a centromere. Each the cytoplasm to form two separate
identical strand is called a chromatid. daughter cells, usually begins during
(See Figure 5.5.) telophase in animal cells. The cell mem-
While the chromosomes are con- brane pinches inward at the equator of
densing, the nuclear envelope breaks the cell, producing a furrow (Figure 5.8).
down and the nucleolus decreases in size This furrow continues to deepen until
and then disappears. More fibres made two separate daughter cells are formed,
of microtubules form between the each with its own nucleus. During cy-
centrioles at opposite poles, producing tokinesis, the parent cell’s organelles,
a network called the mitotic spindle. such as ribosomes and mitochondria,
Toward the end of prophase, the are distributed to the two daughter cells.
spindle fibres attach themselves to the

MITOSIS AND CYTOKINESIS

chromosomes
replicated, uncondensed DNA (each a pair of sister chromatids
joined together)
pair of nucleus nucleolus spindle fibres mitotic metaphase

centrioles (microtubules) spindle plate
END OF PROPHASE METAPHASE

INTERPHASE
DNA has already duplicated Mitosis begins. The chromosomes take Linkage and alignment. The
back in the S phase. Centrioles have shape as the DNA condenses. The mitotic spindle consists of
doubled. nuclear envelope begins to break down. several varieties of
The two pairs of centrioles begin to microtubules; some of these
move toward the cellular poles, form a football-shaped cage
sprouting microtubules as they go. around the cell’s former
nucleus, while others attach
to the sister chromatids and
align them at the equatorial
metaphase plate. Each
chromatid now faces the pole
opposite that of its sister
chromatid.
FIGURE 5.6 Mitosis and cytokinesis in animal cells. Note that mitotic cells always have
an even number of chromosomes called the diploid number, although only three
individual chromosomes are shown here and in the diagrams of plant cells in Figure 5.9.
Image omitted due to copyright Image omitted due to copyright

restrictions. restrictions.
FIGURE 5.7 Mitosis in animal cells of the

whitefish embryo.
a) Prophase. Early in prophase the chromatin be- b) Metaphase. The metaphase chromosomes line
gins to condense. up on the metaphase plate at the equator of the
mitotic spindle. Asters and astral rays can be seen.

spindle fibres shortening
cleavage
furrow
nuclear
separating envelope
chromosome forming
ANAPHASE TELOPHASE AND COMPLETION OF

CYTOKINESIS CYTOKINESIS
Separation. Sister chromatids are Exit from mitosis. Chromosomes One cell becomes two.
moved to opposite poles in the decondense, the mitotic spindle The cell membrane pinches
cell by the disassembly of the breaks down, and nuclear envelopes together completely, the
microtubules they are attached form around the two separate membranes on either side fuse
to. Each chromatid is now a full- complements of chromosomes. together, and the one cell
fledged chromosome. Meanwhile, a cleavage furrow begins becomes two. These two cells
to form near the middle of the cell. now enter the G1 phase of
interphase.

c) Anaphase. The chromosomes separate to op- d) Telophase. Chromosomes are in two separate
posite poles of the mitotic spindle. complements. The mitotic spindle is breaking
down. The cleavage furrow is forming.

cell plate to form a new cell wall, two

daughter cells are produced.
After Mitosis
As a result of mitosis, one of each kind
of chromosome from the mother cell is
present in the nucleus of each daughter
cell. The cells of a multicellular organism
are formed through mitosis, so each cell
will have exactly the same number and
Image omitted due to copyright restrictions. kinds of chromosomes as those in every
other cell. If by some chance a cell should
receive an incorrect number of chro-
mosomes due to some malfunction in cell
division, the resulting cell would be
abnormal and might not survive.
How then can cells in the same or-
ganism have different forms and functions?
The process of differentiation is
responsible for differences among cells.
This process is studied in the fields of de-
velopmental biology and developmental
FIGURE 5.8 A dividing frog egg. In animal cells cytokinesis begins with the genetics. Scientists in these fields inves-
formation of a cleavage furrow. tigate how some genes are turned on in
cells in one location in an organism,
In plant cells, cytokinesis is accom- while remaining inactive in cells in other
plished by the formation of a cell plate parts of the same organism. For exam-
across the equator of the cell (Figure ple, enzymes specific to liver cells are dif-
5.9). Cell plate formation begins in late ferent from those specific to muscle cells.
anaphase. As cellulose is added to the Mitosis takes place in the cells we call
CYTOKINESIS IN PLANTS
cell wall
two
vesicles daughter
cell plate cells
plasma
membrane
Membrane-lined vesicles Vesicles fuse together, The newly formed plasma

accumulate near the forming a cell plate that membrane and cell wall
metaphase plate. The grows toward the parent fuse with the parent plasma
vesicles contain precursors cell wall. membrane and cell wall,
to the cell wall. forming two distinct
daughter cells.
FIGURE 5.9 Plant cells complete cytokinesis by building a cell wall between the daughter cells.

cell wall
FIGURE 5.10 Mitosis in plant cells of the hyacinth
a) Prophase. By middle to late b) Metaphase. Chromosomes c) Anaphase. Chromosomes sep- d) Telophase. Chromosomes are
prophase the chromosomes are are lined up at the equator of the arate to the opposite poles of the in two separate complements.
condensing. The nuclear envelope cell. Asters are not present. cell.
has broken down.
when he received the Gairdner operation of the immune system.

Award (Canadian) and then again in Their findings have been published
1998 when he received the Lasker in the British journal Nature. The
Award (American). His contributions immune response to an infection
Molecular Switches to the field of biomedicine are seen must be controlled or cells may con-
Control Cell Activity as a major step forward in our at- tinue to grow, producing a tumour.
tempt to battle cancer. As a profes- Alternatively this overreaction may
sor emeritus at the University of cause autoimmune diseases like dia-
Yoshio Masui spent over 30 years iso- Toronto, Dr Masui remains actively betes or multiple sclerosis. The pro-
lating and studying factors in the cell engaged in research. tein named CD45 found on the
that control the cell cycle and trigger Toronto researchers Josef surface of white blood cells is one of
cell division. Dr. Masui, along with Penninger, an immunologist at the the important “off” switches for the
the many students that he worked Ontario Cancer Institute, and Peter immune system. Studies with CD45
with at the University of Toronto, de- Liu, a cardiologist at Toronto General will increase understanding of the
signed equipment and techniques to Hospital, have discovered a protein mechanism of controlling the im-
pursue their studies and stretch a that plays a critical role in the mune response.
limited budget. They were able to
identify two key proteins in the cyto-
plasm of the cell that control the pro-
cess of cell division in all organisms.
One of these, the maturation pro-
moting factor (MPF), initiates cell di-
vision. The second key protein, the
Image omitted due to Image omitted due to
cytostatic factor (CSF), stopped cell
copyright restrictions. copyright restrictions.
division. The role of each of these
chemicals was identified using
Masui’s own microinjection technique
to transfer controlled amounts of
each factor into cells under study. The
a) b)
contributions of his research to the
understanding of the regulation of cell FIGURE 5.11 a) Dr. Yoshio Masui b) Dr. Josef Penninger and his colleague
division were recognized in 1992 Dr. Takehiko Sasaki prepare an extract.

WORD ORIGIN somatic cells, that is, all cells of the body Mitosis and the
apart from the reproductive cells. Each Treatment of Cancer
Karyotype from the Greek, type of organism has a characteristic
karyon, meaning “ a nut, Cancer is a group of diseases that are
number of chromosomes present in each
kernel, or nucleus” and tupos, characterized by abnormal cell division.
meaning “a stamp, a model or of its somatic cells. Fruit flies have 8
Researchers have gained a great deal of
a pattern.” chromosomes, pea plants 14, goldfish
information about cancer cells through
94, and humans 46. Simpler organ-
extensive experimentation and data col-
isms do not necessarily have a lower
lection. Cancer cells are different from
number of chromosomes. This num-
normal cells in two fundamental ways.
ber, indicating a complete set of chro-
WEBLINK First, they are dividing out of control.
mosomes, is termed the diploid number.
This uncontrolled division produces
As mitosis occurs in human cells, a
Find out how the mitotic many “wild” cells with unusual charac-
division of cancer cells is mother cell with 46 chromosomes will
teristics. These wild cells may be very
abnormal. Research the produce 2 identical daughter cells, each
large, very small, have huge nuclei, or
various forms of cancer treat- having 46 chromosomes. The total
ment to determine how they contain an abnormal number of
chromosome complement, that is, the
are directed at this abnormal chromosomes. Thus, cells from a cancer
number and form of the chromosomes
cell division in cancer cells. patient have a unique appearance. Often
Identify the success rate of for any cell, makes up its karyotype.
this appearance can be useful in distin-
different methods of treating
guishing between the various forms of
various forms of cancer.
Begin your research at: cancer. The second unusual feature of
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11 these cells is that they continue to divide
and pile up on one another. This lack
of inhibition combined with rapid divi-
sion often produces an abnormal lump
Image omitted due to copyright of cells called a tumour. Fortunately, not
restrictions. all tumours are cancerous. If a tumour
FIGURE 5.12 These cells
are cancer cells from a skin shows no tendency to spread, it is
tumour. They are being grown termed benign. However, if a tumour
for study in the laboratory. is capable of spreading, it is termed
The highlighted cell is under- malignant. A malignant tumour is
going cell division.
dangerous and capable of metastasis,
moving through the body to invade new
tissues. It is these metastatic growths
Discovering Biology Mitosis in Onions that are ultimately life-threatening.
Several forms of treatment, other
The growing tip of an onion root is active in mitosis. than surgery, take advantage of the
1. Obtain a microscope slide of an onion root tip from your knowledge of abnormal cell division in
teacher. cancerous tissue. Rapidly dividing
2. Use a microscope to focus (on high power) on a cell that cancerous cells are very susceptible to
was caught in metaphase when the slide was prepared. any factor that may upset DNA synthe-
Manipulate your slide so that this metaphase cell is in the cen- sis during replication in the S phase, or
tre of your field of vision (or at the tip of the eyepiece pointer upset the actual mitotic process.
if your microscope has one). Radiation therapy can be directed at
3. Have your teacher check that you have located a cell in specific sites in the body to kill cancer
metaphase. cells by upsetting the mitotic process.
Chromosomes in irradiated cells do not
4. Examine a microscope slide of an onion root that has been
line up on the metaphase plate properly,
treated with colchicine. Colchicine prevents the formation of
or, in anaphase, migration of chromo-
the mitotic spindle so the chromosomes lie free in the cell.
somes does not take place. The daugh-
Compare the appearance of the chromosomes in the
ter cells that are produced often have too
treated and untreated cells.
much or too little genetic information,
What is the diploid number of the onion?
and die as a result. Radiation therapy
thus disrupts cell division. Contd. p.130.
Defining the Issue
Case Study
The Demand for Human Justifying the Course of Action
Tissue
Advances in biotechnology have created a global

demand for practically every component of the
human body including blood, brain tissue, bone sam-
ples, saliva, sperm, eggs, skin, and DNA. These items
are in high demand by academic institutions,
government research labs, and biotechnology
companies.
Some people feel that the human body is sacred
and should not be put up for sale. Doing so reduces
us to mere objects, commodities, or products. Other
people argue that body parts are a natural asset that Image omitted due to copyright restrictions.
individuals should be free to do with as they please.
Advances in the biomedical industry are also
raising questions about ownership. A few years ago
a man sued his doctor and several pharmaceutical
companies for using his blood and tissue samples
without his consent. The samples were used to
create a commercial cell product now estimated to
be worth billions of dollars. The man lost the case
because the court felt that people should not own
the rights to their own tissues because this might
hinder medical progress.
Source: Discover, February 2001 Volume 22, Number 2 FIGURE 5.13 Human blood products today have a price tag.
Analyzing the Issue

1. Prepare a consequence map, using the following cate- 3. What could some of the future social and economic im-
gories: scientific, social, economic, political, ethical, and pacts of marketing human tissue be?
any additional categories that you feel should be 4. Write a position paper to defend your own point of view
considered. on this issue. Use research, as well as your own be-
2. Research the ethical and cultural perspectives that in- liefs, to support your opinion.
fluence points of view on this issue. Explain how they
affect public opinion and government policy.

INFOBIT Chemotherapy involves the use of More recently, techniques of

a wide range of drugs. Once injected, immunotherapy use the body’s own
It is estimated that there were these drugs affect the whole body and immune defences to treat cancer. The
approximately 132 100 new all actively dividing cells, not just the use of chemicals produced naturally in
cases of cancer and 65 000
deaths from cancer in Canada cancerous cells. The majority of these the immune response may someday
in the year 2000. Men drugs are effective because they disrupt replace the chemicals traditionally used
outnumbered women for both DNA replication and eliminate the in chemotherapy.
new cases (67 900 versus 64 cancer cells’ mitotic ability. Many Doctors and researchers are
200) and deaths (34 600 versus chemotherapy patients lose their hair becoming more optimistic about the
30 400). Three types of cancer
accounted for at least 50% of because normal, actively-dividing hair chances of a cure for cancer as they
these new cases in each sex: follicles are affected by the drugs. Cell come to better understand the disease.
prostate, lung, and colorectal division stops in the hair follicles. The In addition, with early diagnosis and
cancers in males, and breast, dead cells produced in chemotherapy improved treatment, cancer diseases are
lung, and colorectal cancers in degenerate and their compounds are being dealt with at earlier stages. As a
females. Almost one-third of
the cancer deaths in men and eventually reutilized by the body. result, a higher cure rate has been
almost one-quarter of the attained with many types of cancer.
cancer deaths in women were
due to lung cancer.
Section 5.1 Review

Understanding Concepts become exaggerated in order to carry
out a specific function in nerve cells or
1. Why is mitosis necessary? How does muscle cells, for instance. There is a
it contribute to genetic continuity? negative aspect (in terms of the abili-
2. Describe the stages in the cell cycle. ties of the cell) when this type of spe-
3. In a flow chart summarize the events cialization takes place. What drawback
that occur in each of the four stages of is there when a cell undergoes differ-
mitosis. Include drawings and text. entiation to become part of a tissue?
4. Use a T-chart to contrast mitosis and 8. The rate of cell division varies in the
cytokinesis in plant and animal cells. human body, depending on the loca-
tion of the tissue type considered.
5. If chromosomes do not divide prop-
Suggest locations in the human body
erly during mitosis, the daughter cells
where the rate of cell division would
can end up with an abnormal number
be high and others where it would be
of chromosomes (some number other
low. Support your suggestions with
than the diploid number). Hypothesize
evidence.
the effect of the abnormal number of
chromosomes on the functioning of the
daughter cell. Put forward evidence to Making Connections
support your hypothesis.
9. Research immunotherapy using a va-
6. Colchicine prevents the formation of riety of print and electronic resources.
the mitotic spindle in dividing cells. Explain the proposed advantages of
What effect would this drug have on this form of cancer therapy. Based on
mitosis? Support your answer. your research, do you believe that
immunotherapy will be a beneficial
Applying Inquiry/ treatment. Why? Why not?
Communication Skills 10. A knowledge of cell division and the
controls determining the rate of cell di-
7. Mitosis ensures that all cells in a mul- vision may be important in our under-
ticellular organism contain a complete standing of the ageing process. Should
set of genetic instructions. Many types society pursue this type of research in
of differentiated cells that are part of a an effort to lengthen the human life
tissue exist in these organisms. span? Write a supported opinion.
Research the ways that parts of a cell

5.2 Meiosis
Key Understandings
explain the need for meiosis in organisms that reproduce sexually
explain the importance of chromosome number and structure
describe the key events of meiosis
distinguish between the formation of egg cells, and sperm cells
compare mitosis to meiosis
Mitosis ensures genetic continuity of cells called the paternal set of chromosomes.
within any multicellular organism. The Each of the homologous chromo-
specific chromosome number charac- somes (homologs) carries information for
teristic of the species is maintained by the same hereditary traits as its partner.
mitotic division which ensures every cell The information for any specific trait is
within the organism has the same chro- in the form of a gene, a hereditary unit
mosome number. The general body cells which is, a length of DNA. Each gene has
are called somatic cells. When special sex a particular position or locus (plural loci)
cells or gametes unite in sexual repro- on a chromosome and the two chromo-
duction the number of chromosomes is somes of a homologous pair carry genes
crucial. If two body cells with a full com- for the same trait at the same locus.
plement of chromosomes were allowed to The genes for a specific trait are not
unite, each new organism in each new necessarily identical. For example, if a
generation would have twice the number gene on one homolog codes for attached
of chromosomes its parents had. Because earlobes, the gene on the other homolog
each species has a specific number of at the same locus may code for free ear-
chromosomes, a new kind of life form lobes. The different forms of the same
would result, if it were to develop at all. gene are called alleles. The earlobes of
To prevent this type of doubling from the individual involved will result from
occurring in sexual reproduction, a divi- the interaction of the alleles present on
sion process other than mitosis is needed. the homologs.
This division process is meiosis. A com- Each homologous pair of chromo-
parison of the processes of mitosis and somes carries genetic information for
meiosis is given on page 142, Table 5.2. thousands of hereditary traits. Mitotic
cells, specially treated so that the
metaphase chromosomes do not sepa-
Chromosome Number and
rate, allow us to identify the pairs of
Structure homologous chromosomes. Pairs are
Human somatic cells contain 46 chro-
mosomes. This is termed the diploid FIGURE 5.14
number and is designated 2n. The 46 a) A person with
attached earlobes
chromosomes are not actually 46 dis- b) A person with free
tinctively different units. They are ar- earlobes
ranged in 23 pairs of homologous
chromosomes. One chromosome of each Image omitted due to Image omitted due to
pair came from the individual’s mother copyright restrictions. copyright restrictions.
and the other came from the individual’s
father. The 23 chromosomes that came
from the mother are called the maternal
set of chromosomes and the 23 chro- a) b)
mosomes that came from the father are
FIGURE 5.15 Homologous

attached attached free free
chromosomes. Homologous earlobes earlobes earlobes earlobes
chromosomes are the same
size and shape. They carry
information for many traits.
These chromosomes are
double-stranded, as in a centromere
colchicine metaphase prepa-
chromatid
ration. The chromatids of each
double-stranded chromosome blond blond blond blond
carry identical information. hair hair hair hair
The other homolog has infor-
mation for the same traits at sister chromatids
the same gene loci. The ho-
mologous chromosomes may
carry different alleles of the
gene at a particular locus: for matched by their length, centromere po- a single diploid cell called the zygote, the
example, at the earlobe locus
sition, and the patterns of banding that first cell of the new organism. This
shown here.
result from staining the chromosomes. zygote is now capable of mitosis and
Figure 5.15 shows the characteristics of differentiation. In this new organism, one
homologous chromosomes in a colchicine homolog of each pair of homologous
metaphase preparation. chromosomes came from the father and
The process of meiosis produces the other from the mother. Each human
gametes that contain one of each of the cell contains 23 paternal chromosomes
homologous pairs of chromosomes. The and 23 maternal chromosomes.
number of chromosomes in each gamete
is one-half of the diploid number. This is
Stages of Meiosis
called the haploid number, designated
n. In humans n is 23. When fertilization Meiosis ensures that sex cells have the
occurs in sexual reproduction in humans, right type (one of each homologous pair)
two haploid gametes, the egg or ovum and number (haploid) of chromosomes.
(female) and sperm (male), join to make As a result, when the gametes come
together in fertilization, the zygote will
receive the right type and number of
chromosomes. Meiosis occurs only in the
reproductive tissues of sexually repro-
1n
meiosis ducing organisms. In humans, sperm are
produced by special cells called sper-
matogonia in the male testes, while eggs
multicellular
diploid
egg are produced in the oogonia in the
adults sperm female ovaries. In plants pollen and
fertilization
ovules are produced.
2n Mitosis consists of a single division
of the nucleus. Meiosis is characterized
mitosis and by two major divisions, called meiosis I
zygote
development and meiosis II. Each division is further
subdivided into prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase. Meiosis I and
meiosis II show some similarities to mi-
tosis but also have some unique features.
haploid (1n)
diploid (2n) Study Figure 5.18 as you read the de-
scription of meiosis. The diploid number
for the hypothetical organism shown in
FIGURE 5.16 The human life cycle. The dia-
gram relates the roles of meiosis and mitosis in Figure 5.18 is 4. Compare this number
our life cycle. The diploid phase is shaded blue. with the diploid number of 46 in humans.

First Meiotic Division (Meiosis I) The Plant cells and yeast do not have cen- Investigation
genetic material has been synthesized trioles as part of their division spindles.
Refer to page 147,
in the S phase before meiosis In late prophase I, the tetrads move Investigation 1
(pre-meiotic S). This is a similarity to toward the equator of the cell.
mitosis where, the chromosomes repli- As metaphase I begins, the tetrads
cate prior to prophase. In prophase I of (homologous pairs) move onto the spin-
meiosis, the chromosomes begin to con- dle and line up with their centromeres
dense and shorten and become visible. at an equal distance from the equator of
Homologous chromosomes come the spindle. Anaphase I now begins. In
together in a process termed synapsis, mitosis, the chromatids of a single chro-
so that they lie side by side along their mosome move apart at this point. In
entire length. When the homologs come meiosis, the chromatids do not separate
together, they often break and rejoin at in meiosis I. Instead, the homologous
several places. As the chromosomes pairs move apart as they separate, with
shorten and thicken, it can be seen one chromosome going to each pole.
that the replicated chromosomes are During telophase I, the chromosomes
composed of two identical chromatids condense slightly and a nuclear mem-
joined by a centromere. The unit formed brane may form. At the end of the first
by each homologous pair of chromo- division of meiosis, there are two daugh-
somes now consists of four chromatids ter cells, each with exactly half the num-
and is called a tetrad. The points where ber of chromosomes of the parent cell.
chromatids break and reunite are called As a result, meiosis I is often called the
chiasmata. Breakage and reunion al- reduction division because the number
lows chromosomes to exchange genetic of chromosomes has been reduced by
material. This process is known as ge- half: from 2n to n or, in the example
netic recombination or crossing over shown in Figure 5.18, from four chro-
because at the point of recombination, mosomes to two.
the genetic material on the chromosome
crosses from one homolog to the other. Second Meiotic Division (Meiosis II) In
This process allows for greater genetic most organisms, the interphase after
variation in a population of a species meiosis I is very brief, while in some it
because it recombines genes in new is totally lacking. There is no duplication
combinations. (See Figure 5.17.) of chromosomes in the interphase
The activities in the rest of the cell between meiotic divisions. The second
at this time are similar to those during meiotic division may be similar to mito-
mitosis. The nuclear membrane and nu- sis, but it begins with half the genetic
cleoli have disappeared, and in animal material of mitotic cells. Each cell has
cells the centrioles have migrated to the the n number of double-chromatid chro-
poles to produce the asters and spindle. mosomes. When the spindle forms at the
end of prophase II, each chromosome,
2 chromatids made up of two chromatids, lines up on
tetrad the equator. The centromeres split and
a chiasma one chromatid of each chromosome is
pulled to each of the opposite poles of
the cell. The number of chromosomes
per cell remains the same. In telophase,
the nuclear membrane begins to reform
as the meiotic process nears completion.
Each of the cells produced will contain
the haploid number of chromosomes. As
FIGURE 5.17 Chiasmata visible in the first divi- a result of meiosis, one diploid cell can
sion of meiosis in the grasshopper. The tetrad is produce four haploid cells.
composed of four chromatids.

MEIOSIS I
Diploid
END OF PROPHASE I METAPHASE I ANAPHASE I

INTERPHASE
Homologous Microtubules
DNA has already chromosomes move homologous Microtubules
duplicated link as they chromosomes separate homologous
condense, forming to metaphase plate. chromosomes
tetrads. (sister chromatids
Crossing over Independent remain together).
occurs. assortment
occurs.
Two very important

sources of genetic
CROSSING OVER variation
Exchange of parts of non-sister chromatids.
duplicated
duplicated paternal
maternal chromosome
chromosome
tetrad
sister
chromatids
non-sister
chromatids
FIGURE 5.18 Stages of meiosis

MEIOSIS II
Haploid
cytokinesis
cytokinesis
TELOPHASE I PROPHASE II METAPHASE II
Two haploid (Brief) Sister chromatids

daughter cells line up at new
result from metaphase plate. ANAPHASE II
cytokinesis. TELOPHASE II
Sister chromatids
separate. Four haploid
cells result.
INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT
Random alignment of METAPHASE I METAPHASE II TELOPHASE II
maternal/paternal
chromosomes at the
metaphase plate.
Homologous chromosomes
lined up this way in this
meiosis ...
... but they could have

lined up this way, yielding
a different outcome.

WEBLINK Random Assortment of probability. Others may receive a mixture

Chromosomes of maternal and paternal chromosomes.
The number of different possible kinds of
During the separation of the double-
gametes produced by random assortment
To view a simulation of meiosis, stranded chromosomes at anaphase I of
go to of chromosomes is 2n where n is the hap-
meiosis, there is no necessity for chro-
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11. loid number of chromosomes in the or-
mosomes that came from the father (the
ganism. How many possible different
paternal set) to stay together or for chro-
gametes can you get from meiosis when
mosomes that came from the mother
2n = 46?
(the maternal set) to stay together.
Meiosis is therefore an important
In other words, there is random
source of genetic variability. There are
assortment of the chromosomes (Figure
two ways that meiosis produces vari-
5.19). Some gametes may receive all
ability. The first way is through random
paternal chromosomes. Some may
assortment of chromosomes. Because
receive all maternal chromosomes.
maternal and paternal sets of chromo-
These results are unlikely according to
somes do not need to stay together, an
organism with a diploid number of 10,
that is, 5 pairs of chromosomes, can pro-
duce 25 or 32 different combinations of
chromosomes. Any one of these 32
different combinations in an egg could
come together with any one of the 32
possible combinations in a sperm. What
are the total possible combinations for
that species, depending on random
assortment alone?
The second way that meiosis pro-
duces variability is from crossing over
or genetic recombination as a result of
breakage and reunion of chromatids
during prophase of meiosis I. Genetic re-
combination from breakage and reunion
meiosis
may occur at different points along the
chromosomes, and so each chiasma will
affect different genes. The number of
possible gene combinations that result
from genetic recombination is extremely
large, and that is in addition to the va-
riety of combinations resulting from ran-
FIGURE 5.19 Random assortment of chromosomes in organism with 2n = 6 dom assortment of chromosomes. This
enormous potential variability explains
why some siblings may look very much
Discovering Biology alike while others in the same family
look very different.
Random Assortment of Chromosomes
During meiosis chromosomes assort randomly. Model random Sperm and Egg Cells
assortment of chromosomes during meiosis in an organism with At the end of meiosis in male animals,
2n = 8. Use modelling clay, pipe cleaners, strips of different-
four functional cells called spermatids
coloured paper, or materials of your choice. Make the four
are produced. These spermatids then
chromosome pairs different lengths and use a different colour for
maternal and paternal sets. Demonstrate the different possible undergo differentiation to become sperm
combinations of chromosomes in gametes. cells. Sperm cells are characterized by
having a head (containing the nucleus),

a tail (flagellum) for movement, and a FIGURE 5.20 Hundreds of

middle piece containing mitochondria sperm cells are attempting to
fertilize this single egg cell. The
that provide energy for the beating of
relative size of the two sex cell
the tail. The sperm of various species types is clearly illustrated.
are quite different. However, they are Image omitted due to copyright
always quite small relative to the female restrictions.
gamete as seen in Figure 5.20.
The nuclear events in the produc-
tion of the female gamete, tetrad for-
mation, crossing over, anaphase I and
anaphase II separations, are exactly the
same as those occurring in the male, but
the events in the cytoplasm are differ-
ent. In meiosis I in the female, the divi-
sion of the cytoplasm is unequal,
producing one large cell (a secondary
oocyte) containing nearly all the nutri-
ents and cytoplasm, and one small cell Image omitted due to Image omitted due to
(the first polar body) containing only the
nucleus. In meiosis II, the secondary
oocyte divides unequally once again. One
large ovum or egg, and a second, small,
polar body result. The first polar body
a) b)
may divide, but usually it simply deteri-
orates. At the end of meiosis in the FIGURE 5.21 The second division of meiosis in the egg of a marine worm.
female animal, only one functional egg a) Metaphase II as seen from the pole of the spindle
is produced in contrast to the four sperm b) Anaphase II. The first polar body can be seen.
cells produced in the male. The unequal
cytoplasmic divisions ensure that the
mature egg will have enough cytoplasm
and nutrients to support development of Figure 5.22 on the next page for the dif-
the zygote following fertilization. See ferences in gamete formation in animals.
donors and their family histories are said that the majority of the sperm
carefully recorded. Usually the sperm came from professionals and young
of a male who is similar in charac- scientists. The repository was
teristics to the sterile male is used. clouded in secrecy and rumour until
Sperm Banks In this way the child may possess it closed in 1999. It claimed to be re-
characteristics similar to both mem- sponsible for the birth of 229 chil-
Reproductive technologies pose eth- bers of the couple. Some geneticists dren spread across 7 countries.
ical, moral, and legal questions for have expressed concern that if many Graham was criticized extensively by
individuals, as well as society as a children are conceived in this way, it the genetic community for his attempt
whole. For example, the use of is possible that two individuals who to produce so-called “genius babies”
sperm banks is a controversial issue. are genetically related might un- or “designer babies.” Geneticists
Couples who are unable to con- knowingly marry and produce viewed this as unacceptable inter-
ceive because the male is infertile children. ference in the characteristics of the
may consider obtaining donor sperm In a highly controversial case in next generation.
from a sperm bank. In such cases, the late 1970s, Robert K. Graham Reproductive technologies are a
offspring will receive 50% of their opened the Repository for Germinal matter for societal consideration, re-
genetic make-up from the mother Choice, a sperm bank Graham quiring the thoughtful attention of sci-
and 50% from the sperm donor. claimed had Nobel Prize Winner entists, ethicists, religious leaders,
Genetic information about sperm sperm for sale. Eventually, Graham and individual citizens.

SPERMATOGENESIS OOGENESIS
spermatogonium oogonium
primary primary
spermatocyte oocyte
meiosis I
polar secondary
secondary body oocyte
spermatocytes
meiosis II
spermatids
polar bodies
(will be degraded) egg
a) b)
FIGURE 5.22 Gamete formation in animals. In sperm formation diploid

spermatogonia divide by mitosis to produce primary spermatocytes that pass
through meiosis to produce four spermatids. In egg formation oogonia divide by
mitosis to produce primary oocytes that pass through meiosis to form one egg
and two or three polar bodies. Sperm and egg cells both have the haploid number
of chromosomes. Four functional sperm result from meiosis in the male while only
one functional ovum results from meiosis in the female.

Discovering Biology Chromosome Numbers
Complete the table to show the number of chromosomes present in different

stages of cell division in a variety of species.
TABLE 5.1 Number of Chromosomes Present at Different Stages of Cell Division
Number of Diploid Haploid Number of Number of Chromosomes Present in Meiosis

Chromosomes Number Number Pairs of at Beginning of Each Phase
in Daughter Homologous
Cells of Mitosis Chromosomes Prophase I Prophase II Telophase II
Cabbage 18 18 9 9 18 9 9
Trillium 5
Black Bear 38
Human 23
Fruit fly 8
Peanut 40
have the correct number of chromo-

Mistakes in Meiosis somes, but the genetic information may
Meiosis is an elegant process but in any be altered or the chromosomes may
organism errors in meiosis sometimes contain duplications or deletions of
occur. These errors may be the result of genetic material.
mistakes in separation of the chromo-
somes during division or of an incorrect Abnormal Chromosome Number
exchange of genetic information during Aneuploidy is caused by a mistake in the
chiasma formation. Many genetic dis- meiotic process known as nondisjunc-
orders in humans can be traced back to tion. If the homologous chromosomes
errors in the formation of the gametes in fail to move apart properly during
meiosis. Mistakes in meiosis can result meiosis I, or the sister chromatids do not
in an abnormal number of chromosomes separate during meiosis II, the resulting
in an egg or sperm cell. If this egg or gametes will have either extra or miss-
sperm is then involved in fertilization, the ing chromosomes. If fertilization involves
zygote will exhibit an abnormal number a sex cell that is missing a chromosome,
of chromosomes. The child produced the resulting child will have only one
from this zygote (following mitosis and copy of a particular chromosome, a
differentiation) will have cells with too condition known as monosomy. If
few or too many chromosomes, a fertilization involves a sex cell that has
condition known as aneuploidy. Down an extra chromosome, the resulting child
syndrome is an example of aneuploidy. will have three copies of a particular
In another abnormality, chromo- chromosome, a condition known as
somes exchange information incorrectly polysomy. In either case, if the child
during the crossing-over process of survives, he or she will show effects
meiosis. The resulting sex cells, and associated with the genetic information
ultimately the fetus produced from carried on the chromosome involved in
fertilization involving these cells, will the aneuploidy. Down syndrome is a type

of polysomy that results from an extra However, polyploidy does occur more
chromosome 21 (trisomy 21). This frequently in plants.
condition and several other numerical In the early years of the twentieth
abnormalities are described in Chapter century the geneticist Hugo de Vries was
Image omitted due to 7. The effects of nondisjunction in the studying the evening primrose Oenothera
copyright restrictions. meiotic process are illustrated in Figure lamarkiana. de Vries discovered the
5.24. possibility of polyploidy in plants. In
In a more severe disruption of the autopolyploidy, nondisjunction during
meiotic process, an abnormal male or meiosis results in gametes that are diploid.
female gamete produced from the nondis- Self-fertilization produces a tetraploid
FIGURE 5.23 deVries in his junction of all of its chromosomes may (4n) offspring. Such offspring can self-fer-
genetic garden unite with a haploid gamete to produce a tilize or mate with other tetraploids to pro-
zygote with three sets of chromosomes duce viable offspring (offspring that
(69 in humans). This zygote has a chro- survive to maturity).
mosomal alteration known as polyploidy. If the tetraploid mates with the orig-
In this case the zygote produced would inal (2n) species the combination of an n
be described as triploid or 3n. Accidents gamete with a 2n gamete results in a
Investigation of this sort are extremely rare in the triploid organism. This organism may be
Refer to page 148,
animal world because the zygote usually viable but is not fertile. It cannot produce
Investigation 2 doesn’t complete its development. normal gametes.
FIGURE 5.24
Nondisjunction results
in an abnormal
chromosome number.
Nondisjunction, the
abnormal separation of
chromosomes, can nondisjunction normal
in meiosis I meiosis I
occur in either meiosis I
or meiosis II. If
nondisjunction happens
in meiosis I all the
gametes will be
abnormal in number.
If it happens in meiosis
II, only half of the
gametes will be
abnormal in number.
normal nondisjunction
meiosis II in meiosis II
gametes
24 24 22 22 23 23 22 24
abnormal number of normal abnormal number

chromosomes 50% of chromosomes
100% 50%

The original diploid form and the attaches to a nonhomologous chromo- INFOBIT
new tetraploid form can co-exist but they some producing a translocation. If
cannot produce fertile offspring. fertilization involves a gamete that has Canadian wheat. Our common
Therefore they are different species. As one of these alterations, the child bread wheat, Triticum aestivum
is an example of polyploidy
a result of the original nondisjunction, a produced may exhibit a wide range of resulting from a cross of
new species has been formed. This sit- symptoms depending on the severity of T. monococcum (goat grass –
uation is called sympatric speciation. the genetic alteration and the specific with a diploid number of 14)
genetic information involved. Figure 5.25 and T. dicoccon (Emmer wheat
Abnormal Chromosome Structure illustrates each of these alterations to – with a diploid number of 28).
This cross produces bread
Sometimes during the crossing-over pro- chromosomal structure. wheat with a
cess that occurs during meiosis I, the chromosome number of 42.
pieces of genetic information that are ex- This variety of wheat exhibits
Meiosis versus Mitosis large kernels and produces
changed do not reattach properly to the
chromosomes involved. A deletion Mitosis and meiosis are different. Mitosis excellent pasta and stock feed.
occurs if a chromosome fragment fails is essential for the development and
to reattach to the homolog and is some- maintenance of each individual. Meiosis
how lost. If this segment reattaches to a is essential for gamete production and
WORDORIGIN
complete homolog, then the resulting the continuation of the species into the
chromosome will have a duplication. If next generation. They are similar in that Sympatry from the Greek Sun
this segment reattaches to the correct DNA is replicated, a division spindle is meaning “together” and
homolog but in the reverse order, then required, and different phases are ob- patria meaning “father land”:
the chromosome is said to have an refers to species that co-exist
served. The processes are summarized
but cannot produce fertile
inversion. In the fourth type of incorrect in Table 5.2. offspring.
reattachment, the segment of DNA
normal chromosomes FIGURE 5.25 Alterations

caused by improper crossing
A B C D V W X Y Z over. The colours indicate the
regions involved in the im-
proper rearrangement of chro-
A B C D V W X Y Z mosomes. The letters
represent the location and se-
quence of genes along the
duplication deletion
chromosome.
A B C D V W X X Y Z A B C D V W Y Z a) a duplication causes the
repetition of a segment.
b) a deletion causes the
A B C D V W X Y Z A B C D V W X Y removal of a segment.
Z
c) an inversion reverses the
proper sequence of the
inversion translocation
genetic information.
A B C D V W Z Y X A B X Y Z V W C D d) a translocation moves a
segment from one chromo-
some to a nonhomologous
one.
A B C D V W X Y Z A B C D V W X Y Z

Mitosis Meiosis
Function of Process · ensures genetic continuity within the individual · ensures genetic continuity from one generation to
from cell to cell the next for a given species
· for growth, repair, and maintenance · to prevent the doubling of chromosome number
from one generation to the next
Location of Process · in all body (somatic) cells, with the exception of · only in the reproductive organs in designated cell
reproductive organs
Number of Divisions · 1 division · 2 successive divisions
Meiosis I – reduction division
Meiosis II – similar to mitosis
Number of Cells · 2 identical daughter cells · male – 4 functional sperm cells
Produced in Animals · female – 1 functional egg cell or ovum (in humans,
for example)
Number of · diploid number – 2n · haploid number – n
Chromosomes per Cell · 46 in humans · 23 in humans
at End of Process
TABLE 5.2 Comparison of

the processes of Mitosis and
Section 5.2 Review
Meiosis
1. In your own words, outline the process
of meiosis. 11. A diploid cell contains 4 pairs of chro-
2. Why are the number and shape of mosomes designated #1, #2, and #3
chromosomes important to a species? #4. Each pair contains a paternal and
maternal chromosome (1p and 1m, 2p
3. How are homologous chromosomes the
and 2m, 3p and 3m, 4p and 4m).
same? different?
Illustrate the possible combinations
4. Explain the origin of each homolog of chromosomes that could be observed
within any given homologous pair of in the haploid gametes resulting from
chromosomes. meiosis in this cell. Use a diagram and
5. Meiosis has an essential role in or- a table.
ganisms that reproduce sexually. 12. An organism has a diploid number of
Explain. 10. Calculate the probability that
6. Make a diagram of the human life cycle a gamete will contain five paternal
to demonstrate the relationships chromosomes.
between the terms “diploid” and “hap-
loid” and the processes of meiosis,
mitosis, and fertilization.
Making Connections
7. Briefly outline the events of the first 13. Geneticists can intentionally disrupt the
and second meiotic divisions. Why is meiotic process in plants and animals
the first meiotic division described as to produce new mutations or abnormal
reduction division? How is the second chromosome numbers in the sex cells
meiotic division similar to the mitotic of these organisms. The intent is to
process? produce a new organism that possesses
a new desirable combination of traits.
8. Compare and contrast the production
Should scientists be tampering with life
of gametes in female and male animals.
in this manner? Should consideration
9. Describe the disruption in the meiotic be given to the type of organism that
process that would cause: undergoes this manipulation? In para-
a) aneuploidy b) polyploidy c) a dele- graph form outline two advantages and
tion d) a translocation. two disadvantages that could result
10. Write a paragraph to highlight the sim- from this type of research. Support
ilarities and differences between your statements with research.
mitosis and meiosis.

5.3 Sexual versus Asexual Reproduction

Key Understandings
explain how genetic continuity is maintained in asexual reproduction
describe several different methods of asexual reproduction
explain the importance of genetic recombination and the necessity of meiosis
describe the advantages and disadvantages of asexual and sexual reproduction
fertilization occurs in sexual reproduc-

Asexual Reproduction and
tion, a diploid zygote results. This zygote
Genetic Continuity contains all of the genetic information
In some organisms, one parent alone is required to produce an individual of the
capable of producing a new individual. species involved.
The hereditary information is transmit- Regardless of which organism we
ted from one generation to the next consider, if sexual reproduction is uti-
through a process termed asexual lized, two parents and two different
reproduction. The single parent may sex cells are required. Two gametes from
split, bud, or fragment to produce a new among the thousands possible come
individual. The genetic information in any together to form a unique offspring. As
new individuals will be identical to the a result, the offspring produced will con-
original parent (unless a chemical change tain a mixture of hereditary information
in the DNA, called a mutation, occurs). from both parents and will not look
As a result, asexual offspring will dis- exactly like either parent. The charac-
play traits very similar if not identical to teristic chromosome number and form
one another and to the original parent. for the species are maintained, but
Asexual reproduction may produce individuals produced in each successive
many offspring very rapidly; as an ex- generation will show variation. They will
treme example: if bacteria divide every not be exactly the same. Meiosis and
20 min, one bacterial cell could give rise sexual reproduction mean variation.
to more than 2 million bacteria in 7 h.
Genetic continuity is maintained in asex-
ual reproduction, but the chance of vari-
Sexual versus Asexual
ability is very low. Forms of asexual Reproduction
reproduction are reviewed in Table 5.3. Some organisms are capable of both sex-
ual and asexual reproduction. This is quite
common in the plant kingdom. Why do
Characteristics of Sexual
different organisms display two types of
Reproduction reproduction? Asexual reproduction in-
Meiosis produces haploid gametes con- volving one parent produces identical
taining one of each of the homologous copies (clones) in a relatively short time.
pairs of chromosomes. The products of This appears to be the easiest means of
meiosis are different from each other reproducing. Why don’t all living organ-
because of the random assortment of isms use this approach to reproduction?
chromosomes and also because of the Sexual reproduction requires a much
genetic recombination that occurs dur- greater amount of time and energy. Is the
ing prophase I. There are thousands of ability to produce offspring with genetic
possibilities for each gamete. When variation a significant advantage?

TABLE 5.3 Methods of Asexual Reproduction
Method of Organisms Description Illustration

Asexual Utilizing This
Reproduction Method
Binary Fission · Bacteria . Bacteria lack organelles for mitosis and the
bacterial chromosome remains attached to
the cell membrane. Under ideal conditions
occurs once every 20 min.
· Amoeba · Parent cell undergoes cell division to pro-
· Paramecium duce two new individuals.
· Parent organism is lost in process.
a) A micrograph of an Amoeba completing
binary fission.
Budding · Yeast · Nuclear material undergoes mitotic division

· Cytoplasm divides but smaller cell
(bud) remains attached to the larger cell
(parent).
· Bud will eventually separate from parent.
· Hydra · Budding begins as a bulge growing from the
parent.
· The multicellular bud eventually separates b) Budding in Hydra. The genetically identi-
from the parent. cal bud will eventually separate from the par-
ent Hydra to form a new individual.
Fragmentation · Flatworms · Body of parent breaks into several pieces.

· Sea stars · Each piece regenerates missing parts to pro-
duce a whole organism.
c) A sea star can regenerate a complete

organism from a piece of one arm.
Vegetative · Wide range of · New plant is formed from a piece of root,

propagation plants stem, or leaves of the parent plant.
d) In addition to sexual reproduction, a

Kalanchoe plant can produce complete small
plants along the edges of its leaves.
Spores · Ferns · Specialized spores contain genetic informa-

· Bread moulds tion inside of tough outer casings. They may
· Mushrooms be stored in spore cases, called sporangia,
until released.
· If a spore lands where conditions are
favourable the spore will grow into a new or-
ganism.
e) Sporangia containing spores on the back
of a fern leaf.

FIGURE 5.26 What advan-

tage might this human
population gain by having
such a wide variety among
its members?
The answers to these questions lie those they do produce are unique and
in a consideration of evolution and the may respond differently to different en-
environment. When the environment is vironmental conditions. If the environ-
not changing, asexual reproduction will ment changes, there is the possibility that
allow a well-adapted organism to rapidly at least some of the offspring may sur-
produce a new generation of similarly vive to thrive under the new conditions.
well-adapted organisms. But what if the Asexual organisms produce many
environment changes? Then the asex- identical offspring but they are all the
ual organism will have difficulty in same. Therefore an environmental
adapting to the changing environment. change that negatively affects one of the
When the environment changes, any offspring affects all the members of the
species that shows variation from one population in the same way. The whole
generation to the next will have a better population may be wiped out by one en-
chance of survival. Sexually produced vironmental change.
offspring are all slightly different. Some Sexual reproduction can still be
individuals may be better adapted to the risky. There is the problem of finding a
new conditions. They will live to per- mate. The risk that a mate may not be
petuate the species. Biologists say that found in a species whose members are
the species has undergone adaptation. at a low density means the risk that no
offspring will be produced. Also, parental
genes sometimes combine in ways that
A Theory of Sexual
are not beneficial. However, in sexual re-
Reproduction production, offspring can sometimes be
Many theories have been put forward at- better adapted to their environment than
tempting to account for the importance their parents are. If this is the case, the
of meiosis and the advantages of sexual offspring will most likely survive. In
reproduction. Success of a species is a terms of evolution and the survival of the
different thing from the life of an indi- species over time, it is the probability of
vidual of the species. Sexual organisms passing on genes to the next generation
may not produce many offspring but and the future that counts.

Image omitted due to copyright restrictions. Image omitted due to copyright restrictions.
a) Penguins b) Gannets
FIGURE 5.27 Populations and variability. These populations do not appear to have
a great deal of variety in external appearance. However, each individual is unique in
its combination of internal physiology and chemical makeup. What advantage might
these populations gain by maintaining diversity among their members?
Section 5.3 Review

1. Describe how genetic continuity is
maintained in asexual reproduction. 7. Horses have a diploid number of 64
2. Explain why individuals resulting from and donkeys have a diploid number of
any form of asexual reproduction are 62. Mules result from crossing a male
identical to the parent. donkey with a female horse. Mules are
usually sterile. How many chromo-
3. What general differences exist between
somes will a mule cell contain? If mules
sexual and asexual reproduction?
could be crossed with each other, what
Communicate your ideas in a graphic
chromosome problem would exist?
organizer.
Prepare a diagram of the diploid state
4. Outline the process of genetic recom- of the two animals, the make-up of any
bination and describe the outcome of gametes formed, and the chromosome
this process. problems found in the mule.
5. Make a list of environmental conditions
that would benefit:
Making Connections
a) organisms that reproduce
sexually. 8. Reproductive technologies are becom-
b) organisms that reproduce ing more common in today’s society.
asexually List the ethical issues raised by the use
of these technologies. Propose an ar-
6. Define the term “adaptation.” Describe
gument for and against the use of re-
how sexual organisms adapt.
productive technologies. Write an
argued, supported paragraph that ex-
presses your point of view.
9. “Couples who have the potential to pro-
duce a child with a serious genetic de-
fect should be discouraged from having
children.” Do you agree or disagree
with this statement? Present your an-
swer as a supported opinion.

Inquiry Skills


Observing Cells in the Process of Meiosis
Cells undergoing meiosis can be preserved on micro- 4. Fill in the chart that you have produced with the
scope slides. Photography through the microscope al- appropriate information. Use the information in the
lows study of the stages of meiosis and the comparison booklet provided to describe the key events in
of plant and animal material. Figure 5.18 illustrates the microslide view. Take care to sketch the
the events in hand-drawn pictures. chromosomes and their arrangement as accurately
as possible.
Problem 5 Compare what you have drawn to the illustrations
To identify stages in meiosis in plant and animal cells provided in Figure 5.18.
using photomicrographs and prepared microscope 6. Obtain one of the plant microslides from your
slides. teacher. Observe each of the stages illustrated on
this microslide. Note any differences you see in the
process of meiosis or cytokinesis from comparable
Materials stages you saw in the animal microslide. Add this
animal LAL1
meiosis and plant meiosis microslide and information to your chart.
microslide viewer
microscope slides of spermatogenesis in grasshop- Part B Spermatogenesis in Grasshopper Testes
per testes 7. Obtain a microscope and a microscope slide of
drawing materials
grasshopper testes that has cells undergoing meiosis.
8. Prepare a full-page chart similar to the one you pre-
Procedure pared for Part A.
Part A Microslides of Animal and Plant Meiosis 9. Examine your slide to find cells undergoing meio-
sis. Using high-power magnification, make draw-
1. Obtain one of the animal meiosis microslides and
ings of cells in the eight stages of meiosis that you
a microslide viewer from your teacher.
identified in the microslide material used in Part A.
2. Read the introduction in the microslide booklet.
10. Observe chiasmata in cells in late prophase of meio-
Observe each of the eight views provided on the
sis I. Carefully draw one tetrad in which one
microslide strip. The photomicrographs in the mi-
chiasma is visible and one tetrad in which several
croslide will help you to recognize the stages of
chiasmata are visible. See Figure 5.17.
meiosis described in Figure 5.18.
11. Make a diagram of a tetrad with one chiasma. How
3. Produce a full-page chart in your notebook. Use the
many recombinant gametes will result?
headings indicated below.
TABLE 5.9
Name of Stage Description of Key Sketch of the Stage 1. Which of the stages in meiosis are easiest to iden-
Shown Events Shown tify in the microslide material and the grasshopper
1 material? Why?
2 2. What was the diploid number for the animal and
3 plant shown on the microslides, and for the
grasshopper? What was the haploid number for
4
each?
5
3. Meiosis differs in plant and animal cells. Highlight
6
the differences in the process of meiosis in the plant
7 cells and the animal cells that you observed.
8

(continued)
Concluding and Communicating crossing over occurs at the tetrad or four-strand

stage of meiosis.)
4. What is the relationship between the frequency of
crossing over (chiasma formation) and the number 5. Are the cells at the end of the meiotic process ready
of recombinant cells formed? (Hint: remember that for fertilization? Explain.
Inquiry Skills

Illustrating Mistakes in Meiosis Concluding and Communicating
In section 5.2, you read about several mistakes in the 3. For the purposes of your model assume that the or-
meiotic process. The mistakes may result in abnormal ganism’s sex is to be determined the way it is in
numbers of chromosomes in the gametes or in gametes humans, with X and Y chromosomes. Choose a low
with chromosomes that have abnormal structures. diploid number for the species and chromosome
Abnormal structures may include duplication, deletion, sizes and centromere positions to simplify the mod-
and rearrangement of genetic material. Fertilization of elling process.
these gametes may result in genetic defects. In this ex- 4. Consider any other aspects of meiosis important to
ercise, you will investigate abnormalities of number your model. Have the teacher approve your design
and structure. You will produce illustrations of these before you begin your model.
mistakes in meiosis using materials of your choice. 5. Clearly describe the abnormality in the sex cells
that are formed when each of the mistakes occurs.
Problem
How can you illustrate mistakes in meiosis? How can Analzying and Interpreting
you determine whether an abnormality will result after 1. What abnormalities in number and/or structure re-
fertilization involving these gametes? sulted in your investigation?
2. Is it possible that either of the mistakes that you il-
lustrated may not lead to a genetic defect? Explain.
Experimental Design
1. Identify the mistake in crossing over and the mis-
take in segregation of the chromosomes that you Concluding and Communicating
wish to illustrate. 3. Briefly explain how you distinguished between
2. Design a method of illustrating these errors in a) the different homologous pairs b) maternal and
meiosis. Choose any materials that you feel will paternal chromosomes.
allow you to show the process effectively. Your final 4. Explain why you chose the materials that you used
product will be posted on a bulletin board for disin your model.
play. Write a list of materials required.

Key Terms
adaptation clone haploid n polysomy

anaphase crossing over homologs prophase
aneuploidy cytokinesis interphase reduction division
asexual reproduction daughter cells inversion replication
asters deletion locus sexual reproduction
cancer diploid, 2n meiosis spermatogonia
cell cycle DNA metaphase S phase
cell plate duplication mitosis synapsis
centromere fertilization monosomy telophase
chiasmata gametes nondisjunction tetrad
chromatid gene oogonia translocation
chromatin genetic continuity polar bodies zygote
chromosome number genetic recombination polyploidy
5.1 Mitosis In humans, the net outcome of the meiotic process

Mitosis ensures genetic continuity from cell to cell is four haploid sperm cells in the male and one hap-
within an organism, for growth, repair, and devel- loid ovum in the female.
opment. If nondisjunction occurs during meiosis, sex cells
Mitosis is subdivided into four stages: prophase, with an abnormal number of chromosomes may be
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. produced.
Mitosis produces two diploid cells that are geneti-

caly identical. 5.3 Sexual Versus Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction ensures genetic continuity
from one generation to the next.
5.2 Meiosis Asexual reproduction produces offspring genetically
Meiosis is necessary to produce haploid gametes for identical to the parent.
sexual reproduction and to ensure that the chro-
Binary fission, budding, fragmentation, and
mosome number of a species is maintained.
vegetative propagation are means of asexual
Meiosis is characterized by two nuclear divisions, reproduction.
called the first and second meiotic divisions.
Sexual reproduction produces offspring that show
The first meiotic division is called reduction division variation relative to the parents and to each other.
because this part of meiosis reduces the number This variation may help the species adapt in an
of chromosomes in the sex cells by half. environment that is changing.
1. Revisit your T-chart from the Checkpoint on page 119. 3. Evaluate how society is affected by the evolution of sci-
Revise your work based on what you learned in this entific knowledge.
chapter.
2. Create a concept map to summarize the main concepts
in the chapter. Use the Key Terms for this map.

CHAPTER 5 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts 5. A tetrad is made up of:

a) two chromatids from one chromosome
1. The second meiotic division: b) one chromatid from two homologous chromosomes
a) is identical to the first meiotic division c) four chromatids from two homologous chromosomes
b) is similar to mitosis d) one chromatid from one chromosome
c) is called reduction division
d) produces 2 diploid cells 6. At which point in the cell cycle does replication of the
genetic information occur? Why is this process so
2. An organism with a diploid number of 32 would pro- important?
duce gametes with ____ chromosomes.
a) 16 7. Describe the number and type of cells that result from
b) 32 meiosis.
c) 64
d) a variable number of 8. Explain why the first meiotic division is referred to as
“reduction division.” Support your answer with an
3. In a changing environment, a sexually reproducing or- example.
ganism may gain an advantage because:
a) it can produce many identical offspring 9. What effect do crossing over and linkage have on the
b) it reproduces very rapidly genetic variation of the offspring?
c) its offspring show variation and may be adaptable
d) its offspring contain the same genetic information 10. Outline the sequence of events in the cell cycle.
as the parents
11. Describe the different types of genetic defects that can
4. Uncontrolled cell division is a characteristic of: result from nondisjunction during meiosis.
a) cancer
b) mitosis 12. Copy the following table and then complete it to show
c) cytokinesis the number of chromosomes present at different stages
d) meiosis of cell division in a variety of organisms.
Organism Diploid Haploid Number of Number of Pairs Number of Number of Number of

Number Number Chromosomes of Homologous Chromosomes Chromosomes Chromosomes
in Daughter Cells Chromosomes in Meiosis at in Meiosis at in Meiosis at
of Mitosis Prophase I Telophase I Telophase II
cotton 52
fruit fly 4
horse 64
toad 18
chicken 78
goldfish 47

13. Draw a cell in the following phases of mitosis or meio- 18. Suppose that during meiosis I, the paternal chromosomes
sis. Clearly indicate the number of chromosomes and always went to one pole and the maternal chromosomes
chromatids present. always went to the other. How would this affect the
a) metaphase of mitosis for a cell with 2n = 6 genetic variability of the offspring? Would children tend
b) anaphase of meiosis II for a cell with 2n = 8 to look more like the parents? Explain.
c) telophase of meiosis I for a cell with 2n = 6
19. Following fertilization in multicellular organisms, a
14. Explain why an organism would gain an advantage if it zygote divides rapidly by mitosis in a process called
could reproduce both sexually and asexually. cleavage. If this were the only process to occur in
development, the distinctive characteristics of each
15. Produce a concept map entitled “The Human Life Cycle” species would never develop. The developing embryo
relating the roles of mitosis, meiosis, cell differentiation, must also undergo differentiation. Research an expla-
diploid number, haploid number, fertilization, sexual re- nation of how cells are directed to follow the various
production, gametes, and genetic continuity. routes of differentiation. Present your research in a writ-
ten report that includes flowcharts and diagrams.
16. Look at the dividing cells in Figure 5.28
a) Is the organism an animal or a plant? Explain your 20. What would happen if the human zygote received any
answer. 23 chromosomes from each parent rather than one of
b) Identify the stage of division in cell A. each homologous pair?
c) Identify the stage of division in cell B.
d) Identify the stage of division in cell C.
Making Connections
A 21. An increased risk of contracting cancer has been linked

to both hereditary and environmental factors. List the
B environmental factors that are thought to increase a per-
son’s risk. Which of these factors can be reduced by a
change in lifestyle? Which can’t? Where could you ob-
C tain information about each environmental factor that
you have listed? How does society deal differently with
the hereditary aspect of cancer risk?
22. Statistics show that approximately one in six couples in

North America have difficulty in conceiving and/or car-
rying a child to term. State several reasons for this high
incidence of infertility in society today. What methods are
available today to help these couples have children?
23. The incidence of lung cancer in North America has risen

FIGURE 5.28 significantly since the 1930s. In the 1930s and 1940s
there were many causes suspected for this increase. At
the time, there was a notion that smoking may be re-
Applying Inquiry/ sponsible for the increase. Science, however, is not based
on notions. How did science ultimately clarify the link
between smoking and an increased incidence of cancer?
(Note: Today the area of science investigating possible
17. The oxygen-carrying red blood cells in our bodies are
links like this is called epidemiology.)
replaced approximately every 120 days. New cells are
produced in the red bone marrow by mitosis. Calculate
24. Why is knowledge of asexual and sexual reproduction
how many red blood cells are produced each day. Blood
so important to scientists working in the fields of agri-
contains about 5 million red blood cells per
culture and horticulture today?
cubic millimetre and an average person has about 5 L
(5000 cm3) of blood in their body. To calculate this value,
25. Asexual reproduction methods produce clones of the par-
determine the number of red blood cells in the body and
ent organism. A knowledge of these methods has existed
assume that this number would be totally replaced over
for many years. Why is the topic of cloning much more
a 120-day span.
controversial today than it was 20 years ago?

CHAPTER 6
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS Genetics and Heredity
describe and explain the process of
discovery that led Mendel to
formulate his laws of heredity (6.1)
L ikeness between human parents and offspring has intrigued scientists and
physicians through the ages. Descriptions of many physical characteris-
tics, which we now know to be inherited, have been documented for thou-
explain, using Mendelian genetics, sands of years. However, these descriptions were almost always given without
the concepts of dominance, any insight into how the characteristics were inherited. For example, ancient
co-dominance, incomplete
dominance, recessiveness, and
linkage (6.1, 6.2, 6.3)
solve basic genetic problems
involving monohybrid crosses,
incomplete dominance,
co-dominance, dihybrid crosses,
using the Punnett square method
(6.2, 6.3)
explain how the concepts of
chromosomes and meiosis account
for the transmission of hereditary
characteristics (6.2)
predict the outcome of various
genetic crosses (6.2)
compile qualitative and
quantitative data from a laboratory
investigation on monohybrid and
dihybrid crosses, and present the
results. (Investigation 1,
Investigation 2)
summarize the main scientific
discoveries of the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries that led to the
modern concept of the gene. (6.1,
6.2, 6.3)
FIGURE 6.1 A Inheritance of physical characteristics is obvious in parents and their offspring.
152
Egyptians made statues of very short individuals with short extremities and
unusually shaped skulls, which we now recognize as the characteristics of an
inherited disorder called achondroplasia. These statues preceded descrip-
tions of this disorder in scientific literature by some 3000 years.
The tendency for a defect to recur within families went apparently un-
noticed for generations. One wide-spread explanation of malformations in a
newborn was the idea of “maternal impressions.” If the mother saw some
ugly or frightening sight during her pregnancy, it might influence the devel-
opment of her unborn baby. For this reason, many mothers in ancient Greece
spent their time gazing at beautiful statues around the city, hoping that the
features of their unborn infants would be as attractive.
Probably the earliest inkling that diseases could be inherited through fam-
ilies is recorded in ancient Hebrew writings, where it was stated that broth-
ers and male cousins of boys with bleeding disorders were not to be
circumcised. Obviously, some implications about the inheritance of hemophilia
were recognized.
It is only in the last 50 years or so that we have truly understood how
these family traits are passed from generation to generation. The explana-
tion of this transmission of traits is the basis of the branch of science called
genetics, the study of heredity. When Gregor Mendel outlined his now-
famous laws of heredity in the 1800s, he had no knowledge of chromosomes
and the process of meiosis. Today, knowledge of the process of meiosis is key
to our understanding of the inheritance of traits. Mendel’s laws and the pat-
terns he described can be used to explain inheritance through dominance,
co-dominance, incomplete dominance, recessiveness, and X-linkage. They
also explain the patterns of inheritance of many human genetic disorders.
Discovering Biology
A Human Characteristic
Hold your thumb and hand in a position that you would use if you were hitch-
hiking. Note the shape of your thumb. If the last joint of your thumb bends
backwards you have inherited a “hitchhiker’s thumb.” If it does not bend
backwards then your thumb is described as being “straight.” Pool the data
for your whole class.
How many of your classmates are “hitchhikers” and how many are CHECKPOINT
“straight”? The inheritance pattern of this trait is explained by a simple
scheme of inheritance first outlined by Gregor Mendel in the 1860s. Scientific discovery is a
Although the inheritance of many traits in humans is complex, numer- process that follows a
ous traits can be explained using Mendel’s patterns of inheritance. particular method—the
scientific method. In a
If you were to study seven of these types of traits in your classmates, sequence diagram, show
where each student is described in one of two ways for each trait, how the steps involved in
many different combinations of traits would exist for the seven traits that researching a hypothesis.
you study? Research-
ing a
Would you expect any two of your classmates to possess the same com- Hypothesis
bination of traits for the seven studied? Explain your answer.
CHAPTER 6 Genetics and Heredity 153

6.1 The Origins of Genetics

Key Understandings
explain why Mendel’s attempts to explain inheritance patterns were successful
describe the steps in Mendel’s work
use correct terminology to explain dominance, recessiveness and Mendel’s laws of

inheritance
Many early attempts to explain patterns imals such as rats and mice was not ac-
of inheritance suggested that traits were ceptable: that would be breeding vermin!
determined by the blending of infor- What about plants? Their pollination
mation received from both parents. could be controlled easily, but no one used
Today geneticists know that this is not plants for scientific purposes before 1750.
the case. Hereditary information is One of the major stumbling blocks was
passed from generation to generation in that scientists of the time had to become
distinct packets called genes. It is pos- accustomed to the notion that plants had
sible that some genes may not be ex- sex! Religious naturalists who expected
pressed for several generations but to learn good morals from nature wrote
remain intact as distinct units that can of their surprise in finding such an abun-
then appear as their information is ex- dance of pollen grains (males) and so
pressed in future generations. few seed chambers (females). In spite of
In the seventeenth and eighteenth a “doubting society” and religious re-
centuries, controlled experiments delving strictions, written accounts of inheritance
into inheritance patterns were restricted patterns started to appear more fre-
or frowned upon by the general popula- quently in the 18th century.
tion and in particular by religious groups. In the 1800s there were numerous
The use of quick breeding and prolific an- attempts made to account for the trans-
mission of specific traits from one gen-
eration to the next. One of the most
strongly supported explanations was that
there was some information in the blood
of both parents that was mixed at con-
ception. Therefore offspring would be
expected to show some combination of
parental features. Although this belief
was eventually discounted, we still use
the term “bloodline” to indicate rela-
Image omitted due to copyright restrictions. tionship between two individuals. This
concept was not based on careful scien-
tific observation and experiment.
Although our knowledge of inheri-
tance patterns has expanded rapidly in
the last 200 years, a great deal of debate
still exists when people consider expla-
nations of heredity. Differing opinions
also exist when society considers the
ethics of the many possible applications
FIGURE 6.2 Every organism inherits certain traits from its parents. What traits do of genetic knowledge.
you think the baby moose inherited from its mother?

Mendel’s Success and several plants, he centred his at- INFOBIT

tention on the common pea plant, Pisum
It is believed that the first scientific at-
sativum. Because the common pea plant Most of society in the 1860s
tempt to explain the scheme of inheri- supported two notions about
is normally self-pollinating, Mendel
tance was made in the middle of the inheritance. The blending
found it easy to control the parental
nineteenth century by a Moravian monk theory of inheritance
crosses. (See Figure 6.4.) In addition, suggested that the “seeds”
named Gregor Mendel. Mendel spent
this annual plant was easily grown and that controlled hereditary traits
several years at the University of Vienna
matured quickly, producing many seeds. were blended together from
studying science in order to become a generation to generation.
In this way, many generations could be
high school teacher. He eventually re- Pangenesis suggested that
studied over a relatively short period of
turned to a monastery in what is now hereditary traits could be
time. Most important was the fact that modified throughout a person’s
the Czech Republic, where he performed
pea plants show several pairs of obvi- lifetime. If a person practised
his famous experiments in genetics.
ous, contrasting traits. For example, a particular skill throughout his
Mendel’s success in demonstrating or her lifetime then his or her
some plants grow tall while others are
the basis of heredity is not surprising. offspring would inherit the
dwarf plants and some have round,
He was armed with some of the most ad- improvement in this skill. The
smooth seeds while others have wrin- work of Gregor Mendel would
vanced scientific and mathematical
kled seeds. These contrasting traits are eventually refute both of
knowledge of the day. He knew that du-
shown in Figure 6.5. these notions.
plicating his experimental crosses thou-
sands of times would lend validity to his
results and his explanations as well.
Mendel’s applications of mathematics,
and in particular of probability, were
rare in the field of science in the mid-
1800s. However, a consideration of prob-
ability strengthened his work. Although
Mendel observed crosses in mice, bees,
a) Stamens
removed from
purple flower
b) Pollen from
stamens of white
flower transferred with paint
bush to carpel of purple flower

restrictions.
c) Seeds set and mature

as peas in the pod
d) Plant these peas
e) Examine F1
generation: all purple
FIGURE 6.3 Moravian monk and naturalist FIGURE 6.4 Mendel was able to control the crosses of different varieties of pea
Gregor Mendel is often referred to as “the plants by using an artist’s brush to transfer pollen (the male sex cell) from one plant
Father of Genetics.” to the egg-bearing carpel of another plant. The seeds produced in this cross could
then be planted to observe the next generation.

Plants that produced seeds that grew

Character
Dominant Trait Recessive Trait into plants identical to the parent were
Studied
termed pure-breeding. Mendel also
chose among his pure breeding lines to
set up his crosses. He used lines that
had the same viability. This meant that
the different lines could be expected
Stem Length Tall Dwarf
to produce approximately the same
number of plants for every 100 seeds
planted. This was important for his
mathematical analysis of results.
Mendel understood the value of hav-
Seed Shape Smooth Wrinkled ing controls in his experiments. For this
reason he began by studying crosses
Seed Color Yellow Green
between pure-breeding plants that were
different for only one contrasting pair
of traits. These parent plants were
Inflated Wrinkled called the parent generation or the
Pod Shape P generation. When crossing a pure tall
plant with a pure dwarf one, all the re-
sulting plants were called hybrids. All
Green Yellow of the hybrids in this first filial
Pod Color (offspring) generation, called the
F1 generation, were tall. There was not
one dwarf plant in the F1 generation.
Flower
(See Figure 6.6.)
Purple White The same pattern was observed in
Color
the crosses involving the other con-
trasting characteristics. For example,
when purebred plants with round seeds
were crossed with purebred plants with
Flower wrinkled seeds, only round-seeded
On stem At tip
Position plants resulted in the F 1 . Although
Mendel wasn’t surprised by these re-
sults, other researchers in the 1800s
would have predicted that the F1 gen-
FIGURE 6.5 This chart illustrates the seven pea plant characteristics studied by
Mendel. Note that the two forms of each trait are easily distinguished from one
eration would display an intermediate
another. phenotype such as medium height. Since
the traits of tallness and round seeds
Mendel’s Experiments seemed to dominate the traits of dwarf-
Mendel eventually identified and used the ness and wrinkled seeds, Mendel called
seven pairs of contrasting traits shown them the dominant traits. The trait that
in Figure 6.5. Observable characteristics was not expressed in the F1, he called
or traits are called phenotypes. Mendel the recessive trait. (See Figure 6.6.)
spent several years self-pollinating the Next, Mendel crossed his F1 gener-
pea plants in order to establish pure ation plants. He wished to determine if
lines or purebred plants. Tall plants the F1 tall plants were identical to the
were repeatedly self-fertilized until P generation tall plants. If they were
Mendel was sure that he had tall plants identical, then an F1 cross would produce
that would yield only seeds that would only tall plants. Mendel found that the
produce tall plants. The same process resulting F2 generation (second filial
was carried out with the dwarf plants. generation) yielded about three tall

plants for each dwarf plant, a mathe- TABLE 6.1 Results of Mendel’s Crosses.
matical ratio of 3:1. This meant that the
hybrid tall plants were somehow differ- Character- Dominant Recessive F2 generation Mathematical
istic Trait Trait Dominant: Ratio
ent from the purebred tall plants. (See
Recessive
Figure 6.6.) Mendel carefully repeated this
experiment for each of the other six pairs Flower colour purple white 705:224 3.15:1
of contrasting traits. In every case the re- Flower position on stem-axial at tip-terminal 651:207 3.14:1
sults were similar. The F2 generation dis-
played a phenotypic ratio very close to Seed colour yellow green 6022:2001 3.01:1
3:1. For each of the seven traits studied, Seed shape smooth/round wrinkled 5474:1850 2.96:1
3/4 of the F2 generation exhibited the
Pod shape inflated wrinkled 882:299 2.95:1
dominant trait and 1/4 exhibited the re-
cessive trait. His findings are summarized Pod colour green yellow 428:152 2.82:1
in Table 6.1. The average ratio for all of
Stem length tall dwarf 787:277 2.84:1
the traits in the F2 generation was 3:1.
Mendel’s Law of Segregation separate into different reproductive cells. INFOBIT

Mendel observed a very obvious pattern A gamete could contain an allele for tall-
in his experimental results. He now at- ness or an allele for dwarfness, but not Inheritance in animals as well
tempted to account for this pattern by as plants can be explained
both. When fertilization occurs, these al-
describing a mechanism of inheritance. by the principles discovered
leles unite to give the zygote the neces- by Mendel. The first
He suggested that units of inheritance, sary pair of alleles. demonstration of this came in
which he called factors, were involved. 1902 from William Bateson’s
We now call these factors genes. For any Mendel’s Law of Segregation: mem- experiments with chickens.
given characteristic, there were several Bateson was the first person
bers of a pair of alleles for a given trait
different forms of these genes. These dif- to use the term genetics.
are segregated (separated) when ga-
ferent forms are now called alleles. For metes are formed.
example, the gene for plant height has
two different alleles, a dominant tall So far we have only referred to the
allele and a recessive dwarf allele. observable traits in pea plants, the phe-
Mendel could not account for his results notypes. Once Mendel had formulated the WORDORIGIN
if each plant had only one factor that de- law of segregation he was able to describe
termined its phenotype. He suggested the gene makeup, or genotype, of a plant Genotype from the Greek,
that each plant’s phenotype was deter- or a gamete. Mendel used letters of the genos meaning “race or kind”
mined by a pair of alleles that could be and tupos meaning “model” or
alphabet to represent genes. Capital let-
identical or different. Once Mendel es- “pattern”
ters represent the dominant allele and Phenotype from the Greek
tablished this key idea, he was able to lower case letters represent the recessive phainein meaning “to show”
make generalizations about heredity. allele. For example, the allele for tallness or “to appear” and tupos
From his numerical results, he saw would typically be represented by T and meaning “model” or “pattern”
that one allele of a pair has the ability the dwarf allele by t.
to express itself while the second one We can now describe Mendel’s
is not expressed. The allele expressed in experiments genotypically. Purebred tall
the F 1 is dominant, the allele not ex- plants would be represented by TT and
pressed in the F1 is recessive. If a pea purebred dwarf plants by tt. Genotypes
plant possesses one of each of the alle- with identical alleles are called
les for height, it will be tall. The only way homozygous. When segregation oc-
for a plant to develop as a dwarf plant is curs in these P generation plants, the sex
if both of its alleles are the recessive type. cells of the TT plants would contain only
Mendel suggested that when sex one dominant allele while those of
cells or gametes are produced, the mem- the tt plants would contain only one
bers of each pair of alleles segregate or recessive allele, . After fertilization

Generation Genotypes Phenotypes

In the next generation, when two
heterozygous F1 plants are crossed in
what is termed a hybrid or monohybrid
Parental cross, each F1 plant produces two types
P Cross of gametes, and . This produces
different results from the original P gen-
tall dwarf TT tt eration cross. Figure 6.6 illustrates
both purebred homozygous homozygous theoretically why we would expect 3/4
of the F2 generation to appear tall and
1/4 dwarf, as Mendel observed. Thus the
expected phenotypic ratio resulting from
tall dwarf the F 1 cross is 3:1 (3 tall for every 1
Gametes
all T all t dwarf) while the expected genotypic ratio
formed
is 1:2:1 (1 homozygous tall: 2 heterozy-
gous tall: 1 homozygous dwarf).
Tt
F1 heterozygous F1 – all tall hybrids
Mendel’s Law of Independent
Assortment
Once Mendel established that the pat-
Dominance is
operating.
tern of dominance and segregation was
followed by all seven pairs of contrast-
F1 Cross Tt Tt F1 Cross – a monohybrid cross ing traits, he turned his attention to what
would happen if more than one pair of
Gametes characteristics were used in a cross. He
T t T t began with a P generation cross in-
formed Law of Segregation in effect
volving a dwarf plant with purebred
round seeds (ttRR) and a purebred tall
plant with wrinkled seeds (TTrr). As a
result of this series of experiments
Mendel outlined his second major law.
TT Tt Tt tt
F2 homo- hetero- hetero- homo- Law of Independent Assortment: When
zygous zygous zygous zygous two or more pairs of characteristics
are considered at one time, each pair
shows dominance and segregation
independently of the other.
3/4 tall 1/4 dwarf
In the P generation cross, each

Ratio in F2 Genotypic ratio of 1 : 2 : 1 Phenotypic ratio of 3 : 1
parent plant can produce only one type
1TT : 2 Tt : 1 tt 3 tall : 1 dwarf
of gamete. The first plant produces
gametes with a genotype of and
FIGURE 6.6 A summary of Mendel’s cross involving tall and dwarf pea plants. T the second plant produces ga-
represents the tall allele and t the dwarf allele. metes with genotype of . The only
genotype possible in the F1 generation
occurs, we can see that there is only one is TtRr (a dihybrid). All F1 generation
Investigation F1 combination possible, Tt. This nicely plants are tall with round seeds. Mendel
Refer to page 182, accounts for the F1 generation all look- then crossbred two of these F1 plants in
Investigation 2 ing the same (tall). These hybrid plants what is termed a dihybrid cross,
in the F1 generation that possess a geno- TtRr TtRr. His Law of Independent
type with different alleles are said to Assortment would allow each parent
be heterozygous. (See Figure 6.6.) plant to produce four different gamete

combinations, , , and . P generation Investigation

When two F1 plants were crossed, 16 or Refer to page 180,
(4 4) combinations had to be consid- Investigation 1
ered. Mendel observed an F2 generation smooth wrinkled
yellow green
with 9/16 of the plants tall with round
seeds (2 dominant traits), 3/16 tall with
cross- WEBLINK
pollination
wrinkled seeds (1 dominant and 1 re- x
Do research on the Internet to
cessive trait), 3/16 dwarf with round find out more about Mendel
seeds (1 recessive and 1 dominant trait), and the history of genetics.
and 1/16 dwarf with wrinkled seeds (2 F1 generation Complete a summary page of
recessive traits). the information that you locate.
Begin your research at:
This ratio of F 2 phenotypes of
100% smooth yellow www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
9:3:3:1 is found in all dihybrid crosses
that involve fully dominant and self-fertilization
recessive alleles. Figure 6.7 shows the
result for the dihybrid cross of smooth F2 generation
FIGURE 6.7 In one dihybrid
yellow seeds with wrinkled green seeds.
cross, Mendel crossed plants
Mendel’s laws are summarized in that had smooth yellow seeds
Table 6.2. with plants that had green
Mendel first presented his findings wrinkled seeds. All the F1
in 1865 to the Natural Science Society plants had smooth yellow
seeds. When he crossed two
and published his formal paper shortly
315 101 108 32 of these F1 plants in a dihy-
thereafter. It was ignored for the most 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 brid cross, the F2 generation
part because at that time few scientists smooth wrinkled smooth wrinkled had phenotypes in the ratio
could grasp the mathematical reasoning yellow yellow green green 9:3:3:1.
and implications of his research. It is in-
teresting to note that at that time the
work of Charles Darwin in his On the
Origin of Species (published 1859) had
scientists looking at the importance of out by three prominent scientists, Carl
gradual change and small differences in- Correns, Hugo de Vries, and Erich von
stead of sharp discontinuities such as Tschermak led to the same conclusions
those seen in Mendel’s tall and dwarf that Mendel had come to. Gregor Mendel
peas. The significance of Mendel’s re- died without knowing that one day his
sults was not realized until after 1900, explanations would become the basis of
when independent experiments carried our understanding of genetics.
TABLE 6.2 Mendel’s Laws
Mendel’s Laws
Mendel’s First Law – The Law of Segregation

During gamete formation two alleles of a gene pair segregate or separate from each other. A het-
erozygous plant that is Tt forms gametes that are and in equal numbers. The gametes are not
a blend of the two traits.
Mendel’s Second Law – The Law of Independent Assortment

Segregation for different pairs of alleles occurs independently. A plant that is heterozygous for two
pairs of alleles, for example Tt Rr, can form four types of gametes: , , and .

Section 6.1 Review

Understanding Concepts 7. What is a dihybrid cross? What
phenotypic and genotypic ratios result
1. Describe an explanation of heredity from such a cross?
common in the 1800s that was not
based on proper scientific observation
and experiment. Applying Inquiry/
2. Explain why Gregor Mendel was suc- Communication Skills
cessful when others had failed in their 8. Explain how Mendel’s Law of
attempts to explain inheritance. List Segregation is actually based on meio-
five reasons for Mendel’s success. sis. Use diagrams to illustrate your
3. What are purebred pea plants? How did answer.
Mendel ensure that he had a purebred 9. In a flow chart, outline the process of
pea plant? experimentation used by Mendel.
4. Distinguish between the following pairs
of terms:
a) dominant and recessive Making Connections
b) phenotype and genotype 10. Why do you think it was so difficult for
c) heterozygous and homozygous society of Mendel’s time to grasp and
5. What is a monohybrid cross? What accept his explanations of heredity?
phenotypic and genotypic ratios result 11. If Mendel’s findings had been accepted
from such a cross? immediately, do you think that our
6. State the two laws formulated by knowledge of genetics and genetic tech-
Gregor Mendel. nologies would be more advanced
today? Outline several points to sup-
port your argument.
6.2 Genetic Analysis

Key Understandings
understand how Punnett squares can be used to illustrate Mendel’s findings
construct Punnett squares to solve problems involving monohybrid and dihybrid crosses
INFOBIT
explain the importance of meiosis to the inheritance patterns outlined by Mendel
The Punnett square approach

to genetic problems is named
for the geneticist Punnett who, Punnett squares illustrate the possible parental genotypes are indicated on two
with his colleague Bateson,
outcomes (offspring) of a particular sides of the square. The possible geno-
investigated the genetics of
chickens in the early years of cross. They aid in understanding and types of the gametes of each parent are
the 20th century. clarifying difficult concepts. Consider the then placed on the exterior of the
Punnett squares that follow as you read squares as indicated. This number of dif-
the text material. ferent types of gametes possible from
WORD ORIGIN each parent determines the dimensions
of the Punnett square. The 1 1 Punnett
Constructing
Allele, a shortened form of the square in Figure 6.8 is the simplest
term allelomorph, from the Punnett Squares Punnett possible. The possible combi-
Greek allele meaning “one an- Mendel’s experiments began with a cross nations of gametes following fertilization
other” and morphe meaning between a purebred tall plant (TT) and
“form” are shown within the grid of the Punnett.
a purebred dwarf plant (tt). These In this cross because each parent

produces only one type of gamete, all Tt

members of the F1 generation have the Gametes
genotype Tt.
T t
A 1 × 1 Punnett Square: The P generation T TT Tt

cross Consider the cross TT × tt. The Tall Tall
Tt
steps to set up the Punnett square are:
Gametes
1. Determine the parental genotypes— t Tt tt
TT and tt. Tall Dwarf
2. Determine the genotypes of the ga-
metes that are possible, and
. Therefore a 1 × 1 Punnett is FIGURE 6.9 A 2 2 Punnett square
required. Phenotypic ratio (tall:dwarf) = 3 : 1
Genotypic ratio (TT:Tt:tt) = 1 : 2 : 1
3. Fill in the interior and interpret the
genotype and phenotype of the next
generation.
tt
Gametes
The Sutton-Boveri
Hypothesis
t
The rediscovery of Mendel’s work
around the turn of the twentieth century,
together with cytological studies of meio-
sis, led scientists to the understanding
TT Gametes T Tt that the segregation of Mendel’s factors
Tall
mirrored the movement of chromosomes
in meiosis. Contributions by a number
of investigators resulted in the Sutton-
FIGURE 6.8 A 1 1 Punnett square. All the Boveri hypothesis of 1902. This
F1 plants will be Tt genotype and show the tall hypothesis suggested that genes were
phenotype. carried on the chromosomes and that
segregation and independent assortment
of factors were the results of the physi-
cal process of meiosis. The members of
pairs of alleles segregate or separate in-
dependently of other pairs of alleles dur-
A 2 × 2 Punnett Square: The F1 generation ing gamete formation. The different
cross If two F1 plants are considered in chromosome pairs also separate inde-
a cross, a 2 × 2 Punnett square is pendently of each other during meiosis
required. due to the random orientation of the
Consider the cross Tt × Tt. The steps tetrads on the spindle at metaphase of
to set up the Punnett square are: meiosis I. Sutton and Boveri’s chromo-
1. Determine the genotypes: both are some theory of heredity was a major
heterozygous tall parent plants, so breakthrough because it pointed out the
the genotype is Tt. physical basis for Mendel’s rules.
2. Determine possible genotypes of ga- Experimental data in support of this
metes. Two types are possible from hypothesis came a few years later when
each parent, or . This de- in 1910, T. H. Morgan demonstrated that
termines that the Punnett is 2 × 2. the inheritance of a particular trait of
3. Fill in the genotypes and phenotypes eye colour in male fruit flies was asso-
of the F2 generation and interpret. ciated with a particular chromosome.

Discovering Biology Colour in Corn Kernels
Each kernel in an ear of corn represents an offspring that resulted from a separate
fertilization. Working with a partner, count the number of purple and yellow
kernels on an ear of genetic corn. Mark row 1 with a coloured pin or thumbtack
and count along the rows in an orderly sequence.
What ratio of purple to yellow kernels does your ear of corn have? Compare
your ratio with the ratios found by several other groups. Is there any agree-
ment between the ratios?
Try to explain why your ear has more kernels of one colour and fewer of the
other. Compare your explanation with that of several other groups.
EXAMPLE 1
Single Trait Analysis
In humans, the ability to taste phenylthiocarbamide (PTC), T, is dominant to non-
tasting, t. Determine the expected genotypic and phenotypic ratios resulting from
a cross between a heterozygous taster and a non-taster.
Given: T is dominant to t. Therefore, a heterozygote is Tt and a non-taster is tt.

The parental genotypes are Tt and tt.
Required: The genotypic and phenotypic ratios expected in the offspring
Analysis:
• The cross is Tt tt
• Produce a Punnett square of the offspring.
Solution:
T – tasting t – non-tasting parental genotypes – Tt and tt
Tt – produces 2 types of gametes – and with a probability of 1/2 for each
tt – produces only 1 type of gamete –
Punnett Square
Tt
Gametes
T 1/2 t 1/2
PRACTICE PROBLEM
tt t 1 Tt 1/2 tt 1/2
In humans, the allele A, for
Gametes
pigment formation is domi- Taster Non-taster
nant to the allele a, for in-
ability to form pigment. aa
individuals are albino.
Determine the expected geno- Two types of genotypes and phenotypes result in the F1 generation.
typic and phenotypic ratios
expected from a cross be- Statement:
tween two individuals het- Genotypic ratio – 1:1 (Tt : tt)
erozygous for this trait. Phenotypic ratio – 1:1 (tasters : non-tasters)

The Chromosomal Basis produce 200 with the T allele and 200
of Heredity with the t allele. We can describe this in
terms of probability. Because half of the
Gregor Mendel had no knowledge of the gametes produced contain the T allele,
process of meiosis upon which to base there is a probability of 1/2 that this gene
his explanations. Instead, his explana- will be passed on by a Tt parent plant.
tions were based on extensive experi- The results of gamete formation in a Tt
mentation and observation and a plant are illustrated in Figure 6.10. Pea
knowledge of probability. Mendel did not plants contain seven homologous pairs
realize that his Law of Segregation was of chromosomes, but only the pair car-
actually a reflection of the division of ge- rying the gene for height is shown in
netic information in the meiotic process Figure 6.10.
as homologous chromosomes separate Of the gametes produced, 1/2 carry
in the first meiotic division. the allele T, 1/2 carry the allele t.
We now know that one of each of the Many genetics problems can be
pairs of factors (genes) determining a solved using a paper-and-pencil method
trait in the pea plant is located on each that follows a sound scientific approach.
chromosome of a homologous pair. Each Once you have clearly identified the
gene is found at a specific place or locus letter codes that you are going to use to
on the chromosome. In this way, each represent the different forms of genes,
gamete can only contain one of the al- you can develop a hypothesis, an edu- WEBLINK
leles of a gene for any given trait, because cated guess, to explain the results ob-
each gamete contains only one of each served. Then the data can be interpreted For links to sites that show
homologous pair of chromosomes. in a Punnett square and inferences can examples of genetic analysis
If a pea plant with a Tt genotype using Punnett squares, go to
be drawn. Note the steps in reasoning
produced 400 gametes, meiosis would used in Example 2.
T 1/2 with T
T
T
T T
T
T
t
t
t
t t
t 1/2 with t
t
t
prophase I anaphase I metaphase II gametes
FIGURE 6.10 The segregation of chromosomes and alleles. The gametes formed during
meiosis in a Tt plant will either contain T (probability of 1/ 2) or t (probability of 1/2 ). Notice
that each homologous chromosome has replicated and that pairing (synapsis) has occurred to
form the tetrad. The tetrad is made of two chromosomes each made up of two chromatids as
the chromosomes enter prophase 1.

EXAMPLE 2
Recognizing Hybrids
A geneticist crosses two parent plants that have the dominant trait of purple
flowers. When the resulting seeds are planted the geneticist observes that 145 of
the F1 plants have the recessive trait of yellow flowers and 430 of the F1 plants
have purple flowers. How can you explain these results? What are the genotypes
of the parent plants and the F1 plants?
Given: F (purple flowers) is dominant to f (yellow flowers). Both of the P1 plants

possess at least one F gene: F__ × F__
Required: The genotypes of the parents and F1 plants
Analysis:
• The key to this question is the appearance of the ff (yellow plants) in the F1.
• Produce a Punnett square of the offspring.
Solution:
The appearance of the recessive trait in the phenotype of the F1 plants can only
occur if they are homozygous recessive (ff). This can only happen if both of the pur-
ple parent plants are heterozygous and each parent contributed the recessive
allele to these yellow plants. In addition, recognize that the ratio of purple plants
to yellow plants is approximately 3:1. This ratio indicates a monohybrid cross.
Ff
Gametes
F 1/2 f 1/2
F 1/2 FF 1/4 Ff 1/4
Ff
Gametes
f 1/2 Ff 1/4 ff 1/4
PRACTICE PROBLEM (145 given)
In mice, G for grey coat colour

is dominant to g. The gg indi- Statement:
viduals are black. Two grey These observations are the result of a monohybrid cross. Both parents are
mice are mated to produce Ff. The 145 F1 plants with yellow flowers are homozygous recessive (ff) while
nine grey mice and two black the 430 F1 plants with purple flowers are either heterozygous (Ff) or ho-
mice. Explain these results. mozygous dominant (FF). You would expect 1/3 of the purple-flowered plants
to be homozygous dominant and 2/3 to be heterozygous. This prediction is
based on the Mendelian genotypic ratio of 1:2:1.
A 4 × 4 Punnett square for a dihybrid cross , , , and . This result is sim-

When Mendel made a dihybrid cross ply a reflection of how genetic material
involving two pea plants with the geno- that is carried on chromosomes sepa-
types TtRr, he used his Law of rates in meiosis. As long as the genes for
Independent Assortment to account for plant height (T,t) and seed type (R,r) are
the production of four different gametes, on different homologous pairs of

chromosomes, gamete formation occurs TtRr

as illustrated in Figure 6.12. Gametes
The gametes formed by a TtRr plant
could contain (probability of 1/4 ),
( probability of 1/4), (probability TR Tr tR tr
1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4
of 1/4) or (probability of 1/4). The
combinations produced are determined
by the way the tetrads line up during TR 1/4 TTRR TTRr TtRR TtRr
1/16 1/16 1/16 1/16
metaphase in meiosis I. Note that we
must consider two different outcomes
where each outcome has an equal chance Tr 1/4 TTRr TTrr TtRr Ttrr
TtRr 1/16 1/16 1/16 1/16
of occurring as shown in Figure 6.12.
The results of this dihybrid cross can Gametes
also be summarized in a Punnett square. tR 1/4
TtRR TtRr ttRR ttRr
1/16 1/16 1/16 1/16
This Punnett square is illustrated in
Figure 6.11. The fractions included rep-
resent the probability or chance of the TtRr Ttrr ttRr ttrr
tr 1/4
formation of a particular gamete by a 1/16 1/16 1/16 1/16
parent plant or a particular genotype in
a plant in the next generation.
FIGURE 6.11 A 4 4 Punnett square The expected phenotypes in the
The 16 inside squares in the Punnett F2 generation of a dihybrid cross are: 9/16 tall round plants
square in Figure 6.11 represent the geno- 3/16 tall wrinkled plants
types of the F2 generation for Mendel’s 3/16 dwarf round plants
dihybrid cross. If you consider each F2 1/16 dwarf wrinkled plants
individual phenotypically, then the ex-
pected phenotypes can be determined.
line of first gametes

meiotic division produced
T T
T T t t
R R 1/4
meiosis
t t
r r 1/4
R R r r
T T t t T T
r r 1/4
meiosis
t t
FIGURE 6.12 Segregation
R R 1/4 of genes and random assort-
r r R R ment of chromosomes in
meiosis in a dihybrid
organism.

The Test Cross dividual, whose genotype is being tested,

to a recessive individual. The recessive
The validity of any scientific theory is seen
individual must be homozygous and so
through experiments based on that the-
can only produce one type of gamete.
ory. Mendel was able to verify his pre-
To test one of his dihybrid tall, round
diction of independent assortment by the
plants Mendel crossed it to a dwarf,
use of test crosses, sometimes called back
wrinkled plant. The dwarf, wrinkled
FIGURE 6.13 The Punnett crosses. A test cross is the cross of an in-
square for the test cross of plant showed both recessive traits and
the recessive homozygous ttrr so its genotype was known to be ttrr. The
to the dihybrid, TtRr TtRr (tall, round) cross is TtRr ttrr. The dihybrid can
Gametes produce four types of gamete while the
TR Tr tR tr homozygous recessive produces only one
1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4 type, as shown in Figure 6.13.
TtRr Ttrr ttRr ttrr
ttrr (dwarf, wrinkled) tr 1/4 The genotypic and phenotypic ratios
Gametes 1/4 Tall, 1/4 Tall, 1/4 Dwarf, 1/4 Dwarf,
Round Wrinkled Round Wrinkled in the offspring of a test cross are
1:1:1:1.
EXAMPLE 3
Questions Involving More Than One Trait
In mice, grey coat colour, G, is dominant to white coat, g, and long tail, T, is
dominant to short, t. What fraction of F1 mice would you predict to have grey coats
and short tails when a male ggTt parent is crossed with a female GGtt parent?
Given: G is dominant to g. T is dominant to t. Therefore:

GG or Gg – grey coat g g– white coat TT or Tt – long tail tt – short tail
Required: The fraction of F1 mice expected to have grey coats and short tails;
that is, to be of genotypes GGtt or Ggtt
Analysis:
PRACTICE PROBLEM • The cross is ggTt GGtt.
• Produce a Punnett square.
In pea plants tall (T) is domi-
nant to dwarf (t) and round
seeds (R) is dominant to wrin- Solution:
kled seeds (r). Use a Punnett The ggTt parent produces two types of gametes – and
square to determine what The GGtt parent produces only one type of gamete –
fraction of the offspring pro- The dimensions of the Punnett square are 2 1.
duced in each of the following ggTt
crosses you would expect to Male gametes
be tall with wrinkled seeds.
gT 1/2 gt 1/2
a) TtRr TtRr (This is a di-
hybrid cross! Use your GGtt Female Gt 1 GgTt 1/2 Ggtt 1/2
ratios.) gametes
b) TtRr ttrr Grey long Grey short
c) TtRr TTRr
d) TtRr Ttrr Statement:
e) TtRr ttRr In the F1 mice that are produced, half of the mice will be expected to have
f) TTrr ttRR the genotype Ggtt and as a result, half of the F1 mice will exhibit the grey
coat and short tail phenotype combination.

A knowledge of probability is important For example the probability of picking a

in any analysis of genetic crosses. king from a deck of cards is 4/52 = 1/13.
Probability means the ratio of the num- This means that we expect to pick a king
ber of times a desired event is expected from a deck of cards 1 in 13 times.
to occur to the total number of events.
Section 6.2 Review

Understanding Concepts a) a homozygous taster and a non-
taster
1. How can Punnett squares be used to b) two heterozygous tasters
illustrate Mendel’s findings? c) a heterozygous taster and a ho-
2. How many different types of gametes mozygous taster
would each of the following parent 8. In mice, grey coat colour, G, is dominant
plants be capable of producing? List to white coat, g, and long tail, T, is
the possible combinations. dominant to short, t. The genes for the
a) TT b) Tt c) TtRr d) TTrr two traits are located on different chro-
e) ttRr f) TtRrSs (a trihybrid) mosomes. What fraction of F1 mice re-
3. What determines the dimensions of a sulting from each of the following
Punnett square? State the dimensions crosses would you expect to have grey
of a Punnett for: coats and short tails?
a) a monohybrid cross a) Ggtt × Ggtt
b) a dihybrid cross b) ggtt × GGtt
c) a trihybrid cross c) GgTt × GgTt
d) a cross: AaBbcc x aabbCc d) GgTt × ggTt
4. Use diagrams to explain the relation- 9. For the “A” trait, A is dominant to a
ship between independent assortment and for the “B” trait, B is dominant to
of genes in a dihybrid cross and ran- b. The genes for the two traits are lo-
dom assortment of chromosomes dur- cated on different chromosomes.
ing meiosis, if the genes are carried on Construct a Punnett square to show the
different chromosomes. results of a cross between parents with
genotypes Aabb (parent #1) and AaBb
5. How might family practitioners use
(parent #2). Determine each of the fol-
Punnett squares as a tool to explain
lowing:
inheritance patterns to patients and pa-
a) What fraction of the offspring is ex-
tients’ families?
pected to have the same genotype
as parent #1?
Applying Inquiry/ b) What fraction of the offspring is ex-
Communication Skills pected to have the same phenotype
as parent #2?
6. The product rule of probability states
c) What fraction of the offspring is ex-
that the probability of a series of events
pect to be dihybrid?
occurring simultaneously is the prod-
uct of each of the individual probabil- 10. In a certain animal black fur (B) is
ities. Use this rule to calculate the dominant to white fur (b). Two black-
probability of each of the following: furred animals produced 51 white -
a) The probability of an AaBbCcDd furred and 147 black-furred offspring.
parent producing a gamete with the What were the probable genotypes of
genotype ABCD the parents? What fraction of the black-
b) The probability of an AabbccDd par- furred offspring would you expect to
ent producing a gamete with the be heterozygous? Why?
genotype Abcd
7. In humans, the ability to taste PTC, T, Making Connections
is dominant to non-tasting, t. 11. In your opinion, should all family prac-
Determine the expected genotypic and titioners have a general background in
phenotypic ratio resulting from a cross genetics? Explain.
between:

6.3 Genetics After Mendel

Key Understandings
describe incomplete dominance and co-dominance
explain the inheritance of blood types in the ABO blood group system in humans
explain what is meant by multifactorial inheritance
outline the effects of linkage and crossing over on inheritance patterns
solve problems involving incomplete dominance and co-dominance
Mendel’s laws of segregation and inde-

pendent assortment established that the
two members of a gene pair separate in
the formation of the gametes and that
different gene pairs assort independently
RR rr
of each other. These principles are still Red White
the basis of our understanding of hered-
P
ity. The Sutton-Boveri hypothesis that generation
genes are carried on chromosomes was
a physical explanation of Mendel’s rules.
It suggested a way to look for the ma-
terial basis of heredity. The combination
of these approaches has led to the
modern concept of the gene. Rr
100% pink
F1
generation
Incomplete Dominance
Mendel had used the concept of domi-
nance to explain his results in pea plants
but he saw instances in nature where
strict dominance did not apply. In other
species of plants that he experimented egg R R sperm
with, the patterns observed were dis-
tinctly different from those seen in the
pea, Pisum sativum. In one species of
r r
snapdragon, when he crossed white- RR
flowered plants with red-flowered plants,
the F1 plants that resulted were neither
red- nor white-flowered plants, as he Rr Rr
would have predicted. All of the F1 plants
were pink.
Under dominance the dominant F2
rr generation
allele can hide the expression of a re-
cessive allele in the heterozygous con-
dition. However, in the determination of 1 : 2 : 1
some traits, the different alleles of a gene red pink white
may be expressed in the heterozygous
FIGURE 6.14 Incomplete dominance. Notice
condition to produce an intermediate how the red and white phenotypes disappear in
phenotype. When neither gene is com- the F1 generation but reappear in the next
pletely dominant over the other, we say generation.

that there is incomplete dominance. One FIGURE 6.15 This close-up

of the clearest examples of incomplete of the roan coat found in
horses clearly shows that the
dominance is found in the colours of the
allele for red and the allele
same snapdragon flowers that puzzled for white have both been
Mendel. expressed. Some hairs are
Snapdragons are either red or white white while others are red.
in the homozygous conditions, RR and
rr. Neither colour dominates the other restrictions.
when a pure red (RR) is crossed with a
pure white (rr). The F1 plants (Rr) show
an intermediate flower colour of pink.
In an RR plant, enough red pigment
protein is produced to give the flower a
red appearance but in the Rr plant there
is only sufficient red pigment produced
to make the flower appear pink.
is either completely white or completely
On the surface it would appear that
red. The two alleles have been expressed
the genetic information has been blended.
at the same time, a type of inheritance
However, if we cross two of these F 1 ,
termed co-dominance. In this condition,
plants (Rr) this idea is disproved. In the
neither allele dominates the expression
F 2 generation, white and red flowers
of the other. Capital letters with super-
reappear. See Figure 6.14. The alleles for
scripts or simply capitals are often used
red or white must remain as distinct
to represent genotypes when co-domi-
units. They came together in the F1 gen-
nance is in effect. A roan calf (RW or
eration, but then were able to separate
CRCW) results from crossing a white par-
in the F2 generation. The law of segre-
ent (WW or CWCW) with a red parent (RR
gation operates. The ratio of flower
or CRCR). If we cross two roan cows, then
colours observed in the F2 is a familiar
the phenotypic and genotypic ratios in
Mendelian ratio that can be explained in
the next generation will both be 1:2:1.
a Punnett square. If we breed two of the
Geneticists have identified that
pink plants from the F1 generation, we
human blood types in the ABO blood
observe a 1:2:1 phenotype ratio in the F2
group system show co-dominance. The
generation: 1 red flower to 2 pink flow-
possible blood types in this system are
ers to 1 white flower. The genotypic and
A, B, AB, and O. Your blood type in
phenotypic ratios that result from this
this system is determined by a pair of
cross are the same. We don’t observe this
alleles. In this case, however, there are
in cases where dominance is in effect.
three different alleles that may be found
Many traits in humans show incomplete
at the locus on either of the homologous
dominance. These include the inheritance
chromosomes. When there are more
of most hair, skin, and eye colours.
than two alleles possible for a given gene
(remember Mendel suggested that there
Co-dominance were two), the condition is termed
A slightly different form of inheritance is multiple allelism. Multiple alleleism re-
observed in horses and shorthorn cat- sults in a larger number of possible
tle where two alleles are expressed at the genotypic combinations and a greater
same time. If one parent is homozy- variety of phenotypes. However the prin-
gous red and the other homozygous ciple of segregation still operates.
white, the offspring will be a pinkish In human blood types the alleles for
colour termed “roan,” a blend of red and A (represented by IA) and B (represented
white. However, in this instance, each in- by I B ) are both co-dominant over the
dividual hair in the coat of the animal allele for O (represented by i). Neither IA

INFOBIT nor IB can dominate the other. If a per- while traits where only one pair of al-
son has the genotype IAIB, then his or leles is involved show discontinuous dis-
Knowledge of another blood her phenotype is blood type AB. The pos- tribution (for example, tall or dwarf
group system, the Rh system, is sible genotypes and corresponding phe- peas, red, pink, or white flowers in snap-
critical in preventing a poten-
tially life-threatening condition notypes in the ABO blood group system dragons, or blood types in the ABO sys-
in newborns called haemolytic are listed in Table 6.3. tem).
disease of the newborn (HDN). A satisfactory genetic interpretation
This disease is more commonly TABLE 6.3 Co-dominance and Multiple Allelism
of traits with a wide range of expres-
known as Rh disease. The late in the ABO Blood Group System
sion was in fact first suggested by
Dr. Bruce Chown of the
University of Manitoba devel- Genotype Phenotype Mendel. In addition to his famous
oped techniques for the diag- experiments with peas, he performed
nosis, treatment, and prevent- IAIA or IAi Type A crosses between white and purple-red
ion of HDN. His work has IBIB or lBi Type B flowering beans. The hybrids had flow-
resulted in the prevention of ers with less intense coloration than the
most Rh disease in Canada and IAIB Type AB
elsewhere in the world. purple-red parent. In the second gener-
ii Type 0 ation resulting from a hybrid cross,
Mendel did not find two phenotypes in
a simple 3:1 ratio. Instead he obtained
a whole series of different colours, rang-
WEBLINK
ing from white through pale violet to
Multifactorial Traits purple-red. His tentative explanation was
Research to find examples of
In humans and other higher organisms, that more than one pair of genes deter-
nature/nurture studies that
have been carried out in the most traits show a very wide range of mined flower colour. Mendel realized
last five years. Briefly outline phenotypic expression. In large families, that other possible systems apart from
the purpose of each study, characteristics such as height or hair the complete dominance seen in pea
the results, and the potential colour show a large number of different plants might exist. The hypothesis of
applications of this information.
phenotypes. Multiple allelism cannot multifactorial inheritance was tested in
Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11. explain this wide range of variation. The the early 1900s in an analysis of seed
term multifactorial is used for traits pigmentation in wheat crosses. A multi-
whose phenotypic expression is genic model was perfected.
controlled by genes found at many loci
(polygenic). The expression of a multi-
factorial trait is often influenced by other
Gene Interactions and the
contributing factors including the per- Effects of Environment
son’s internal and external environ- A more complete understanding of the
ments. Many multifactorial traits show functions of our genes must include the
a continuous distribution of phenotypes role of the environment. You have now
(for example, heights from 140 cm to seen that in multifactorial traits several
200 cm for the students in your school), genes can interact to produce what we
FIGURE 6.16 Graphs to 100

dominant average
demonstrate phenotype ex-
phenotype phenotype
pression in simple Mendelian
Percent phenotype in F2
Number of individuals
75
inheritance versus multifacto-
rial inheritance.
50
a) Discontinuous distribution
recessive
of phenotypes occurs when phenotype
one pair of alleles showing 25
dominance is involved.
b) Continuous distribution of 0
phenotypes occurs in multi- aa AA or Aa Distribution of phenotype
factorial inheritance. Distribution of phenotype

perceive as a single characteristic. Some may damage the developing brain of a INFOBIT
genetics studies have identified alleles fetus and prevent the child from devel-
that determine the same phenotype oping its intellectual potential. The fact that genes work
under all external conditions. Other stud- Researchers have demonstrated that the together in some complex
interaction is illustrated clearly
ies have shown that some alleles administration of a dietary supplement by the condition known as
produce different phenotypes under dif- of folic acid to women who have a fam- tuberous sclerosis. Although
ferent external conditions. These exter- ily history of neural tube defects reduces this is a single-gene defect,
nal conditions are termed “the the incidence of these types of defects in people who suffer from this
environment.” The extent to which a their offspring. In the absence of the re- disease develop benign
tumours in many areas of the
characteristic is determined by heredity quired nutrients and energy, a plant will body including the brain, eyes,
(nature) or by the environment (nurture) not reach its potential size, regardless heart, kidney and skin. They
is a fascinating question which has cre- of its genotype. are also characterized by their
ated a great deal of controversy in re- One of the most studied and debated epileptic seizures and
cent times. There is no question that the areas in nature/nurture involves a con- delayed development. This
non-functioning gene has
environment is a key factor in many sideration of intelligence. Is intelligence influenced the expression of
multifactorial traits. genetically determined or is it shaped by many other interrelated genes.
The role of the environment in de- the environment? Most experts have ar- When one gene causes many
termining some traits is quite obvious. rived at the conclusion that it is based effects like this, the result is
The genes for tallness will not be fully on contributions from both our genetic termed pleiotropy.
expressed in a person who is deprived make-up and environmental influences.
of a properly balanced diet during the Geneticists realized that such a complex
growth years. Chemicals such as alco- trait must have a basis in the genetic
hol or medicines to prevent epileptic make-up of an individual. They define
seizures, if taken by a pregnant woman, heritability as the proportion of the total
the environment. Studies first carried

out in the 1930s have shown that
identical twins display a very close
correlation in height (differing by less
The Use of than 2 cm) even if they are reared
Identical Twins apart and in different environments.
This implies a heavy emphasis on the
genetic component in the expression
of this phenotype. On the other hand,
Identical twins are often studied to test most comparisons involving intelli-
the competing effects of nature (ge- gence tests in identical twins seem to Image omitted due to
netics) and nurture (environment) on indicate that educational background copyright restrictions.
phenotypic expression. Identical twins can make a significant difference.
usually result when a single fertil- Identical twins reared apart are much
ized egg separates into two distinct more dissimilar (on I.Q. tests) than
embryos. The two children resulting identical twins reared together. These
will have identical sets of chromo- types of studies were intensified in the
somes in their cells. These twins with early 1980s when a large number of
identical genotypes resemble each identical twins who were separated at
other very closely. Any differences ob- birth (by adoption) were reunited and
served between identical twins are subjected to extensive comparisons.
due to the effects of their environment. This study continues to provide valu-
Such twins have become a valuable able information on the roles of the FIGURE 6.17 What could produce differ-
source of information in assessing the environment and heredity in deter- ent phenotype expression in these identi-
relative importance of heredity and mining phenotype expression. cal twins?

variation in the phenotype that is due to Thomas Hunt Morgan and

total variation in the genotype. It is not the Concept of Linkage
surprising then that geneticists today are
looking for “smart genes,” genes that There are far more genes in a cell than
somehow contribute to the intelligence the total number of chromosomes. It is
of an individual. estimated that humans possess some-
Robert Plomin, an intelligence re- where between 27 000 and 40 000
searcher working out of the Institute of genes on our 46 chromosomes in each
Psychiatry in London, England, was the body cell. Thus each chromosome must
first to publish evidence of smart genes contain hundreds of different genes. The
in 1998. His initial studies have raised genes that are located on the same chro-
many ethical questions about how this mosome tend to be inherited together.
genetic information should be used. When genes occur on the same chro-
Plomin compared I.Q. scores in twins mosome we say that gene linkage is in
that had been raised in the same envi- effect. When two different traits are
ronment and twins that had been raised determined by genes that are linked, the
apart. In addition, he compared I.Q. linked genes do not assort independently
scores in adopted children with those of in the way Mendel suggested in his Law
their biological parents and their adop- of Independent Assortment.
tive parents. The Sutton-Boveri hypothesis that
He suspects that intelligence is a com- genes (Mendel’s factors) were carried at
plex trait governed by hundreds of physical locations on the chromosomes
genes. It is probably one of the most raised the possibility that some genes
heritable mental attributes known. would be located on the same chromo-
Plomin suggests that 50% of the differ- some. These genes would be linked to-
ences among people’s I.Q. scores is a re- gether and tend to stay together during
sult of a difference in genetic makeup. meiosis. Thomas Hunt Morgan was one
He has already identified three genetic of the more important geneticists of
sites on chromosome 4 linked to high the 1900s. His meticulous studies with
I.Q. scores. the common fruit fly, Drosophila
melanogaster began in 1904, and even-
tually won him the Nobel prize in 1934.
A Gene Today
Morgan in 1911 considered a cross
Since the time of Mendel geneticists have between grey-bodied, normal-winged
been working toward a definition of the flies heterozygous GgWw, for the two
gene. Science progresses by defining dominant alleles, and black-bodied,
units, but these are helpful tools that small-winged flies homozygous for the
may be modified as more information recessive alleles, ggww. This is a test
becomes available. In the 1940s Beadle cross so that the expected ratio of
and Tatum suggested that one gene de- phenotypes is 1:1:1:1. If the genes as-
termines one enzyme. Today geneticists sorted independently, we would expect
know that a sequence of nucleotides on the results shown in Figure 6.18.
the DNA may code for a protein chain Four different phenotypic combina-
that may act as a structural component tions are possible in the flies resulting
of tissues, a regulatory chemical, or an from this cross. The expectation that the
influence on other structural or regula- four types will appear in equal numbers
tory proteins. The role of a protein may assumes that the genes for body colour
be influenced by many factors in the en- and wing shape are on separate chro-
vironment. Many interactions within the mosomes and that during meiosis, ran-
genome remain to be clarified. dom assortment takes place.

Morgan’s results were significantly age groups to describe these “packages”

different, as shown in Figure 6.18. The of genes that tended to be inherited to-
majority of the F1 flies showed either gether. Today we know that these link-
normal wings with grey bodies (41.5%) age groups are simply chromosomes. In
or small wings with black bodies any given species the number of linkage
(41.5%). The combinations of normal groups is the same as the number of
wings with black bodies and small wings pairs of homologous chromosomes.
with grey bodies each appeared in only Humans have 23 linkage groups. Gene
8.5% of the F1. linkage reduces the number of sex cell
Morgan concluded that the genes for genotypes possible in a parent organism
body colour and wing type were some- and so reduces the variety of phenotypes
how linked so that they could not assort observed in the offspring of the next
independently. He coined the term link- generation.
GgWw
Gametes
Gametes GW 1/4 Gw 1/4 gW 1/4 gw 1/4
ggww gw GgWw Ggww ggWw ggww
1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4
Phenotype grey, normal grey, small wing black, normal black, small wing
Expected percent 25 25 25 25
if independent FIGURE 6.18 Morgan’s
experiment showed linkage
Observed 41.5 8.5 8.5 41.5 and recombination between
percent genes for body colour and
wing length.
chromosomes of parents gametes possible
If A is linked with B only two types

and a with b of gametes
A A 1/2 AB
B B
A A a a meiosis
B B b b
a a 1/2 ab
b b
If A is linked with b
and a with B only two types
A A of gametes
b b 1/2 Ab
A A a a meiosis
b b B B
a a 1/2 aB FIGURE 6.19 Linked genes
B B do not assort independently.

chromosomes of parents four possible gamete types
A A
B b
A Aa a
meiosis
B Bb b a a
FIGURE 6.20 If crossing b B

over occurs during meiosis,
linked genes can be sepa-
Linkage with recombination
rated. This increases the vari- 2 parental 2 recombinant
ety of gene combinations If A is linked with B and a with b and the genes are gametes gametes
possible in the gametes. far enough apart that crossing-over is possible A B and a b A b and a B
WEBLINK Crossing Over Notice that linkage does small wing and black, normal wing were
not explain all of the results of Morgan’s the result of crossover events.
Research sites that show gene experiment. While 83% of the F1 flies
maps for the human genome had gene combinations like one of the
or for some other organism. Gene Mapping
Begin your research at: parents, 17% of the F1 had new combi-
nations that could not be accounted for Sturtevant extended his studies of fruit
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11
through linkage. Morgan and his asso- flies to create gene maps that identified
ciate Alfred Sturtevant proposed that the location of genes on specific chro-
these new combinations, termed re- mosomes. He reasoned that genes at op-
combinants, were the result of a pro- posite ends of a chromosome are more
cess called crossing over. In this process likely to be separated by crossing over
they suggested that homologous chro- than genes that are located close to-
mosomes somehow exchanged genetic gether. The farther apart two linked
information, producing recombinants genes are, the greater the chance of a
different from the original linkage crossover. The frequency with which cer-
groups. We now know that during the tain genes turned up together in the fruit
first meiotic division, when homologous flies enabled Sturtevant to determine the
chromosomes line up in tetrads, the extent to which these genes were linked.
homologs may exchange genetic infor- If two traits always appeared together,
mation (see sections 5.2, 5.3). This he assumed that these genes were on
exchange will result in a greater variety the same chromosome and very close to-
in the gene combinations of the gametes. gether. If these two traits appeared to-
In the absence of crossing over, genes gether in 90% of the fruit flies, it would
on the same chromosome will always be suggest that although the two genes
passed on as a unit, no matter how the were linked, some crossing over had
chromosomes assort in meiosis. Crossing taken place between them, allowing re-
over between chromosomes allows the combinants to appear 10% of the time.
breaking up of these linkage groups so In 1915, Sturtevant who was a
that new combinations can occur in university student at the time produced
the gametes. Morgan’s results can now the first gene map outlining the location
be completely explained. The 17% of the of 85 genes on the chromosomes of the
flies that were recombinant forms, grey, fruit fly. By studying linkage and

crossover frequencies, geneticists today

Drosophila chromosomes I-IV
have been able to produce maps of chro-
mosomes showing the approximate lo-
cation and order of genes. These genetic
maps have been produced in detail for III
II
numerous organisms including the com-
mon fruit fly (Figure 6.21) and humans.
IV
Gene Mapping in Humans I
Mapping of genetic characteristics in hu-
mans requires a technique different from
the recombination maps of the early ge-
WILD TYPE MAP UNITS MUTANT
neticists. It is not possible to make ex-
perimental crosses in humans. Until the
time that biochemical methods of rec- 0
long short
ognizing particular genes became pos- aristae aristae
sible, information was obtained from the
study of pedigrees in families who
showed some recognizable trait. 13
long short
Sometimes a biochemical characteristic wings wings
appeared to be linked to a gene for a
particular genetic disorder. The bio-
chemical characteristic was then used long short
as a marker in the diagnosis of families legs legs
31
at risk for the disorder.
With the improvements in molecu-
lar biological techniques of gene isola-
tion and sequencing, mapping of the grey black
human genome became possible. The body body
48.5
Human Genome Project (See Chapter 7)
began in 1990. The goal of the project red purple
54.5
is a complete cataloguing of our entire eyes eyes
genetic makeup. This huge endeavour,
involving hundreds of scientists in labs full miniature
around the world, will involve the se- wings 67 wings
quencing of perhaps as many as 35 000
genes. In February 2001, scientists an- 75.5
nounced that the total number of genes straight curved
in the human genome was many fewer wings wings
than had previously been believed:
30 000 to 35 000 rather than close to
100 000. FIGURE 6.21 A genetic map of a chromosome. The map units reflect the fre-
quency of recombination between genes not the physical distance between them.
Researchers suggest that a
better understanding of the human
genetic code will allow scientists to
pinpoint defective genes easily. The
knowledge gained could be useful in
developing effective cures. In fact, some
researchers say that the Genome Project
may ultimately make it possible to
perform genetic surgery to replace

defective genes in an adult or even in a Geneticists will soon know the loci of
developing fetus in the womb. all human genes on the chromosomes
Since Mendel first studied his pea but they will still use crossover frequen-
plants in 1856, many scientists have con- cies to determine the sequence of linked
tributed to our understanding and ex- genes in other plant and animal species.
planations of patterns of inheritance. Example 4 on page 177 shows how this
Their work led to the modern concept information is used.
of the gene. Some of the key contributions
are outlined in Table 6.4.
TABLE 6.4 The History of Genetics
Year Scientist(s) Contribution to the Field of Genetics

1856-63 Gregor Mendel carried out his famous experiments with pea plants
1866 Gregor Mendel published his work on the principles of genetics
1871 Fredrich Miescher isolated a substance from the nucleus that he called “nuclein” (now known as DNA)
1900 Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, independently found the same patterns of inheritance described by Mendel
Erich von Tschermak
1902 Walter Sutton, Theodor Boveri proposed the chromosome theory of heredity
1910 Thomas Hunt Morgan identified the first X-linked gene in fruit flies, where a trait was linked to the sex of the fly;
experimental support for the chromosomal theory of heredity
1911 Thomas Hunt Morgan described gene linkage where the genes for different traits were on the same
chromosome
1913 Alfred Sturtevant outlined a technique for determining gene maps
1928 Frederick Griffith described a substance responsible for giving bateria new hereditary information; called
this agent ”the transforming principle“
1931 Harriet Creighton, demonstrated that genetic recombination reflects exchange of chromosome segments;
Barbara McClintock the first cytological demonstration of the chromosome theory of heredity
1944 Oswald Avery showed Griffith’s ”transforming principle“ was DNA
1951 Barbara McClintock described transposition, the first demonstration that a gene could move through the
genome; the forerunner of the concept of transposons
1953 Rosalind Franklin obtained X-ray diffraction patterns of DNA modules
1953 James Watson, Francis Crick described a double-helix model for the structure of DNA
1989 Lap Chee Tsui and associates discovered the genetic site for gene for cystic fibrosis , a fatal autosomal recessive condition
1990 James Watson, many other started the Human Genome Project in an effort to map and sequence the entire human
scientists genome
1996 International research group published the first complete description of DNA sequence in an organism — a species
of yeast
2001 The International Human Genome published the initial sequencing of the human genome
Mapping Consortium

EXAMPLE 4
A Mapping Problem
Genes A, B, C, D, E, and F are known to be linked. The following information has
been determined experimentally. What is the sequence of the genes on the chro-
mosome?
B crosses over with A 20% of the time

A crosses over with F 10% of the time
F crosses over with C 15% of the time
B crosses over with D 15% of the time
C crosses over with E 35% of the time
E crosses over with F 20% of the time
C crosses over with B 25% of the time
D is at one extreme end of the chromosome
Given: A combination of crossover frequencies for the six linked genes.
Required: To identify the correct sequence of the six linked genes. Because D is
at one extreme end of the chromosome the final answer will be in the form
D __ __ __ __ __ with the letters A, B, C, E and F being placed in the blanks in the
appropriate sequence.
Analysis: The solution is based on the relationship between crossover frequencies

and linkage. The larger the crossover frequency, the more crossovers occur and
the further apart the linked genes must be.
Solution:
Construct a horizontal line that will represent the length of the chromosome where
these six linked genes are found. Measure off equal units starting with 0 at one end
(0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 …) and up to 55 or 60 at the other end. Place D at 0; its
location has been identified at one extreme end.
D
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Let the crossover frequencies represent a distance on your number line. Start with
genes that can be placed easily on the number line. For example B crosses over
with D 15% of the time. This information places B at 15 on the number line. As
you satisfy each piece of information about crossover frequencies, put a tick mark
beside it. B crosses over with A 20% of the time. This means that A must be placed
at 35 on the line because there is no room to the left on the line. In the same
manner, C must be at 40 on the number line. At this point your line looks like this.
D B A C
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60


The placement of genes F and E is a little more difficult. A crosses over with F 10%
of the time. This means that F could be at 25 or at 45. Write F at both of these lo-
cations below the line.
D B A C
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
F F
F crosses over with C 15% of the time. In order to satisfy this piece of information
F must be located at 25 on the number line. Your line now looks like this.
D B F A C
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
In a similar fashion, E crosses over with F 20% of the time. This means that E could
be at 5 or at 45. Write E at both of these locations below the line.
D B F A C
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
E E
However, note that C crosses over with E 35% of the time. In order to satisfy
PRACTICE PROBLEM this piece of information, E must be located at 5 on the number line. Your
line now looks like this. Your answer is complete.
Genes A, B, C, D, E and F are
known to be linked. The fol-
lowing information has been D E B F A C
determined experimentally. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
What is the sequence of the
genes on the chromosome?
Keep in mind that your line does not pinpoint the loci for each of the six linked
A crosses over with B 10% of
genes on the chromosome. All you have identified is the correct sequence of
the time
these genes and the relative location of the six. The correct arrangement of
B crosses over with C 20% of these six linked genes on the chromosome is D, E, B, F, A, C.
the time
D crosses over with C 10% of
the time
F crosses over with D 15% of
the time
F crosses over with E 10% of
the time
E crosses over with B 15% of
the time
A crosses over with E 25% of
the time
A is at one extreme end of the
chromosome

Section 6.3 Review

Understanding Concepts Parent Set Children
1. Identify 5 types of inheritance where 1. O x O AB

simple dominance does not operate. 2. AB x O B
Briefly outline how each affects 3. A x O A
patterns of inheritance.
4. AB x A O
2. List the genotypic and phenotypic ra-
10. A farmer crosses two plants with the
tios observed in offspring produced by
genotypes AaBb and aabb and plants
parents who are heterozygous for dif-
1000 seeds that result from the cross.
ferent alleles, if incomplete dominance
How would you explain each of the fol-
is in effect.
lowing phenotypic ratios?
3. When do geneticists observe a “con- a) 240 show both recessive traits, 255
tinuous distribution” of phenotypes for show the dominant trait A with the
a particular trait? recessive trait b, 245 show the re-
4. What effect do linkage and crossing cessive trait a with the dominant
over have on gamete variety and trait B, and 260 show both domi-
phenotypic expression in the next nant traits.
generation? b) 490 show both recessive traits, 510
5. Explain why a knowledge of proba- show both dominant traits.
bility is important in the study of c) 495 show the recessive trait a with
genetics. the dominant trait B, 505 show the
dominant trait A with the recessive
trait b.
Applying Inquiry/ d) 450 show both recessive traits,
Communication Skills 45 show the dominant trait A with
the recessive trait b, 55 show the
6. Two genes are linked on the same recessive trait a with the dominant
chromosome. In spite of this, they trait B, and 450 show both domi-
assort independently. What can you nant traits.
conclude about their relative locations
on the chromosome?
7. What percent of crossing over will pro- Making Connections
duce results identical to independent 11. Predict the social, political, and
assortment? Explain. economic impact of the Human
8. The colour of feathers in birds is often Genome project.
determined by genes that exhibit in- 12. Most nature/nurture studies involve re-
complete dominance. For example the uniting identical twins that have been
gene for black feathers, B, may be in- brought up in different environments.
completely dominant to the gene for The identification of suitable twins for
white feathers, b. The heterozygous this type of study by geneticists requires
condition produces a bird with blue a search of personal medical and adop-
feathers. Determine the genotypic and tion records. The twins often don’t even
phenotypic ratios that will result from know about the existence of their iden-
each of the following crosses: tical sibling until they are contacted by
a) blue x white the researchers. What problems or eth-
b) black x blue ical issues could arise when this type
of “research” is allowed?
c) blue x blue
9. Use your knowledge of the inheritance
patterns of the ABO blood types to
match the following parent sets to the
correct child.

Inquiry Skills

Mendelian Inheritance Patterns Concluding and Communicating
The patterns of inheritance outlined by Mendel apply Cross #2 – This cob illustrates the result of a dihybrid
to many traits observed in a wide range of organ- cross involving two characteristics, purple versus yel-
isms. Corn is an excellent study subject, as it exhibits low and starchy versus sweet kernels. The gene for
several obvious traits. In addition, each kernel on a cob starchy kernels is dominant to the gene for sweet
of corn represents a single fertilization, where a pollen kernels. Use the symbols S for starchy and s for sweet.
grain (male gamete) has fertilized an ovule (female Starchy kernels are full and rounded and are often de-
gamete). As a result, each cob represents a whole scribed as smooth, while sweet kernels look wrinkled.
generation of offspring that can be analyzed for their A homozygous purple, starchy kernel plant was crossed
combinations and ratios of phenotypes. with a yellow, sweet kernel plant in the parental cross.
Two of the resulting F1 plants were then crossed to pro-
Problem duce the F2 cob. Fill in the first three columns of your
To study the inheritance of several traits in corn. chart for this cross.
Materials LAL1 Cross #3 – This cob illustrates the result of a test cross.
3 different cobs of corn: 1) purple and white kernels One of the F1 plants from cross #2 has been crossed
with a plant that had yellow sweet kernels. Fill in the
(a monohybrid cross) 2) purple with smooth (starchy)
first three columns of your chart for this cross.
kernels and white with wrinkled (sweet) kernels (a
dihybrid cross) 3) purple with smooth (starchy) ker-
1. Count at least 400 kernels on each of the three cobs
nels and white with wrinkled (sweet) kernels (a di-
that you have been given. Work with a partner, one
hybrid back cross to the homozygeous recessive)
T pins student counting the kernels and one student
Calculator or Graphic Calculator with Lists function recording the results. Keep a tally of each of the
phenotypes that you expect to observe for each
cross. In cross #1 you will record the number of
Procedure purple kernels and the number of yellow kernels.
Copy the chart below into your notes. Record your ob- Use the T pins to keep track of the rows counted.
servations as you study the three different cobs of corn. 2. Add your results for each of the three cobs to a table
Type of Parental Expected Expected Observed of class results on the blackboard.
Cross Genotypes Phenotypic Phenotypic Phenotypic 3. Use the class results to fill in the expected and ob-
Ratio Ratio for Ratio served phenotypic ratios in your chart.
Number of
Kernels
Counted Analyzing and Interpreting
#1 1. Examine your own data and the class data. State
whether the result of each cross fits the expected
#2 result
#3 2. How would you explain any a) small differences be-
tween your expected ratios and the observed ratios
Cross #1 – This cob illustrates the result of a mono- b) significant differences between your expected ra-
hybrid cross involving the trait of kernel colour. Purple tios and the observed ratios?
kernels are the result of the production of the pigment 3. Write a clear statement of the Mendelian principles
anthocyanin. Purple in kernels is dominant to yellow illustrated by each of the three crosses.
kernels. Use the symbols R for the purple allele and r
for the yellow. A homozygous purple plant was crossed
with a yellow plant in the parental cross. Two of the Concluding and Communicating
resulting F1 plants were then crossed to produce the The Mendelian ratios that you have studied in this
F2 cob that you will study. Fill in the first three columns lab are predictions based on segregation, independent
of your chart for this cross. assortment, and random fertilization. Because these


(continued)
are all influenced by chance, your observed results may Interpreting the chi-square value The chi-square value
differ from the expected results. calculated for the dihybrid cross is higher than the
value for the monohybrid cross. For these two
hypothetical cases, this is as you might expect. The
The chi-square test Scientists have a method of eval-
greater the number of phenotype categories (two for
uating to what degree observed ratios deviate from the
the monohybrid and four for the dihybrid), the more
expected ratios (often called “the norm”). They must
deviation is expected due to chance. This factor is taken
determine if this deviation is by chance or due to
into account by determining the degrees of freedom
uncertainty in their assumptions. This method is called
(d/f). The degrees of freedom are equal to (n–1) where
a chi-square test and is represented mathematically by
n is the number of different phenotypes that may re-
the equation:
sult from a given cross. The d/f for the monohybrid
χ2 = (oe)2/e where o = observed value cross is 1 and the d/f for the dihybrid cross is 3. The
e = expected value following critical values obtained from chi-square
(oe) = deviation tables for p (probability) equal to 0.05. This means that
= the sum of … we would expect a calculated value of deviation for one
degree of freedom to be greater than 3.84 only 1 in 20
If the observed frequencies are close to the ex- times. This is the critical level of deviation often used
pected frequencies, then the chi-square value will be when considering a scientific hypothesis. A chi-square
small, less than a predetermined value obtained from value greater than 3.84 for one degree of freedom
a chi-square table. In this case, there is no reason to would indicate relatively low probability that the devi-
reject the explanation of the pattern of inheritance sug- ation is due to chance and therefore a low probability
gested. When the chi-square value is higher than the that the data support your hypothesis.
value obtained from the tables, then there may be rea-
Chi-square values degrees of freedom 1 2 3 4
son to reject your hypothesis.
Chi-square value 3.84 5.99 7.82 9.49
A sample chi-square calculation is illustrated below
for hypothetical monohybrid and dihybrid crosses. In both of the examples above, the chi-square value
is less than the table value: 0.53 is less than 3.84
a) Monohybrid Cross – with 1000 individuals tested (1 degree of freedom for the monohybrid cross) and
Expected Observed Expected Deviation 3.48 is less than 7.82 (3 degrees of freedom for the
phenotypic (o) (e) (oe) (oe)2 (oe)2/e dihybrid cross) As a result, you can accept the hy-
ratio numbers numbers pothesis that the outcome of each of these two crosses
of each of each is the result of segregation, independent assortment,
phenotype phenotype
and random fertilization.
3/4 740 3/4 × 1000 740 – 750 (–10)2 100/750
= 750 = –10 = 100 = 0.13
4. What was the hypothesis used to explain the out-
1/4 260 1/4 × 1000 260 – 250 (+10)2 100/250
comes of each corn cross in your investigation?
= 250 = +10 = 100 = 0.40
χ2 = 0.53 5. Calculate the chi-square value for results of the F1
Total = 1000
crosses represented by each of your three corn cobs.
Are these values greater or less than the table
b) Dihybrid Cross – with 1000 individuals tested values given in the example calculations? What
do these chi-square values tell you about your
Expected Observed Expected Deviation
hypothesis? You might use the Lists function on a
phenotypic (o) (e) (oe) (oe)2 (oe)2/e
ratio numbers numbers graphing calculator.
of each of each 6. What explanations would a geneticist use if the
phenotype phenotype chi-square values exceeded the critical values?
9/16 578 563 +15 225 0.40
3/16 197 187 +10 100 0.54 Extending
3/16 167 187 –20 400 2.14
7. Why did you use the results tabulated for the
1/16 58 63 –5 25 0.40
class rather than those from your single cob of
Total = 1000 χ2 = 3.48
corn?
8. Scientists often use statistical methods like the chi-
square test to analyze their data. What advantages
are gained by using these types of calculations?

Inquiry Skills

Using Tools, material, Equipment
Human Traits Following Mendel’s Concluding and Communicating
Patterns of Inheritance
Section 6.1 focused primarily on the transmission of 3. Research in order to identify five additional human
traits in the common pea plant. Many human traits fol- traits that follow the relatively simple patterns out-
low the same patterns as Mendel described. In this in- lined by Mendel. Record information in your chart
vestigation you will have the opportunity to study some for your own phenotype and genotype and for the
human traits. phenotypes of 25 classmates.
4. Develop some graphical method of representing
Problem your data to summarize the results for the 25 study
What human traits follow the patterns of inheritance subjects.
outlined by Mendel?
Materials 1. For how many of the traits do you show the dom-
notebookLAL1 inant phenotype? the recessive phenotype?
calculator or graphing calculator 2. When is it possible to identify your genotype as a
grid papers single specific combination? When is it possible that
PTC test paper you have one of two genotypic combinations but you
cannot specify which one? In the latter situation,
how could you determine your specific genotype?
Experimental Design
1. Produce a chart to record results for yourself and
25 students. You will have to record the traits you
have selected, the dominant and recessive allele for Concluding and Communicating
these traits, the possible phenotypes for each trait 3. Is it likely that you would show the same seven phe-
studied, your phenotype, your genotype, and the notypes as one of your classmates? Explain. (Hint:
number of students in your study. How many different combinations of phenotypes
2. Two sample traits will get you started. exist when you describe all seven phenotypes?)
4. Is it likely that you would show the same seven
a) Obtain a piece of PTC test paper from your genotypes as one of your classmates? Explain. How
teacher. People who can taste PTC (phenylthiocar- does your answer here compare to the answer to
bamide) in small amounts are called “tasters” while question 3 above?
those who require a high concentration or totally 5. Study the class results. Is the dominant trait the
lack tasting ability are called “non-tasters.” Place one most frequently observed? Is this what you
the strip on your tongue towards the back of your would expect? Explain.
mouth where bitterness is sensed. A description of 6. How effective is your graphical representation of
your phenotype should be clear once the strip is the results of your student survey for the five traits?
moist (10–15 s). Discard the strip. Record your per- What patterns are conveyed by this representation?
sonal information and data for 25 classmates on
your chart. (The allele for tasting, T, is dominant
over the allele for non-tasting, t.) Extending
b) Clasp your hands together as you normally do 7. Select any one of the traits that you have studied
in a comfortable fashion. Record which thumb is and produce a pedigree for this trait covering as
on top. Record your personal information and data many generations as possible. If your family is small
for 25 classmates on your chart. (The allele for or this information is difficult to obtain, use the fam-
left on top, L, is dominant to the allele for right on ily of one of your classmates.
top, l.)

Key Terms
allele F2 generation incomplete dominance phenotype

co-dominance gene law of segregation P generation
continuous distribution gene map law of independent pleiotropy
crossing over genetics assortment Punnett square
dihybrid (cross) genotype linkage purebred
discontinuous distribution heredity linkage groups recessive trait
dominant trait heterozygous monohybrid (cross) recombinant
environment homozygous multiple allelism
F1 generation Human Genome Project multifactorial inheritance
6.1 The Origins of Genetics A test cross is a way to determine a genotype. It is

Gregor Mendel performed extensive scientific ex- the cross of the individual being tested to a ho-
periments in the mid-1800s on the common pea mozygous recessive individual.
plant in order to determine patterns of inheritance. 6.3 Genetics After Mendel
Mendel formulated two laws of inheritance, the Homozygous parents of differing phenotypes will
law of segregation and the law of independent produce offspring with an intermediate phenotype
assortment. if incomplete dominance is in effect.
A hybrid cross involving dominance produces off- The ABO blood group system exhibits multiple
spring that have a 3:1 phenotypic ratio and a allelism and co-dominance.
1:2:1 genotypic ratio in the F2 generation.
Some traits determined by multifactorial inheritance,
A dihybrid cross involving dominance produces off- like height in humans, show a continuous distri-
spring that exhibit a 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio in F2. bution in phenotypic expression.
Although Gregor Mendel’s explanations were not Linked genes do not assort independently. As a
immediately accepted, they eventually became the result, linkage reduces the number of different
basis of the branch of science called genetics. gametes possible in a parent organism and thus
reduces the variety of offspring phenotypes
Human traits such earlobe shape follow Mendel’s
observed.
laws of inheritance.
Crossing over promotes recombination and vari-
6.2 Genetic Analysis ety among offspring.
A Punnett square can be used to outline the possi-
Knowledge of linkage and crossing over has helped
ble outcomes (offspring) that could result from a
particular cross. geneticists produce gene maps.
Mendel’s Law of Segregation and Law of

Independent Assortment are accounted for in the
events of meiosis.
1. Review your sequence diagram of the scientific process 3. Consider the timeline of scientific discovery in genetics
from page 153. How would you revise it, based on what and the role of women. What impact did society have
you have learned? on the participation of women?
2. Summarize the key concepts in the chapter in a concept
map.

CHAPTER 6 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts combinations. What is the probability that one of these
combinations would be passed on to the next generation?
1. If “A” is linked with “B” and “a” is linked with “b,” how
many different phenotypic combinations would be observed 11. If you crossed a brown-eyed dark-haired homozygous
in the offspring resulting from the cross AaBb aabb? female with a light-haired blue-eyed male, given that
a) 1 b) 2 dark hair (A) and brown eyes (B) are dominant to light
c) 4 d) 6 hair (a) and blue eyes (b) respectively, what is the cor-
e) 8 rect genotype of the offspring?
2. The genotype of an individual that shows the dominant 12. If a couple has three children, all girls, what is the prob-
phenotype can be determined by crossing it with an inability that the next child will be a girl? Explain.
dividual that is:
a) heterozygous dominant 13. Outline how a geneticist would explain each of the fol-
b) heterozygous recessive lowing observations.
c) homozygous dominant a) continuous distribution of phenotypes in traits such
d) homozygous recessive as human height
b) intermediate expression
3. If a male produces 400 sperm cells and his genotype is c) identical twins brought up in different environments
AABb, on the average, how many sperm of each kind are very different for a particular trait.
will he produce? The “A” gene and the “B” gene are not
linked. 14. Explain why Mendel suggested that two “factors” rather
a) 200 AB, 200 Ab than one determined each of the pea plant traits
b) 300 AB, 100 Ab studied.
c) 100 aB, 100 ab, 100 Ab, 100 AB
d) 100 AB, 300 Ab 15. Explain the difference in phenotyphic expression be-
tween Mendelian inheritance with dominance and
4. If a gene “b” is lethal in the recessive condition bb, then multifactorial inheritance. Illustrate this difference
from a cross AaBb AaBb, how many offspring out of graphically.
16 would you expect to die? The genes are not linked.
a) 1 b) 4
c) 8 d) 16 Applying Inquiry/
5. Alleles for the same trait separate during:
a) fertilization b) mitosis
16. Genes A, B, C, D, E and F are known to be linked. The
c) meiosis I d) meiosis II
following information is provided.
A is at one extreme end of the chromosome
6. The relationship of a genotype to a corresponding phe-
A crosses over with C 35% of the time
notype is sometimes compared to the relationship that
B crosses over with C 5% of the time
exists between a blueprint and the appearance of the
B crosses over with F 20% of the time
building produced from the blueprint. Why do you think
A crosses over with E 10% of the time
this is a good comparison?
B crosses over with E 30% of the time
E crosses over with D 35% of the time
7. Distinguish between the following pairs of terms:
D crosses over with F 25% of the time
a) purebred and hybrid
What is the correct sequence of the genes on the
b) heterozygous and homozygous
chromosome?
c) dominant and recessive
d) phenotype and genotype
17. Determine the genotypes of the parents in each of the
following crosses involving the ABO blood group system.
8. Explain why it is not necessary to produce a Punnett
square whenever you are asked about the phenotypes Parental Types of Offspring Observed
that result from a dihybrid cross. Phenotypes A B AB O
9. If a trait shows incomplete dominance, what type of a) B x A 1/2 1/2

expression is observed in the hybrid? b) B x A 1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4
c) B x O 1/2 1/2
10. How many different types of gametes would an organism d) AB x B 1/2 1/2
with the genotype AaBbcc produce? List the different
e) B x B 3/4 1/4
f) AB x B 1/4 1/2 1/4

18. In a certain plant, tall (T) is dominant to short (t) and and height. Explain how two below average height
red flowers (R) are dominant to white flowers (r).The re- parents could produce an above average height child.
sults of a cross of a TtRr plant with a ttrr plant are shown
in the table. 22. In studies of a vegetable, plants with crinkled leaves are
crossed. The F1 genotype is raised and two other phe-
Phenotype Tall, White Tall, Red Short, White Short, Red notypes appear in the offspring in the numbers shown
in the table below.
Number of
offspring 415 95 85 405 Phenotype of Straight Crinkled Curly
Plant Leaves Leaves leaves
Is this what Gregor Mendel would have expected? Which
Number of
of his laws can’t be applied to this situation? How can
Offspring 192 410 214
these data be explained?
a) Construct a hypothesis to explain these results.

19. “Logically, one would expect the dominant trait to
b) Outline further crosses that could be made to test
appear in a larger percentage of individuals than the
your hypothesis.
recessive trait.” Discuss the validity of this statement.
c) How might you use a chi-square table to test the va-
lidity of your hypothesis?
20. You have studied the ABO blood group system. This is
d) Set up a chi-square table, as shown below, to
just one of many such systems. Two other examples
make the calculation of how far the results observed
are the MN system and the Rh system. The MN system
differ from what you would expect from your hy-
shows co-dominance and the Rh system shows domi-
pothesis.
nance according to the following charts.
Expected Observed Expected Deviation (oe)2 (oe)2/e
MN Corresponding Rh Corresponding
phenotypic numbers numbers (oe)
phenotypes genotypes phenotypes genotypes
ratio (o) of (e) of
M MM Rh (positive) RR, Rr each each
phenotype phenotype
N NN Rh (negative) rr
MN MN
The identities of 4 babies in a hospital nursery are confused dur-

ing an evacuation of the hospital. Using your knowledge of the Total = χ2=
three blood group systems (ABO, MN and Rh), match the parent
sets to the proper child. Making Connections
Baby Parental Pairs
A. AB/N/Rh+ 1. O/MN/Rh- B/M/Rh+ 23. Measure and record the heights of at least 50 individu-
als of the same sex in your age group (within one
B. O/MN/Rh+ 2. AB/N/Rh+ AB/MN/Rh+
year). Produce a graph (number of people versus height)
C. B/M/Rh- 3. A/MN/Rh- AB/MN/Rh- for your data. Explain the shape of your graph in terms
D. A/MN/Rh- 4. AB/N/Rh- A/N/Rh+ of the genetics involved for this trait.
24. Pretend that you are about to interview Gregor Mendel

21. Polygenic inheritance can be illustrated by a hypotheti-
in 1866 just after the publication of his work. Design ten
cal inheritance of height. Assume height is determined
questions to ask him in order to write a news article out-
by five pairs of genes found at five different loci. Capital
lining his thoughts and work. Write an article that could
letters(A,B,C,D,E) represent alleles that contribute to
have appeared in a paper at the time.
height, while lower case letters (a,b,c,d,e) represent al-
leles that do not. The table shows the relationship be-
25. Studies in human genetics are much more difficult to
tween the presence of a capital letter in the genotype
carry out than studies in plants or fruit flies. Give five
reasons why this is so.
Height Number of Capitals in the Example
Genotype 26. Many scientists including Mendel have had their work
Above average 6–10 AABbCcDDEe go unnoticed by other scientists of their time. Give an
Average 5 AaBbCcDdEe explanation why new discoveries are often ignored by
the rest of the scientific community.
Below average 0–4 aaBbccDdEe
CHAPTER 7
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS Genetics and Society
explain how the concepts of DNA,
genes, chromosomes, and meiosis
account for the transmission of
hereditary characteristics from

generation to generation (7.1)
explain how the sex of an
W hen you look at the world around you, you see a great diversity of dif-
ferent animals and plants. What makes one different from another?
Why is a cat different from a dog, or a worm different from a human? The
individual can be determined biological answer lies in the genes, the chromosomes, and specifically the
genetically (7.1) DNA. The power of the DNA molecule to self-replicate and to direct the
demonstrate an understanding that formation of other cell compounds make genetic continuity possible.
the expression of a genetic
disorder linked to the sex
chromosomes is more common in
males than in females (7.1)
describe genetic disorders in terms
of the chromosomes affected,
physical effects, and
treatment (7.1, 7.2, 7.3)
research genetic technologies
using sources from print and
electronic media, and synthesize
the information gained (7.2, 7.3
and Achievement task)
identify and describe examples
[CATCH GEN 41- figure for chapter
of Canadian contributions to
knowledge about genetic opener - Karyotype of Cri-du-Chat syn-
processes (7.1, 7.2, 7.3) drome identical to figure 12.8 b) in
Krogh. P.U. as is.
describe and analyze examples
Caption: Figure 7.x.
of genetic technologies that
were developed on the basis of
scientific understanding (7.1, 7.3,
FIGURE 7.1 Karyotypes are important diagnostic tools. The karyotype illustrated
here is of a male with a rare condition known as Cri-du-Chat (“cry of the cat”). This
condition results from the deletion of part of chromosome 5, as indicated by the
arrow.
186
Chromosomes carry the genes from generation to generation. Chromosomes

are organized in a particular pattern for each species and any change from
what is standard for the species is usually disadvantageous to the individual.
Research is continuing into the genetic causes of many disorders. This knowl-
edge has allowed geneticists to better understand the “stuff of life.” Techniques
developed today may someday make it possible to alter hereditary informa-
tion in order to cure some genetically transmitted diseases. While our knowl-
edge of genetics creates a better understanding, many of the techniques in
genetic engineering challenge society to consider risks and benefits of ap-
plying that knowledge and the ethical and moral issues it presents.
Discovering Biology
Advances in Genetics
The media tend to portray each genetic advance today as an incredible land-
mark in biotechnology. In groups of four to six, identify several examples of
genetic advances that have received a great deal of attention in the media. Is
the impact of these dramatic cases being exaggerated? As a group, come to
consensus about the degree of impact and present your opinion to the rest
of your class in a one- to two-minute presentation.
CHECKPOINT
In groups, brainstorm
genetic advances that are
in the news. Create a web
to summarize your
discussion.
Genetics

7.1 Genes, Chromosomes, and DNA

Key Understandings
explain how the number and form of the chromosomes identify a species and how
karyotypes are used
explain how sex is determined in humans
use Punnett squares to explain why a disorder linked to the sex chromosomes is more
common in males than females
describe the history of DNA research and how the understanding of the structure of
DNA led to the modern concept of the gene
explain the key role of DNA replication in mitosis, meiosis, and the transmission of
hereditary characters
WORD ORIGIN
Chromosome from the Greek

Each species of organism has a specific organisms studied to date have a diploid
chroma, meaning “colour”, and
soma meaning “body”, derives number of chromosomes in each diploid number between 10 and 50. For exam-
from the fact that chromo- body cell. Humans have a diploid num- ple, pea plants have 14 chromosomes,
somes take up stain quickly ber of 46 and these 46 chromosomes are while the common mouse has 40.
and become obvious “coloured arranged in 23 homologous pairs with Striking exceptions to this pattern are
bodies” while the other cell
one homolog of each pair coming from the radiolarian (a marine protist) with
structures remain faint.
each parent. The vast majority of 1600 chromosomes and a particular
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
centromere position
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 X Y
satellite
FIGURE 7.2 The human karyotype serves as a reference to the draft of the complete map of the
human genome. Each chromosome shows a distinctive banding pattern and centromere position.
Chromosomes 13, 14, 15, 21, and 22 have satellites.

three types of chromosomes

Sex Determination
Once the chromosomes have
been photographed, they can
satellite
be sorted into homologous
pairs based on their distinc- Image omitted due to copyright
centromere restrictions.
tive features (size, shape, type,
banding pattern). The result-
ing chart is called a
karyotype. See Figure 7.4.
Karyotypes are useful for
determining whether or not the chro-
(a) (b) (c) FIGURE 7.4 A normal male
mosomes are normal in number and karyotype
FIGURE 7.3 The three types of human chromo- structure. Early studies of karyotypes re-
somes based on centromere placement: vealed that some organisms possessed
a) metacentric one pair of homologs that were not iden-
b) submetacentric tical in size and shape. This pair was
c) acrocentric. The knobs on the acrocentric somehow related to the sex of the indi-
chromosomes are called satellites. INFOBIT
vidual. The cells of females in many
species possess two identically shaped It is interesting to note that the
species of roundworm that has only 2 X chromosomes, while the males pos- ratio of male newborns to
chromosomes. Other organisms besides sess a single X chromosome and a female newborns is not 50:50
humans have 46 chromosomes but this smaller Y chromosome. Human males as most people assume. The
therefore have 22 pairs of autosomes world average for births over
does not mean they share a common ap-
the last 20 years is 106 boys
pearance with humans. The features of (non-sex chromosomes) plus one X and for every 100 girls, that is,
a particular species are not determined one Y, while females have 22 pairs of au- 51.5% of newborns are sons.
simply by the chromosome number but tosomes plus two X chromosomes. The However, statistics for Canada
rather by the specific information car- male genotype is designated XY while show that this rate has fallen
the female genotype is XX. over the same period with a
ried on the chromosomes.
decrease of 2.2 males per
Chromosomes can only be seen in In both the male (XY) and female 1000 births. Studies of this sort
cells that are actively dividing. During (XX), only one sex chromosome can were launched following an
the other phases of the cell cycle the be passed on in a mating. The possibil- explosion of a pesticide plant
hereditary material is not condensed and ities for sex of the offspring of any in Italy in 1976 that coincided
mating are shown in Figure 7.5 on page with a significant increase in
appears grainy. In this state it is called
girls born to families that were
chromatin. Scientists wishing to study 190. Figure 7.6 shows the results in the exposed to the pesticide.
chromosomes stimulate cultured cells to form of a Punnett square.
multiply actively. The cells are then
treated with colchicine, a chemical that
stops mitosis at metaphase. The cells are Discovering Biology
then fixed (killed without disrupting the
chromosomes), stained, and prepared
Preparing a Human Karyotype
for microscopic examination and pho-
A karyotype is a chart of the chromosome makeup of any cell.
tography. Chromosomes that have been
1. Obtain a photograph of a colchicine metaphase preparation of
treated in this manner can be counted
a human cultured cell.
and studied easily.
The homologous pairs of chromo- 2. Prepare a karyotype of this cell by arranging pairs of chro-
somes vary enough to be distinctive. In mosomes side by side in descending size from chromosome
humans each homologous pair has a 1 to chromosome 22.
special banding pattern (resulting from Decide the chromosome number and sex of the individual
the stain), length, shape, and knobs or whose cells were being cultured. Explain whether this is a nor-
constrictions. See Figure 7.3. mal or abnormal karyotype.

Sex Linkage
Thomas Hunt Morgan, through his
MOTHER FATHER
meticulous studies with the common
fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, in-
troduced the idea of sex linkage when
XX XY
he observed that the inheritance of
meiosis I certain traits was linked to the sex of the
fruit fly.
X X X Y The human X chromosome is quite
large and contains many genes while the
meiosis II Y chromosome contains only a few.
Genes on the Y chromosome are involved
X X X X X X Y Y in determining maleness. Any traits con-
trolled by genes on the X chromosome
are called X-linked traits. This form of
linkage gives results contrary to Mendel’s
Law of Independent Assortment. A gene
on the X chromosome in the male has
X X X Y
no matching allele on the Y chromosome.
fertilization Therefore any gene on the X chromo-
some, whether dominant or recessive, is
expressed in males. The most common
XX XY
examples of traits illustrating X-linked
inheritance in humans are hemophilia
DAUGHTER SON (“bleeder’s” disease, affecting 1 out of
every 4000 males) and colour blindness
FIGURE 7.5 Sex determination in humans. Note that the sex of any child is deter- (affecting 8 out of every 1000 males).
mined by the father. If a sperm cell with the Y chromosome fertilizes the egg, a son Males with the most common form of
will result. On the other hand, if the fertilizing sperm cell contains an X chromo- colour blindness, red-green colour blind-
some, a daughter will result. ness, cannot distinguish between the
colours of the dots in Figure 7.7 in order
to see the number 5.
XY (father)
Gametes
X 1/2 Y 1/2
X 1/2 XX XY
female male
XX (mother)
Gametes X 1/2 XX XY
female male
F1 – chance female child: 1/2
chance male child: 1/2
FIGURE 7.6 Punnett square to demonstrate

sex determination FIGURE 7.7 Test for red-green colour blindness

These X-linked afflictions have a exclusively male. In addition, X-linked

readily recognizable pattern of inheri- traits like hemophilia that are determined
tance as affected individuals are almost by a recessive gene tend to appear in
every other generation. The disease skips
PIG-A
Paroxysmal nocturnal generations. This pattern is explained in
hemoglobinuria the Punnett squares below. Gametes are
DMD highlighted in blue and the allele for
Duchenne muscular hemophilia is circled.
dystrophy
X Linkage in Hemophilia Look at the pat-
tern of inheritance in the family shown
below. The parental cross was between
ATP7A Menkes syndrome
a male with hemophilia and a female ho-
mozygous for the normal allele for blood
clotting. In such a cross there are three
IL2RG
X-linked severe combined possible gametes involved, with two
immunodeficiency (SCID) possible genotypes for males and three
TNFSF5 Immunodeficiency possible genotypes for females as shown
with hyper-IgM in Table 7.1. Hemophilia is expressed
only in the males in this family, and its
FMR1 Fragile X syndrome expression skipped a generation. It is
MeCP2 Rett syndrome not seen in the F1 generation.
ALD Adrenoleukodystrophy Possible gametes involved in
HEMA Hemophilia A hemophilia are:
• X H —normal dominant allele—
FIGURE 7.8 Some of the genes mapped on the usually simply designated X
human X chromosome, showing their relative
• Xh—recessive allele for hemophilia
locations. The rare abnormal form has been
indicated. The characteristic banding pattern is • Y—lacks the gene for this trait, no
shown and the centromere location is indicated. locus for information for this trait
TABLE 7.1 Genotypes and Phenotypes Possible in Inheritance of Hemophilia
Males Females
Genotypes Phenotypes Genotypes Phenotypes
XY normal male XX normal female
XhY affected male, hemophiliac XXh normal female (carrier)
h h
XX affected female (very rare)
Xh Y
P cross Xh Y XX Gametes
Xh 1/2 Y 1/2
XX X 1/2 X Xh 1/4 XY 1/4
Gametes
X 1/2 X Xh 1/4 XY 1/4
F1 generation all daughters carriers, show normal phenotype

all sons normal
XY
F1 cross XY X Xh Gametes
X 1/2 Y 1/2
X Xh X 1/2 XX 1/4 XY 1/4
Gametes
Xh 1/2 X Xh 1/4 Xh Y 1/4
F2 generation 1/4 chance of an affected son

Genetics problems can involve traits taken when answering problems that in-
that are determined by genes on the au- volve a combination of the two types of
tosomes (autosomal inheritance) or by inheritance. A model solution and strat-
genes that are on the X chromosome egy is given below for one of these types
(X-linked inheritance). Care must be of questions.
EXAMPLE 1
Human Genetics Problem In humans the gene for normal blood clotting is
dominant to the gene that causes hemophilia. This trait is X-linked. The gene for
tasting PTC is dominant to the gene for non-tasting. This trait is autosomal. A
heterozygous taster woman who is also heterozygous for blood clotting is mar-
ried to a non-taster man who has normal blood clotting. What is the chance that
they will produce a non-taster hemophiliac son?
Given From the phenotypes, you can determine the genotypes of both parents.
The mother is TtXXh and the father is ttXY. Notice that the father cannot have the
recessive Xh allele or he would be affected with hemophilia.
Required These parents must be crossed to produce the F1 generation. Then

you can determine the probability of this couple producing a non-taster hemophil-
iac son. This son will have a genotype of ttXhY.
Analysis Use the following steps to produce a Punnett square to show the cross
and the children in the F1 generation.
1. Establish the coding you are going to use. Write this at the top of your answer.
2. Outline the genotypes of the parents based on the information given.
3. Determine the number of different combinations that can be passed on in the
egg and sperm cell. The number of combinations will determine the dimen-
sions of your Punnett square. The genes for tasting and blood clotting are on
separate pairs of homologous chromosomes. They will assort independently.
4. Construct a Punnett square showing the parents and the gamete combinations
possible.
5. Carefully fill in the different possibilities for the F1 generation.
Solution
1. Blood clotting (X-linked) Tasting (autosomal)

X normal clotting allele on X T tasting
Xh recessive allele for hemophilia t non-tasting
Y Y chromosome with no allele for blood clotting
2) Father – ttXY Mother – TtXXh
3) Father, ttXY – two possible combinations in the sperm he produces.

– each has a 1/2 chance of being produced.
Mother, TtXXh – four possible combinations in the eggs she produces.
– – each has a 1 / 4 chance of being
produced.


4) The dimensions of the Punnett square required are 2 4.

ttXY
Gametes PRACTICE PROBLEM
tX 1/2 tY 1/2
Use the method outlined to
TX 1/4
answer the following practice
TtXXh tX 1/4 problem.
Gametes
TXh 1/4
In humans the gene for nor-
tXh 1/4 mal colour vision is dominant
to the gene for colour blind-
ttXY ness. This trait is X-linked.
5) Each of the 8 squares in
Gametes
the F1 generation has an The gene for tasting PTC is
tX 1/2 tY 1/2 dominant to the gene for non-
equal chance of occur-
TX 1/4 TtXX 1/8 TtXY 1/8 ring. As a result, each of tasting. A non-tasting woman
who is a carrier for colour
TtXXh tX 1/4 ttXX 1/8 ttXY 1/8 the 8 squares has a prob-
blindness is married to a het-
Gametes TXh 1/4 TtX Xh 1/8 Tt Xh Y 1/8 ability of 1 / 8 . Note that erozygous tasting, normal
tXh 1/4 ttX Xh 1/8 tt Xh Y 1/8 this probability can also man. What is the chance that
be calculated for each they will produce each of the
square in the F1 by multiplying the probabilities of each type of gamete being following children?
formed (1/2 × 1/4 = 1/8).
a) a son
b) a non-tasting son
Statement The only square that represents a non-tasting hemophiliac son
c) a non-tasting colour-
is the one in the bottom right of the Punnett square. Therefore the cor- blind son
rect answer for this problem is 1/8. d) a tasting colour-blind
daughter
Note – Remember this value represents a probability and does not neces-
sarily have to happen. This couple could have 16 children with no non-
tasting hemophiliac sons.
allowed doctors to study the inheri-

tance pattern of this trait and to
understand the disease better.
Geneticists are able to identify the
Duchenne Muscular presence of this allele in heterozy-
gous normal females who have the
Dystrophy
potential to produce sons with
Duchenne muscular dystrophy.
Males with the allele for Image omitted due to
Duchenne muscular dystrophy copyright restrictions.
One of the more important gene loci undergo loss of size, strength, and
to be mapped on the X chromosome activity in muscle. Winnipeg scientist
is the locus that can contain the de- Dr. Judy Anderson recently discov-
fective allele for Duchenne muscu- ered a method of triggering muscle
lar dystrophy. The gene responsible growth. Dr. Anderson discovered that
for this X-linked condition was pin- nitric oxide released from muscle
pointed in 1987 at the Hospital for fibres is the trigger to muscle growth.
Sick Children in Toronto by a team She hopes that her research will lead
led by Dr. Ronald Worton. The gene to a way to make muscles grow as FIGURE 7.9 Dr. Judy Anderson researches
was identified and cloned. The abil- needed and improve the quality of life the control of muscle growth.
ity to identify the gene locus in cells for those with muscular dystrophy.

female cats and absent in those of not have a Barr body despite being
male cats. This mass of sex female. This condition is referred to
chromatin, found only in females, is as X0. A Klinefelter’s syndrome male
now known as the Barr body. who is XXY, and so has one more X
Dr. Murray Barr and Further studies in 1961 by Mary chromosome that usual, will show a
the Barr Body Lyon and Lillian Russell showed that Barr body despite being male. Today
the Barr body was an inactive X chro- geneticists use a knowledge of Barr
mosome in a female XX cell. Cells bodies to improve diagnosis and
Dr. Murray Barr attended the in females have two X chromosomes treatment of individuals with sex
University of Western Ontario and while those of males have only one. chromosome abnormalities.
received his MD in 1933. He was Females compensate for having two
responsible for starting a new era copies of the X chromosome by
in research and diagnosis of genetic condensing one of them into an
disorders. In 1948 he was conducting inactive form. Which X chromosome
a clinical investigation to study is condensed is a matter of random
whether increased nerve cell activity chance in each cell.
produced structural changes in the The discovery of this “extra”
nerve cells. A chance examination of information through Barr’s studies Image omitted due to
the sections of nerve tissue from cats resulted in a new area of genetics copyright restrictions.
revealed that the cell nuclei in some called human cytogenetics. The as-
of the cats contained a prominent sociation between chromosomal
mass of chromatin while the cell abnormalities and developmental
nuclei in other cats lacked this defects was shown. The technol-
mass. Further research, which Barr ogy of karyotyping for diagnosis de-
described as “curiosity-driven,” veloped from this understanding. For
clearly showed that this chromatin example, a Turner’s syndrome female FIGURE 7.10 A typical female cell showing a
mass was present in the nuclei of who has only one X chromosome will Barr body
DNA cell. Later, in 1880, nuclein became

For over 100 years scientists have stud- known as nucleic acid because it
ied the molecules of the cell in an at- exhibited acidic properties. The impor-
tempt to reveal some of life’s deepest tant role of this substance and its struc-
secrets. Today molecular geneticists have ture were not known at this time.
a basic understanding of how life forms In 1928, the British scientist
are able to reproduce themselves and Frederick Griffith performed experi-
produce new cells. The key to this un- ments on several strains of a form
derstanding is the molecular structure of bacteria called Pneumococcus.
of chromosomes. All chromosomes are Bacteriologists had identified one strain
made of deoxyribonucleic acid, (DNA) of Pneumococcus that lacked a smooth
and proteins. Knowledge of the role and outer capsule. As a result this “rough”
structure of DNA has developed over a form is easily destroyed by a host or-
period of time beginning in the 1800s. ganism’s immunological defences. This
In 1869, a German chemist named form that cannot cause disease is termed
Frederich Miescher isolated a substance non-virulent. A second strain, which
from the pus collected from infected does have a smooth outer coating,
wounds and boils. He called this sub- is quite capable of producing a life-
stance nuclein because he found that it threatening form of pneumonia and is
was concentrated in the nucleus of the termed virulent. Griffith injected a

combination of dead smooth bacteria block molecule of DNA is a nucleotide Investigation

and live rough bacteria into mice. composed of a sugar molecule, a phos-
Refer to page 230,
Although he suspected that this would phate molecule, and a nitrogenous base. Investigation 2.
be a harmless combination, all the mice The chemical properties of the possible
died of pneumonia. Samples of blood nitrogen-containing bases found in
taken from the dead mice were swarm- DNA— adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine
ing with virulent smooth bacteria that (G) and thymine (T)—ensure that if ade-
were still capable of killing other mice. nine is found on one side of the ladder’s
Somehow the hereditary information for rung, then thymine must be found on the
a smooth capsule had been passed from opposite side (or vice versa). See Figure
the dead smooth bacteria to the living 7.13 on page 196. In the same way cy-
rough bacteria. tosine is always matched with guanine
In 1944, Oswald Avery, and his co- (or vice versa). These matched pairs are
workers, McLeod and Macarty, identified called complements (A with T, C with G).
the “transforming principle” in Griffith’s
experiments as DNA. For the first time,
a glimpse of the key role of DNA had been
obtained. A functional model of the struc-
ture of DNA was first proposed by two
scientists, Francis Crick (an Englishman)
and James Watson (an American). Their
outline of DNA structure presented in
1953 earned them the Nobel Prize. In the
early 1960s many studies, including Image omitted due to copyright
restrictions.
those of Marshall Nirenberg and Har
Gobind Khorana, resulted in an inter-
pretation of the language of the instruc-
tions encoded in DNA. This can be
summed up as “DNA codes for RNA and
RNA codes for protein.”
The Structure of DNA

FIGURE 7.11 Although we give most of the
The Watson-Crick model has enabled a
credit for the model of DNA to Watson and
better understanding of the roles of genes Crick, many other scientists, such as Rosalind
and chromosomes. Watson and Crick de- Franklin, made important contributions.
scribed DNA as a double helix. See
Figure 7.16 on page 197. They were able
to determine this from photographs pro-
duced by Rosalind Franklin using a tech-
nique in X-ray diffraction (see Figure
7.12). Photographs using this specialized
technique indicated that the molecule Image omitted due to copyright
had a helical structure. restrictions.
This double helical shape is best
illustrated by imagining a twisted lad-
der. A computer-generated model of
DNA is shown in Figure 7.14. The two
sides of the ladder are made up of a
repeating sequence of sugar (deoxyri-
FIGURE 7.12 This image created by Rosalind
bose) and phosphate groups. The rungs Franklin using a technique known as X-ray
of the ladder are composed of a pair of diffraction helped Watson and Crick to under-
nitrogenous bases. The basic building stand that DNA was a double helix.

WEBLINK The complementary base pairing de- helical chains forming the ladder-shaped
pends on the shape of the DNA molecule molecule.
and the ability of the base pairs to form If you know the sequence of bases in
hydrogen bonds. Modern computer tech- the nucleotides on one side of the ladder,
To find out more about three-
dimensional molecular models, nology allows us to view and manipu- then you also know the sequence on
go to late computer-generated, three- the other side because of complementary
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11. dimensional models of DNA to observe base pairing. Scientists quickly realized
the hydrogen bonds linking the two that the “code of life” was somehow
NUCLEOTIDES ARE THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF DNA

nitrogenous sugar
NUCLEOTIDE base (deoxyribose)
O
G C
O
P phosphate Image omitted due to copyright
group restrictions.
P
O
T A O
P
P
O
G C
O
P
P FIGURE 7.14 Computer-generated models like

O T
A O this one are useful in helping us visualize the
Sugar-phosphate
P helical structure of DNA.
backbone
P O G C hydrogen bond
O
P
O T
P A
O
P
P O T A O
P

restrictions.
FIGURE 7.13 The basic

DNA
double helix building block in the DNA
molecule is the nucleotide
with its three parts: a phos-
phate group, a sugar, and a
nitrogenous base. These
nitrogenous bases are linked
together in two separate FIGURE 7.15 Striking views of replication have
chains that are joined in the been observed through the electron microscope.
middle in a complementary In this micrograph the process of replication is
fashion, A with T, and C with clearly seen in human DNA in a cultured cell. The
G. These two chains are then replication bubble increases in length, indicating
wound around one another that chain growth happens in two directions
in a double helix. from a common origin.

FIGURE 7.16 The model of

DNA (shown here in the back-
ground) constructed by
Watson and Crick is undoubt-
edly one of the most impor-
tant advances in biology in
the twentieth century.
reflected in the sequence of nitroge- “unzipping” process produces two half-

nous bases in the rungs of the double ladders or strands of DNA still held by
helix. A long sequence of these nitroge- their sugar phosphate backbones. Free-
nous bases makes up a gene and the floating DNA nucleotides found inside
order of the bases in the gene determines the nucleus, such as adenine nucleotide
what product the gene will produce. The and cytosine nucleotide, now make their
sum of the genes in a cell in turn deter- way to these strands and attach them-
mines what kinds of proteins a cell will selves to the exposed nitrogenous bases.
make. Ultimately, it is the molecular These free-floating nucleotides will only
structure of the proteins that gives each bond to their complementary bases. This
cell its individual characteristics. process is shown for a very short piece
of DNA in Figure 7.17 on page 198.
When the process is complete, two
Replication—
identical helices just like the original are
Copying the Code produced, with each helix containing one WEBLINK
Every cell must duplicate its hereditary of the original strands. This method of
information prior to mitosis or meiosis. Investigate the work of
replicating the hereditary information is
Meselson and Stahl and others
The ability of DNA to produce a copy of termed semiconservative. See Figures to prove semi-conservative
itself in the process of replication is 7.17 and 7.18. If the original molecule replication. Prepare diagrams
unique among all biological molecules. had kept both old chains while a com- of all possible types of
This process begins when the hydrogen pletely new double-stranded molecule replication. Begin your
bonds between the base pairs, forming research at
was built, the replication would have
the rungs of the ladder, break apart. This been conservative.

DNA to be replicated
G C
T A
A T
G C
C G
T A
Strands separate OLD

C
G
T A
T
A
C NEW
C G
G
T
Each strand now serves as a template for the synthesis

of a separate DNA molecule as free nucleotides base-pair
with complementary nucleotides on the existing strands.
C FIGURE 7.18 As the DNA unwinds, each of the

G C original strands (shown in red) acts as a
T A template for a complementary strand (shown in
A yellow)
T
A A
G T C
C G
G C G nucleus of the cell directed development
T
C
A
A
in the cytoplasm. Investigations in the

T
1960s clearly showed that a message

reflecting the DNA code in the nu-
cleus was transferred from the nucleus
G C This results in two G C to the site of protein synthesis in the
T A identical strands of DNA. T A
cytoplasm.
Order of bases The production of this message is
A T A T encodes
information termed transcription. This process be-
G C G C for protein gins with the unzipping of a segment of
production. DNA (much as in replication). This seg-
C G C G
ment represents a coding unit (one
T A T A
gene) determining a specific protein. In
this process it is not DNA nucleotides
FIGURE 7.17 The resulting two molecules of DNA are identical to the original. that hydrogen-bond to the exposed
bases. Instead, nucleotides of ribonucleic
acid (RNA) complementary base-pair by
hydrogen bonds to one of the exposed
Transcription and DNA strands. There is one difference
Translation in the case of RNA base-pairing. Each
DNA material never leaves the nucleus. adenine on the DNA strand pairs with
Experiments carried out by Joachim uracil instead of thymine (as would hap-
Hammerling on the single-celled alga, pen in DNA base-pairing). The other
Acetabularia, demonstrated that the three pairs, T with A, C with G, and G

with C occur as in DNA base-pairing. The OVERVIEW OF TRANSCRIPTION AND TRANSLATION

RNA nucleotides arrange themselves
along the DNA strand using the DNA DNA
strand as a template. The single-stranded
RNA molecule produced is called mes- TRANSCRIPTION
(in nucleus)
senger RNA or mRNA for short.
The production of mRNA is called mRNA
transcription because the information in
DNA has been transcribed into another
complementary form (mRNA) that will be
used in protein synthesis. In this way the
information coded in the DNA has a way
to get out into the cytoplasm without
the DNA ever having to leave the nucleus.
In some insect tissues seen under the mi-
croscope, regions of the chromatin that
are actively engaged in transcription ap-
pear as “puffs” in stained preparations
of chromosomes. The puffs indicate ribosome
active production of mRNA.
The process of protein synthesis mRNA
that occurs on the ribosomes is termed TRANSLATION
(in cytoplasm)
translation. In this process the language
of the base sequence in the mRNA is
protein
translated into the sequence of amino
acids in a protein. When the various types
of amino acid are linked with peptide
bonds in a particular order, the specific FIGURE 7.19 In transcription a length of DNA unwinds, ribonucleotides pair with
polypeptide results. This polypeptide will the bases on the exposed strands, and a length of messenger RNA is formed. This
mRNA molecule leaves the nucleus and moves into the cytolasm where it binds to
acquire its secondary, tertiary, and qua- a ribosome. In translation at the ribosome, the sequence of bases on the mRNA is
ternary protein structure by bond for- translated into a sequence of amino acids in a protein.
mation and folding of the molecule. The
protein molecule will then take on its spe-
cific function as a regulatory or structural
molecule, either within the same cell or
elsewhere in the organism.
You can now see how DNA directs
protein synthesis. The sequence of ade- quantity? The chromosomes of all cells INFOBIT
nine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine in of an organism have exactly the same
the DNA of the chromosome is used as a instructions (the same genes). How then, Once a cell has undergone dif-
ferentiation, it has not neces-
template to determine the sequence of are cells triggered to differentiate in
sarily lost its genetic potential.
bases on the messenger RNA. This mes- order to carry out different functions? This is illustrated by organisms
senger RNA then dictates the sequence of Scientists today are conducting research that can regenerate lost body
amino acids to be linked together at the ri- to learn the mechanisms that must parts. When a starfish loses an
bosome to form the protein product. somehow “switch on” some genes while arm, some cells in the stump
undergo dedifferentiation,
Once scientists had produced an out- “switching off” others to allow only
divide and then differentiate
line of protein synthesis, they turned certain information to be used to pro- once again to produce a new
their attention to explaining several other duce specific proteins in particular cells. arm. In some organisms these
difficult puzzles involving the chromo- These are the areas of experimentation, single, isolated differentiated
somes. How does the cell know to pro- controversy, and active theory con- cells can undergo dedifferenti-
ation and then develop into a
duce a particular protein at the struction today. Researchers suggest that
complete organism.
appropriate time and in the correct not all genes are structural genes.

Current evidence seems to point to the Scientists now have an understanding of

existence of two other types of genes, the structure of the hereditary material
regulator and operator genes, which can and are also beginning to understand
switch structural genes on and off. how it is regulated and controlled.
Section 7.1 Review

Understanding Concepts could not have fathered this daughter.
Does genetics back his claim? Explain
1. Are two organisms with an identical your answer.
diploid number of chromosomes nec-
essarily identical? Explain. 10. In the fruit fly Drosophila, the gene for
red eyes, R, is dominant to the gene for
2. How can different homologous pairs of white eyes, r. This trait is X-linked.
chromosomes be distinguished from Predict the genotypic and phenotypic
one another? ratios that would result from each of
3. A couple has four children, all sons. the following crosses:
Does this mean that there is a better a) a homozygous dominant female
chance of a daughter on a fifth preg- and a red-eyed male
nancy? Why? Why not? b) a homozygous dominant female
4. Under what conditions could a and a white-eyed male
hemophiliac father produce a c) a heterozygous red-eyed female
hemophiliac son? and a red-eyed male
d) a heterozygous red-eyed female
5. Outline the structure of DNA as de-
and a white-eyed male
scribed by Watson and Crick.
e) a white-eyed female and a red-eyed
6. Distinguish among the following pro- male
cesses by describing the location of f) a white-eyed female and a white-
each and the molecules involved: eyed male
a) replication 11. A male fruit fly with normal bristles on
b) transcription his body is crossed with a female fly
c) translation that exhibits forked bristles on her
body. This cross produces 125 males
Applying Inquiry/ with forked bristles and 131 females
Communication Skills with normal bristles. How would you
explain the inheritance pattern of this
7. How has the understanding of the trait?
structure of DNA contributed to cur-
rent thinking about genes?
Making Connections
8. Red-green colour blindness is inher-
ited as an X-linked recessive trait. If a 12. The description of the structure of DNA
man who has normal vision marries a provided by Watson and Crick is one
colour-blind woman, what would be of the most important discoveries in bi-
the expected genotype and phenotype ology in the twentieth century. Name
ratios for this trait in their children? three legal or social issues resulting
9. A man and his wife both have normal from this discovery.
colour vision. The woman gives birth 13. Propose how society would be differ-
to a daughter who has red-green colour ent today without an understanding of
blindness. The man claims that he genes, chromosomes, and DNA.

7.2 Genetic Disorders and Pedigrees

Key Understandings
explain the occurrence of mutations and their importance in genetics
describe the genetic basis of several types of genetic disorders
explain the role of nondisjunction in causing genetic disorders
explain how studies in population genetics demonstrated the relationship between

maternal age and Down syndrome
use the proper coding to construct pedigree charts
identify the type of inheritance illustrated in pedigrees
Scientists strongly suspect that these mu-

Mutation tagens can also affect humans.
Since DNA directs protein synthesis and Mutations found in the somatic
the proteins determine the type of cell, (body) cells of an organism will usually
you might predict that any alteration in go unnoticed unless a significant num-
the genetic information would upset the ber of cells are involved. Of course, these
normal operation of a cell or organism. mutations cannot be passed on to the
You would be correct. Any change in a next generation. The more serious type
gene that is accompanied by a loss or of mutation is found in the gametes of a
change in the functioning of the genetic parent organism. There are two reasons
information is termed a mutation. Many for concern about mutation in gametes.
mutations are harmful. Fortunately, DNA This gamete may be passed on to pro-
is normally a very stable substance and duce an entire organism with this mu-
is not easily altered. If a gene is altered, tation in every cell. Second, this mutation
in most cases the undesirable informa- could be passed on to offspring and con-
tion is in the form of a recessive allele. tinue for many generations.
As a result, the harmful effects of the Aspects of mutation and mutation
changed gene will not be expressed in the rate are important and are of concern
heterozygous condition. to society. Clinical health problems vis-
Scientists have demonstrated that ible at birth are called congenital
mutations can occur spontaneously in defects. They are caused by mutations
any living organism. Spontaneous mu- in the genes, environmental agents, or
tations do not have any known cause. a combination of the two. Environmental
Mutations appear to occur at fixed rates agents, called teratogens, cause con-
in different species. H.J. Muller in the genital defects by altering the expression
1920s developed techniques for mea- of a gene or genes. For example, a
suring the frequency of Drosophila mu- mother who contracts German measles
tation. In later studies Muller showed (Rubella) in the first three months of a
that a higher than normal rate of mu- pregnancy runs a high risk of producing
tation in Drosophila occurred if the flies a child with congenital defects. This is
were grown at abnormal temperatures also true for a mother who abuses alco-
or were bombarded with X rays. Any hol during pregnancy. In these cases, the
factor that can cause mutation is termed abnormalities result from an environ-
a mutagen. For example, experiments mental influence; a virus or alcohol.
on mice have confirmed that radiation, Congenital defects like club foot, spina
abnormal temperatures, and certain bifida (an open spine at birth), and con-
chemicals can act as mutagenic agents. genital heart defects are thought to be

Mutation: Normal DNA Mutation:

Incorrect base-pairing Incorrect sequence
of base pairs
G C G C G C
T A T A T A Image omitted due to copyright

restrictions.
A T A T C G
G T G C G C
C G C G C G
T A T A T A
DNA with point mutations
FIGURE 7.20 Two examples of mistakes possible during DNA replication. Mistakes
like these occur frequently but may be corrected during replication. Changes like
these “point mutations” may result in defective proteins. Image omitted due to copyright
restrictions.
partly genetic, but the role of each of the

contributing factors is not known.
On the other hand, some mutations
cause genetic defects that are obviously
inherited. Some defects are caused by a
single abnormal gene. Diseases such as FIGURE 7.21 Sickle cells are the result of a
hemophilia, albinism, cystic fibrosis, and point mutation.
sickle cell anemia are produced by a sin- a) Normal red blood cells.
gle recessive gene mutation. In these cases b) Red blood cells containing Hb S become
the undesirable defect is the result of a sickled in shape when oxygen is low.
change in the DNA code for a single gene.
fect of this seemingly harmless replace-
Sickle Cell Anemia Sickle cell anemia ment is drastic and often lethal. The so-
is a blood disorder inherited as an au- lution of this molecular puzzle involved
tosomal recessive trait. People who are protein chemists, molecular geneticists,
homozygous for this gene have Hb S, an and physiologists. Physicians and coun-
abnormal form of the oxygen-carrying sellors continue to be involved in the ef-
pigment, hemoglobin, in their red blood fort to support families who have a
cells. As a result, their red blood cells member homozygous for the sickle-cell
take on a peculiar “sickle” shape instead allele. Treatment is provided through
of the normal disc shape. The abnormal transfusion and careful monitoring of the
shape leads to blockage of capillaries, person’s lifestyle to avoid overexertion
damage to other red blood cells, and se- and infection. Since 1998 attempts have
vere anemia. This disease, which is often been made to treat some patients
fatal in early childhood, is caused by a through bone marrow transplants, a
single amino-acid replacement in the β treatment that itself carries some risk.
chains of this macromolecule. This
means just one change in a chain of 146 Cystic Fibrosis At the Hospital for Sick
amino acids. This amino-acid replace- Children in Toronto, in 1989, Dr. Lap-
ment is brought about by a change of Chee Tsui led a team that discovered the
one nitrogenous base along the DNA se- chromosomal location of the gene
quence coding for this protein! The ef- responsible for cystic fibrosis, a serious

XY
X 1/2 Y 1/2
O 1/2 XO 1/4 YO 1/4

Gamete lacking a Turner’s syndrome Will not survive
sex chromosome
XX
XX 1/2 XXX 1/4 XXY 1/4
Image omitted due to copyright Gamete formed “super female”; Klinefelter’s
restrictions. from nondisjunction usually normal syndrome
abnormal meiotic division in which chro- FIGURE 7.23 Nondisjunction

mosomes fail to separate. This is termed and its effect on the chromo-
nondisjunction. some makeup of offspring.
Down syndrome is one of the more The “0” indicates the ab-
sence of a sex chromosome.
common abnormalities in chromosome
number observed in humans. Scientists
FIGURE 7.22 Lap-Chee Tsui led the Toronto
team responsible for locating the gene for cystic have been able to identify the cause of
fibrosis on chromosome 7. this syndrome from karyotypes. Down
syndrome is caused by a third chromo-
some 21, an arrangement called trisomy
condition inherited as an autosomal 21. As a result, individuals with Down
recessive. Cystic fibrosis affects the lungs syndrome have a total of 47 chromo-
due to excessive mucus production. The somes in every body cell. Individuals with
mucus builds up and makes breathing this syndrome have characteristic faces,
very difficult. Individuals who have cys- eyelids, tongues, and hands, and are de-
tic fibrosis must take many medications velopmentally challenged in varying de-
to help them digest their food and have grees both physically and mentally.
daily physical therapy to clear their lungs Nondisjunction also can affect the
of mucus. segregation of the sex chromosomes, pro-
ducing individuals with extra or missing
sex chromosomes. Nondisjunction may
Chromosomal Abnormalities occur in either the male or female parent
The other major type of inherited and in either division of meiosis. The out-
abnormality involves whole chromo- comes of a mating involving gametes pro-
somes rather than single genes. duced by nondisjunction in the female
Polyploidy, a condition where the cells parent are shown in the Punnett square
contain an extra whole set of chromo- in Figure 7.23.
somes, is possible in some plants but is In addition to these numerical
lethal in humans and most other ani- anomalies, parts of chromosomes can
mals. A more common abnormality in be altered during meiosis due to mis-
chromosome number is the result of an takes in crossing over. These mistakes
extra chromosome or the absence of a result in deletions, duplications, inver-
single chromosome, a condition called sions, and translocations.
aneuploidy. This type of defect tends to
be more severe than a single gene defect
and is often lethal before birth, due to Down Syndrome and
spontaneous abortion, or shortly after Population Genetics
birth. An individual possessing an extra Down syndrome occurs in about 1 out
chromosome (that is, three of one kind) of every 700 live births. This is the
is termed a trisomic while an individual average when mothers of all ages are
lacking one of a pair of chromosomes is considered. Trisomies of chromosomes
termed a monosomic. Trisomics and other than 21 do occur but are not in
monosomics usually arise as a result of an high frequency. These conditions have

more damaging effects than Down syn- of a trait in a family. In medical genet-
drome, and therefore the fetus may ics involving humans, these considera-
abort spontaneously or the child may die tions are of obvious importance to the
shortly after birth. individuals involved in the cross or fam-
Most of what you have learned so ily under study. Geneticists, however,
far has been restricted to a considera- have extended their studies beyond this
tion of a specific cross or the recurrence level to study whole populations in pop-
ulation genetics. Researchers today
study the frequency of a gene in the gene
pool or the frequency of a genotype in
the whole population. The gene pool is
the term used to describe the “pooling”
of all the alleles for a specific trait in the
whole population.
Population studies, involving data
restrictions.
collected from thousands of births, have
found an obvious relationship between
FIGURE 7.24 This girl with maternal age and the frequency of Down
Down syndrome and her syndrome offspring. Dr. Irene Uchida, a
mother learn how to use a world famous cytogeneticist at the
computer. McMaster University Medical Centre,
studied chromosomal abnormalities and
has conducted much research in this
area.
Table 7.2 shows statistics on the fre-
quency of Down syndrome based on ma-
ternal age. The fact that 45-year-old
mothers produce a Down syndrome
child in 1 in 32 births may not appear
particularly abnormal. But if we com-
Image omitted due to copyright pare this frequency to 1 in 1925 in 20-
restrictions. year-old mothers, the effect of maternal
age is clearly significant. A comparison
of these two groups shows an increase
in the chances of a Down syndrome child
to be 60-fold. This information has been
helpful for counselling older expectant
mothers.
FIGURE 7.25 The karyotype Researchers have recognized the im-
of a female individual with portance of intensive training in Down
Down syndrome. There are
syndrome children prior to the age of
three of chromosome 21
(arrowed). two. In many cases Down syndrome
Mother’s age Probability of Down
syndrome individuals are able to integrate into so-
ciety by attending traditional schools and
20–24 1 in 1925 also receiving job training.
25–29 1 in 1205 Table 7.3 summarizes some human
disorders that are produced by gene mu-
30–34 1 in 885
tation or chromosomal abnormalities.
35–39 1 in 365
40–44 1 in 110
TABLE 7.2 Down Syndrome 45 or older 1 in 32
and Maternal Age

TABLE 7.3 Genetic Disorders in Humans
Type of Genetic Disorder Pattern or Means of Inheritance Symptoms in Individuals Affected by Condition
Single Gene Defect
Sickle cell anemia · autosomal recessive · blood disorder involving abnormal hemoglobin
· red blood cells have a reduced ability to carry
oxygen and appear sickle-shaped in low oxygen
Cystic fibrosis . autosomal recessive . syndrome of effects

. mucus accumulates in lungs
. problems with digestion
Tay-Sachs disease · autosomal recessive · severe brain deterioration due to improper fat
metabolism
· usually causes death by age three or four
Albinism · autosomal recessive · lack of pigmentation in skin
Achondroplasia · autosomal dominant · abnormal bone growth results in short

· 80% caused by a new mutation legs/arms and prominent forehead
· 1 in 25 000 to 40 000 live births
Huntington’s disease · autosomal dominant · brain tissue degeneration; onset around thirties
to forties, usually after reproductive years
Hemophilia · X-linked recessive · blood does not clot properly

· predominantly in males
Red-green colour blindness · X-linked recessive · inability to distinguish between different

colours
Duchenne muscular dystrophy · X-linked recessive · progressive wasting of muscles

Chromosomal Defect
Cri-du-chat syndrome · partial deletion of chromosome 5 · improperly constructed larynx produces “cry of
the cat” sound to voice
· mentally challenged
Fragile-X syndrome · break in the long arm of X chromosome · abnormal facial features; mentally challenged
· syndrome of effects
Down syndrome · trisomy 21/47 chromosomes · abnormal facial features, hands and feet, de-
velopmentally challenged in various ways
· 1 in 700 live births
Klinefelter syndrome · XXY/47 chromosomes · sterile males, tall with long arms
· one extra chromosome · breast development
· 1 in 800 live births
Turner syndrome · XO/45 chromosomes · sterile females, secondary sexual features do

· one missing sex chromosome not develop fully
· 1 in 10 000 live births

Pedigrees in Human Genetics predicting the probability of having an af-

fected child in subsequent pregnancies.
A few of the many genetic diseases ob-
The patterns followed by simply inher-
served in humans have been described
ited genetic traits (single gene defects) are
in Table 7.3. Human geneticists have re-
influenced by several factors. The pattern
alized for a long time that these unde-
within a family will be affected by:
sirable traits tend to run within family
a) whether the gene is on an autosome
groups rather than randomly across a
(22 pairs in humans) or X-linked (on
population. Geneticists have developed
the X chromosome)
a type of chart called a pedigree that is
b) whether the trait is dominant or
useful to show the patterns of transmis-
recessive
sion of a trait within a given family. The
c) the chance of transmission of the
pedigree charts summarize family data
gene from the parents to children
using a set of symbols. Figure 7.26 il-
(by way of the gametes)
lustrates some of the more commonly
The simplest patterns can be altered or
used symbols.
confused by many factors, especially
Pedigrees are usually produced after
when multifactorial inheritance is in-
an undesirable trait has appeared in a
volved. The following description con-
family. Geneticists collect data on rela-
siders only the three most common
tives, stretching back for as many gen-
patterns for simple inheritance. These
erations as possible. The chart produced
are:
may be of use to the geneticist in identi-
a) autosomal recessive inheritance
fying the way the trait is transmitted or
b) autosomal dominant inheritance
it may be useful in counselling parents
c) X-linked recessive inheritance
on the cause of the disease, or in
heterozygotes for autosomal

male recessive traits
female carrier of X-linked recessive
mating death
dizygotic twins (non identical) marriage between related individuals
monozygotic twins (identical) parents and children: with method

I
of identification, affected individual
is II-2
sex not specified II

1 2 3
3 number of children of specified sex
affected individuals
FIGURE 7.26 Some of the commonly used symbols in pedigrees

The pedigrees for each of these three FIGURE 7.27 Dr. Margaret
types of inheritance are distinctive. The Thompson, a former member
of the genetics team at the
features provide the necessary clues
Hospital for Sick Children in
for geneticists wishing to identify an in- Toronto and an educator in
heritance pattern. The following stereo- medical genetics.
type pedigrees illustrate these useful
clues. The distinctive features of each
method of inheritance are also listed. Image omitted due to
Autosomal Recessive Inheritance The fea-
tures of autosomal recessive inheritance
are:
• Both parents of an affected individ-
ual must be heterozygous
• Affected individuals may not appear
in every generation (that is, the trait
may skip generations)
• Males and females are affected in
equal numbers (Figure 7.28).
I
1 2
Autosomal Dominant Inheritance The fea-
tures of autosomal dominant inheritance
are: II
• Half of the children of an affected 1 2 3 4 5 6
parent are expected to be affected
• The trait is transmitted only by af-
fected individuals and does not skip III
generations 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
• Males and females are affected in
equal numbers
• Father-to-son transmission is IV
possible (Figure 7.29). 1 2 3 4 5 6
FIGURE 7.28 Stereotype pedigree for autosomal recessive inheritance
I
1 2
II
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
III
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
FIGURE 7.29 Stereotype pedigree for autosomal dominant inheritance

I X-linked Recessive Inheritance The features

1 2 of X-linked recessive inheritance are:
• No father-to-son transmission
(affected father to carrier daughter
and in turn to half of her sons)
II • Predominantly males are affected;
1 2 3 4 5 6 affected females are extremely rare
• The trait skips generations (Figure
7.30).
A famous pedigree is shown in Figure
III 7.31. This pedigree shows the inheri-
1 2 3 4 5 6 tance of the X-linked genetic disorder of
hemophilia in the royal houses of
FIGURE 7.30 Stereotype pedigree for X-linked
Europe.
recessive inheritance
I Louis II
George III
Grand Duke Hesse
Edward
II Duke of
Duke of Kent
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
(1767–1820)
III Victoria
Albert
(1819–1901)
Victoria Helena Leopold

IV Empress Edward VII Princess Duke of Beatrice
Frederick Christian Albany
Kaiser Irene Alix (Alexandra) Alice Victoria

V Frederick
Wilhelm George V Princess Tsarina 3 2 of Eugénie, Leopold Maurice
William
II Henry Nikolas II Athlone wife of
Alfonso XIII
Lady
Duke
George Waldemar Henry Alexis May
VI of 3 ? ? ? ?
VI Abel
Windsor Earl Prince Anastasia Smith Rupert Alfonso Gonzalo
Mountbatten Sigismund Viscount
of Burma of Prussia Trematon
VII Elizabeth Prince Margaret ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

II Philip Juan Sophie
Carlos
?
VIII ?
Lady Prince Anne Edward
Diana Charles Andrew
Carrier female 3 Three female

IX
William Henry Hemophiliac male ? ? Status uncertain
FIGURE 7.31 This pedigree represents one of the first useful applications of
pedigrees; showing the transmission of hemophilia in the royal families of Europe.

Discovering Biology Constructing a Pedigree

A pedigree shows the patterning of transmission of a trait in a family. Choose a
trait that is easy to identify in humans such as tongue rolling or type of ear
lobe. Construct a pedigree for your family or that of a friend’s, outlining the
inheritance of this trait for as many related individuals as possible.
Section 7.2 Review

Understanding Concepts have the defect. They have eight chil-
dren, four boys and four girls. One of
1. a) In your own words, define the term the daughters and three of the sons
mutation. have hiskulphobia. The hiskulphobic
b) Distinguish between spontaneous daughter marries a normal man and
and induced mutations. they have two boys with hiskulphobia
c) What mutagenic agents can induce and three normal daughters. One of the
mutations? sons with hiskulphobia produces eight
children, four sons with hiskulphobia
2. Mutations in the gametes are more crit-
and four normal daughters. Another
ical than those in body cells. Explain.
one of the sons with hiskulphobia pro-
3. Identify some examples of single gene duces four normal daughters, two nor-
defects. mal sons and two sons with
4. Construct a flow chart to illustrate the hiskulphobia.
effects of the mutation that causes a) Produce a pedigree for this family
sickle cell anemia. Demonstrate these indicating the affected individuals.
effects at the level of the gene, the mes- Write in the genotypes of individu-
senger, and the protein. als where you can determine with
5. What causes chromosomal abnormal- certainty their genetic make-up.
ities such as Down syndrome where b) What inheritance pattern does this
the affected individual has an abnor- trait appear to show? Explain your
mal number of chromosomes? answer.
6. What is a pedigree chart and why is 11. How are studies in population genet-
it useful in genetics studies? ics different from studies of individual
7. List factors that affect the pattern of in- crosses? Why are studies of this sort
heritance for a given trait. often valuable to the geneticist?
8. What are the three common patterns
of simple inheritance? Describe the Applying Inquiry/
distinctive features of each of these Communication Skills
patterns.
9. Construct a pedigree chart including 12. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) have
the following features: been associated with negative effects
on the hatching of birds in Lake
a) at least 4 generations Ontario. Design an experiment to in-
b) at least 25 individuals vestigate whether these effects are truly
c) autosomal recessive inheritance genetic or merely environmental.
d) 1 relative to relative marriage 13. In the Canadian population, 80% of the
babies born with Down syndrome are
e) 1 set of identical twins
born to women under age 35. How
10. A man with the genetic defect hiskul- would you explain this?
phobia marries a woman who does not

7.3 Applying Our Knowledge of Genetics

Key Understandings
explain the relationship between genetics and traditional breeding techniques
evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of inbreeding and outbreeding
describe several methods of prenatal diagnosis and the use of each of these methods
explain the process and application of recombinant DNA
describe the draft results of the Human Genome Project
describe the steps involved in cloning
describe some uses of DNA typing in society today
describe ethical issues that must be considered when using current techniques in
genetics
The development of the modern concept

of the gene has been an amazing intel-
lectual journey. From the idea of factors,
through that of a position on a chromo-
some, to a length of DNA that codes for
a particular protein, biologists have con-
tinued to learn about the nature of the
gene. Surprisingly, early discoveries had
little effect outside the university or
breeding laboratory. However, the tech-
nological developments that have led to
FIGURE 7.32 These Bassett hounds clearly
the mapping of the human genome and
show the result of many generations of controlled
the combining of DNA from different, un- breeding.
related organisms are bringing genetics
from the laboratory into society. No per- crop. The best milk-producing cattle or
son today is unaffected by genetics. wool-producing sheep were mated while
Whether it is the possibility of knowing the livestock of poorer quality was pre-
our own personal genetic makeup or the vented from mating. The result, more
chance of being affected by a genetic dis- often than not, was a higher production
order, applications of genetics are ev- crop or a better quality herd. In some
erywhere. As well, there are the ethical cases, growers observed a mutation that
issues such as whether we approve of created a new characteristic that was
cloning or simply whether we will buy desirable in a crop. Seedless grapes and
and eat genetically modified foods. the navel orange originated from these
chance mutations. These plants were
then cultivated using vegetative propa-
gation, a method of asexual reproduc-
Traditional Breeding tion. Today many farmers rely on seed
Strategies companies to provide selectively bred
Plant and animal breeders realized the seeds or on skilled livestock breeders to
advantages of controlled or selective help them develop a quality herd.
breeding long before Gregor Mendel Once a number of desirable traits
manipulated pea plants. The earliest have been obtained in a plant or animal,
farmers quickly realized the value of sav- this set of traits can be passed from gen-
ing seeds from the best of the year’s eration to generation intact as a result

of a type of controlled breeding called increased yield, quick development, etc.). INFOBIT
inbreeding. In plants, inbreeding This tendency is termed hybrid vigour
involves the self-pollination of a to indicate the advantages that the hy- A continuing low level of
desirable plant. This controlled self- brid offspring may gain because of their thyroid hormone will result in
effects on mental development
pollination maintains a good crop be- genetic variability. in a developing child. Dr. Jean
cause it prevents the introduction of any Dussault and his colleagues
new, possibly undesirable genes into the at Laval University have
Genetic Screening developed a simple screening
plant’s genotype. In animals, a similar
result is attained by mating close rela- Genetic screening is used to identify test for newborns that detects
those individuals with an increased risk congenital hypothyroidism
tives. In cattle, brother-sister matings and so allows treatment to
are used to maintain a good herd. The of inheriting a disorder. This increased
prevent developmental effects.
intent of many generations of inbreed- risk is often tied to a group of specific eth-
ing in a plant or animal is to produce a nic background because these individu-
genotype homozygous for the desirable als share a common genetic background.
traits. Screening may involve karyotype studies,
There can be a serious drawback to or biochemical tests. In many cases in-
inbreeding. All organisms possess some dividuals heterozygous for a disadvanta-
rare harmful recessive alleles that do not geous gene can be determined. Once this
express themselves in the heterozy- information is obtained, appropriate
gous condition. There is an increased counselling or treatment can be given.
chance that two of these recessive alle- Huntington’s disease is a lethal dis-
les could come together as a result of in- ease inherited as an autosomal domi-
breeding. Two related individuals that nant trait. The disease does not appear
are crossed could have inherited the until after the affected individuals are in
same recessive allele from a common their thirties or forties. When the dis-
ancestor. A homozygous recessive ease does appear, the affected individ-
individual could show some severe ual has often produced offspring. The
abnormalities. gene will be passed on to half of the off-
Another drawback of this spring who will grow up with the knowl-
homogeneity (homozygous genotype) is edge that they may develop this
seen in the susceptibility of some plants devastating disease. Geneticists can now
and animals to disease. The hazard of identify people who will be affected with
losing a whole crop to blight or an in- Huntington disease by testing for a “ge-
sect attack may be increased. netic marker” on the chromosomes.
Another method of selective breed- This genetic screening technique has
ing to ensure a quality crop or herd uses advantages and disadvantages for the
a different approach. In hybridization, families involved. To know that you will
two completely different parents, each develop a lethal disease at an early age
homozygous for a different desirable may have a greater negative effect on a
trait, are crossed to produce a het- person’s life than to be faced with a 50%
erozygous plant or animal. Breeders chance of the disease.
hope that the resulting hybrid will ex-
hibit the desirable traits of both parents. Genetic Counselling
Hybridization or outbreeding has been Genetic counselling is offered at regional
used extensively in the production of genetic centres. The counsellor provides
high quality corn crops. The drawback and explains genetic information to edu-
for the farmer is that seed must be pur- cate patients and family practitioners
chased from the supplier every season. about both common and unusual genetic
In plants or animals when different conditions. This process offers non-di-
strains or species are crossed, the re- rective counselling to many prospective
sulting offspring often show combina- parents and to families with affected chil-
tions of desirable traits (increased size, dren. These groups can then make

of chromosome 6 in the mid-1990s. tification for many people, so that only

This discovery has resulted in an a few require liver biopsies. In the fu-
increased accuracy of diagnosis and ture, screening of whole populations
the effective use of population screen- may be a cost-effective way to iden-
A Screening ing. In addition, it has helped re- tify individuals prior to the onset of
Success Story — searchers in their efforts to this disease and subsequent tissue
understand iron metabolism. damage. A population screening pro-
Hemochromatosis Hemochromatosis is caused by gram for hemochromatosis has been
one of two “missense” mutations in- started in England because of the high
Hemochromatosis is an autosomal re- volving simple nucleotide replace- incidence of the disorder in the pop-
cessive trait involving the protein that ments in the DNA. In one case the ulation. These types of programs will
controls iron absorption. Scientists nucleotide guanine has been replaced most likely spread to other countries.
have recognized that 1 in 10 people with adenine at nucleotide 845 and Once the correct diagnosis has
of northern European descent are in the other the nucleotide cytosine been established, the patient begins
carriers of this defect. Symptoms ap- has been replaced with guanine at therapy: a simple, inexpensive, and
pear in adulthood after years of high nucleotide 187. In either case the al- safe treatment. Treatment involves
absorption of iron in the intestine. teration results in a non-functional the removal of approximately 500 mL
This iron is then deposited in exces- protein. of blood from the affected individ-
sive amounts in the liver, heart, pan- In the past, doctors relied on the ual once a week in a process called
creas, and other organs. This leads measurement of iron levels in blood a phlebotomy. This lowers the iron
to tissue damage and, if left serum to identify suspected cases of levels in the blood as this sample
unchecked, death. It was first rec- hemochromatosis. However, this was would contain approximately 250 mg
ognized in 1865 in patients who had often confusing as other conditions of iron. Over time this decreases
diabetes, cirrhosis, and increased could cause similar effects. Liver excess iron stores and the frequency
skin pigmentation (brought on by the biopsies (where a small piece of liver of phlebotomy can be reduced.
iron deposits). Once the problem is tissue is removed surgically) some- Studies of this genetic abnor-
identified, effective treatment is avail- times led to complications but were mality will undoubtedly lead to a bet-
able, so it is important to test for this necessary to identify affected indi- ter understanding of iron absorption
condition. viduals. Today, genetic tests done and metabolism in this disease and
The gene responsible for this de- on a small sample of blood are read- others involving iron metabolism.
fect was identified on the short arm ily available and allow effective iden-
informed decisions about child rearing or ing a child with chromosomal abnor-
child bearing. The importance of the ge- malities (especially Down syndrome).
netic counsellor becomes obvious if you • Parents who have already produced
consider that about 5% of all births pro- a child with a genetic abnormality.
duce a child with physical or mental prob- • Parents who have other family mem-
lems of varying severity. These problems bers with a genetic abnormality.
could be present at birth or could develop • Couples from ethnic or racial groups
later in life. Genetic counsellors have re- with a high risk for a specific genetic
ceived special training in screening and disease (Tay Sachs, thalassemia and
testing methods and are skilled in coun- sickle cell anemia). Often, carrier tests
selling and educating. can be used to identify two carrier
Today, genetic counselling is often ob- parents who could have an affected
tained by people in one of the following child. Carrier screening tests have
risk groups: been developed for the diseases men-
• Pregnant women, 35 years or older, tioned above.
because of the increased risk of bear-

The genetic counsellor must obtain

extensive background information about
a given family before appropriate coun-
sel can be given. This background may
include the following:
1. The nature of the birth problem in
question
2. A family pedigree going back two or restrictions.
more generations
3. Results of the examination of the af-
fected individual (and sometimes
other family members) by a clinical
geneticist, a doctor specializing in
genetics
4. An assessment of the extent of the
role of the environment to clarify the
cause of the disorder. Environmental FIGURE 7.33 Genetic counsellors provide a
great deal of useful information to couples who
influences can sometimes produce wish to have children. They are especially helpful
what appears to be a genetic defect. for parents who may be “at risk.”
5. Results of laboratory tests if
appropriate
A diagnosis of the disease and the identified by the counsellor. When the
probabilities involved must be clearly genetic studies are completed, the
FIGURE 7.34 These genetic technologists are working in a typical genetics lab.

WEBLINK counsellor can assist other medical per- individuals may be cut off or reduced if
sonnel in providing the family with a more society perceives that certain defects
Explore the Web to find out complete and realistic view of the situa- should never occur if proper screening
about genetic services that are tion. Once the nature of a problem has techniques are used. This would raise a
available in your community
and Canada-wide. Identify the been identified and the probabilities of re- very sensitive issue. How would an in-
hospitals in your area that have currence and other implications have been dividual with a genetic problem (whose
counselling services. What discussed, the family can then make more parents chose not to be screened) feel if
genetic problems are screened informed choices about child bearing. society suggested that their condition
for in prenatal tests at As we gain more knowledge about should never have occurred and that
these facilities? Begin your
research at genetic conditions and their transmis- they are financially responsible for their
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11. sion, the education of family practition- own care?
ers becomes more important. A
knowledge of genetics and the gather-
Prenatal Diagnosis
ing of family histories from patients by
family doctors becomes critical in rec- Prenatal diagnosis involves the testing
ognizing potential problems and helping of the fetus to check for a problem for
families to get appropriate counselling which the family is at risk.
and treatment. Genetic counsellors at re- The most widespread technique of
gional genetic centres can help educate prenatal diagnosis, amniocentesis, is
family doctors to make them effective in usually performed during the sixteenth
this role. For example, most family doc- week of pregnancy. A small amount of
tors today monitor families with a the amniotic fluid that surrounds the de-
predisposition to cancer. Studies have veloping fetus in the uterus is obtained
shown that some individuals have an in- by inserting a needle through the
creased chance of contracting cancer due mother’s abdominal wall. This fluid also
to their heredity. The monitoring of fam- contains fetal cells that may reveal a
ilies with a history of breast or ovarian great deal of information about the fetus.
cancer in women or colon or prostate (Figure 7.36). Doctors use another tech-
cancer in men is useful to identify peo- nique called ultrasound (Figure 7.35) to
ple who are at increased risk for cancer. locate the position of the fetus and pla-
This valuable information is instrumen- centa to prevent any injury to the mother
tal in the early diagnosis and prevention
of cancer in these individuals.
Clearly, accurate genetic information
is of use in making many significant de-
cisions. Most of the screening performed
today is to identify those at risk during
pregnancy and to outline the reproduc-
tive options. However, many scientists
suggest that screening techniques may Image omitted due to copyright
someday allow us to construct a restrictions.
genetic profile of every individual. It has
been suggested that in the future this ge-
netic “prophecy” may be used in mak-
ing decisions about occupations or in
avoiding potentially harmful environ-
ments that might “turn on” undesir-
able genes.
Some groups that provide support
to individuals with genetic problems and FIGURE 7.35 This image of the fetus was cre-
their families have concerns. They fear ated on a computer screen when high-frequency
sounds from an ultrasound scanner held against
that someday funding to support these
the mother’s abdomen bounced off the fetus.

or fetus when the needle is inserted. are born with part of the spinal cord ex-
Ultrasound is also useful in visually iden- posed along the backbone. The cells ob-
tifying a large number of physical tained in the sample are grown in tissue
anomalies. The technique of amniocen- culture for subsequent biochemical and
tesis has been developed to the point chromosomal analysis including kary-
that it carries very little risk for the otyping. Problems such as trisomy 21
mother or child. (Down syndrome) would be identified in
The fluid obtained in the sample is this testing. About half of the tests per-
analysed biochemically. An elevated level formed today are for mothers over 35
of alpha-fetoprotein may indicate the years of age. About one-third of the tests
presence of a neural tube defect such as performed involve the use of Maternal
spina bifida. Children with spina bifida Serum Screening. The remainder of the
1. AMNIOCENTESIS
14–16 week fetus

centrifugation
DNA testing
amniotic
fluid withdrawn
several
weeks
fetal cell culture later
placenta
uterus
2. CHORIONIC VILLUS SAMPLING
9–12 week fetus

1. Results of biochemical tests
2. Karyotype
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
fetal cells 1 day later

suctioned from 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
chorionic villi
20 21 22 X Y
This fetus has 3 copies ...and is a male

of chromosome 21
(Down syndrome)...
FIGURE 7.36 Two methods of prenatal testing—amniocentesis and chorionic villus
sampling

tests are for individual family situations child may have one of the three defects
based on a previous child with a de- targeted. In these cases an amniocente-
tectable problem or on a family history. sis or ultrasound is then offered to find
Over 95% of the women at risk who out if the baby really has one of these
use amniocentesis find that their unborn problems. MSS has provided yet another
fetus does not have a genetic problem. tool for geneticists and prospective par-
Thus in the majority of cases this tech- ents to gain useful information about a
nique offers reassurance to couples. If a pregnancy.
defect does exist, action may be taken As our knowledge of the human
during pregnancy or soon after birth to genome expands, prenatal tests will
optimize delivery care and medical care become more sophisticated and infor-
of the child. Although amniocentesis mative. Screening techniques may some-
does not guarantee a “normal” child, it day be available to analyze the genetic
has added a new dimension to genetic makeup of all individuals and not just
counselling. those at risk. If this happens, society has
An alternative to amniocentesis, to decide on the most appropriate ap-
chorionic villus sampling, was devel- plication of the technology.
oped in the 1980s. In this technique per-
formed in the tenth week of pregnancy,
Recombinant DNA
some of the cells from one of the mem-
branes surrounding the fetus are One of the most amazing results of our
removed and analysed. Results of this increased understanding of the gene has
test can be obtained within one to two been the development of recombinant
weeks. Inconclusive results and an in- DNA techniques. These techniques allow
creased chance of miscarriage due to the scientists to equip an organism with
procedure compared to amniocentesis, DNA that is not normally found in that
have reduced the frequency of use of this organism. This new information, which
technique. It is used for pregnancies that has been introduced into the host, can
have a high risk (greater than 25%) of a
severe genetic condition.
A less invasive testing procedure
known as Maternal Serum Screening
(or MSS) has been available since 1993.
This blood test is done on pregnant
women between the sixteenth and twen-
tieth week of pregnancy and can be ar-
ranged through a doctor or midwife.
MSS is used to gain information about
the chance of a baby having Down syn- Image omitted due to copyright
drome, trisomy 18, or an open neural restrictions.
tube defect. If the fetus has any of these
defects, it will produce abnormal
amounts of certain hormones that will
cross the placenta into the mother’s cir-
culation. These unusual levels can be
measured simply by testing a sample
of the mother’s blood. In most cases
the levels of the hormones are in the
normal range and so a screen negative FIGURE 7.37 These small circular segments of
result is produced. If the levels are DNA called plasmids that are not part of the bac-
abnormal, a screen positive result, then terial chromosome, have been extremely useful
there is an increased chance that the in recombinant DNA techniques.

then be used to cause the cell to produce A segment of human DNA contain-
a specific protein. Simple organisms ing the insulin gene is isolated in the lab.
used as the host, like bacteria, tend to At the same time a circular molecule of
reproduce quickly. Thus, the protein can DNA called a plasmid is removed from
be produced in large quantities. an E. coli bacterial cell (see Figure 7.37).
Although this procedure was first per- The two strands of DNA are now cut
formed with viral genes being inserted using a type of chemical scissors called
into a bacterial host, scientists quickly a restriction enzyme. These sophisti-
extended this transfer to inserting cated enzymes recognize specific se-
human genes. One of the first success- quences of nucleotides along the DNA
ful transfers involved the human gene strand and break the chemical bonds to
for insulin production. Follow Figure snip out a length of DNA. Scientists have
7.38 as you read the outline of this tech- developed over 1000 different restric-
nique. tion enzymes to date. The specific
Human cell containing

gene of interest
Bacterium
protein synthesis plasmid
DNA bacterial
chromosome
human protein
of interest
1. Use restriction enzymes

to snip gene of interest
Use same
from the isolated human
restriction enzyme
genome.
to snip plasmid.
2. Insert gene into plasmid

(complementary sticky-ends recombinant DNA
will fit together).
transformation
3. Transfer the plasmid back

into bacterial cell.
replication
4. Let bacterial cells replicate.

Harvest and purify the
human protein produced
by the plasmids inside the
bacterial cells. bacterial
clones
FIGURE 7.38 This method

was perfected in 1982 for the
human insulin gene.

enzyme used in this procedure slices out appears endless. Recombinant DNA is
the insulin gene from the human DNA now used extensively in the chemical,
and produces “sticky ends” on the E. coli pharmaceutical, and food processing in-
DNA that can recognize the ends on the dustries. Many applications of recombi-
insulin gene. The sticky ends of the nant DNA involve releasing genetically
two different DNA molecules are now re- altered organisms into the environment.
combined to form a single intact plas- As a result, strict research guidelines
mid. This circular plasmid is then must be developed and enforced.
inserted into another E. coli host cell. Recombinant DNA techniques have
When this host cell divides, the recom- been actively used in agriculture for
bined plasmid is replicated. A huge num- many years. There is debate continuing
ber of E. coli cells can be produced, each between different sectors of society
capable of producing human insulin. and also different countries over the use
This technique was perfected in 1982. of genetically modified (GMO) foods.
Once this gene was inserted into the E.
coli cell it turned the bacterial cell into
a “mini-factory” capable of producing Gene Therapy
a cheap, endless supply of quality insulin Direct use of genetic techniques is part
for diabetics. of effective medicine today. Genetic
Insulin was the first of many therapy is accomplished in one of two
important biological substances pro- ways. A normal gene product can be
duced using recombinant DNA. Human given to an affected individual who
growth hormone (HGH) is produced in shows the symptoms of a disease. This
a similar fashion today. This has re- type of treatment is used extensively
placed the traditional expensive tech- today in treating the disease diabetes
nique of extracting this chemical from a with the normal gene product insulin. A
human source. The list of possible second method of therapy would be to
applications of genetic engineering actually manipulate the abnormal DNA
ability to think and interact and

remember.
Alzheimer’s disease (known as
AD) affects approximately 300 000
Dr. Peter St. George- Canadians today. Dr. St. George-
Hyslop and Hyslop’s team of researchers are
striving to identify a gene that pro-
Alzheimer’s Disease duces a protein that is thought to be
responsible for killing brain cells in Image omitted due to
Dr. Peter St. George-Hyslop is one of AD patients. He hopes that if the gene copyright restrictions.
the world’s top neurological re- can in fact be identified, then re-
searchers on Alzheimer’s disease. searchers can better understand how
Head of the Tanz Centre for Research it works and develop drugs to inter-
in Neurodegenerative Diseases, he act with the genes to halt the pro-
has personally discovered two of the gression of the disease. The
four genes that have been linked to identification of this “therapeutic tar-
Alzheimer’s at his laboratories at the get” would allow scientists to identify
University of Toronto. Dr. St. George- potential AD victims in advance and
Hyslop is driven in his attempt to to begin treatment prior to the onset FIGURE 7.39 Dr. Peter St. George-
understand and find treatments for of the disease. Hyslop in his lab at the Tanz Centre for
this disease that takes away the Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases

America and was only the third

female member of the National
Academy of Sciences. This was
unusual as university research and
Dr. Barbara McClintock appointments of this type were dom-
1902-1992 inated by males.
McClintock’s research focused on
making the connection between the
Mendel’s work was not recognized at behaviour of chromosomes in a spe- Image omitted due to
the time that it was published. The cial type of crossing over and the phe- copyright restrictions.
language that he used to explain notypic effects on corn kernels. She
hereditary patterns was foreign to the was interested in explaining why
scientific community of his day. New some corn kernels had a spotted
theories often meet with a great deal appearance even though all of the
of resistance. Another clear illustra- cells in a kernel had the same genetic
tion of this pattern is seen in the work makeup and so should have had the
of Barbara McClintock. same pigmentation. The spotted ap-
Geneticists initially thought that pearance meant that, in some of the
the genome of any species was made cells of the kernel, genes for pig- FIGURE 7.41 Barbara McClintock, a
up of a fixed number of genes that mentation were being turned off. superb researcher, decades ahead of her
were arranged in unchanging se- After meticulous experimentation time.
quences on the chromosomes. McClintock reasoned that a control-
McClintock presented a new view of ling element could be “transposed” bacteria, insects, and even mammals
genomes. Barbara McClintock re- from one place to another on a chro- including humans.
ceived her PhD from Cornell mosome. These elements, or “jump- These transposons are thought
University in 1927, took a research ing genes,” would insert themselves to have many influences in a wide
position at the University of Missouri into the chromosomes and influ- range of species. They obviously have
in 1936 and came to the Cold Spring ence the activity of the neighbour- a role in gene regulation and help
Harbour Laboratories in New York in ing genes, turning them on or off. The explain the wide range of variation
1941. In 1945 she was appointed influence of these transposable ele- seen in certain proteins (like the pig-
president of the Genetic Society of ments caused some of the kernels to mentation in corn kernels). These
have no pigment or to have spots of transposons have been linked to the
purple on white. McClintock pre- development of drug resistance in
sented her findings at a major bacteria. In these bacteria, the trans-
genetics symposium in 1951. posable elements for drug resistance
McClintock’s elegant model was can be passed from one bacterium to
based on many years of rigorous another. Transposons help create
experimentation and data collection genetic diversity and may cause rapid
but the suggestion that genes could evolutionary change. They may also
move met with great resistance. The provide a mechanism for genes to
geneticists of the 1950s paid little at- move from one species to another.
tention to her theory. A basis for Current research is attempting
her explanation was provided as to make the link between these
techniques in genetics became more elements and human disease. In fact
sophisticated in the late 1960s and some geneticists have suggested that
early 1970s. By that time the genetic up to 50% of mutations in our
material had been identified as DNA, genome may be attributed to trans-
the code had been deciphered, and posable elements.
methods to study individual genes Unlike Mendel, Barbara
had been developed. Her jumping McClintock lived to see the signifi-
FIGURE 7.40 Spotted kernels in corn.
genes, or transposons as they are cance of her work recognized and
This characteristic provided the first
demonstration that genes could move now called, had started to appear in received the Nobel prize in 1983 at
through the genome. experiments involving other species: the age of 81.

viding and are not yet producing the

product, insulin. For the therapy to be
successful the modified stem cells would
have to divide and the new cells would
have to become differentiated to produce
insulin over the person’s lifetime.
To date, scientists have encountered
several difficulties in human gene
transfer.
• It is very difficult to get the correct
copy of the gene into enough cells in
the right location in the body. Many
genetic defects affect more than one
organ or one system. Researchers
suspect that our first successes will
involve those defects that are re-
stricted to specific organs or a sin-
gle system.
• Sometimes the immune system of
FIGURE 7.42 The effect of traditional gene therapy. Mice that have the gene de- the human recipient will undergo an
fect for obesity, as shown on the left, can be injected with the normal gene prod-
uct, leptin. These mice will eat less, burn more calories, and will not become
immune response that reduces the
obese. This result is shown in the mouse on the right. effectiveness of the gene transfer.
• There are problems getting the new
cell line to continue dividing and
producing the new protein.
WEBLINK in a parent or offspring in order to bet-
ter treat a disease. Techniques to em- In spite of these roadblocks, researchers
Investigate how recombinant ploy this second approach are no longer are enthusiastic about the potential of
DNA techniques are applied in just theoretical possibilities. gene therapy.
one of the following areas: Some success has already been
One of the most exciting and long-
pollution control
mineral extraction term goals of genetic engineering is to achieved in treating Adenosine
plant improvement actually correct some hereditary defects. Deaminase deficiency (ADA), a genetic
animal improvement This type of gene therapy (human gene defect that involves a key protein in the
transgenics transfer) would involve inserting a immune response. Children affected with
Write a supported paragraph ADA cannot survive outside a sterile en-
proper working copy of a gene into the
on your chosen topic.
Begin your research at cells that lack the ability to produce their vironment. They must be isolated in an
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11. own protein. In the case of diabetes this enclosed and carefully monitored cham-
would involve the transfer of the normal ber. Several documentaries have dealt
gene for insulin production into the cells with “bubble boy,” a term derived from
of the pancreas that lack this gene so the plastic chamber in which ADA chil-
that the diabetic could produce insulin. dren used to live. Now there is a partial
This technique would involve inserting treatment of ADA, the first genetic con-
the insulin gene into a vector, such as a dition to be treated by gene therapy.
virus, that would carry the gene to the Experimental therapies involving the re-
site in the body that requires the correct moval of stem cells from the bone mar-
copy of the gene. This vector would then row followed by gene insertion and
insert itself into these cells and trans- reimplantation have been successful.
fer the required gene. These cells would Several ADA patients have been able to
now have the ability to produce their live nearly normal lives.
own insulin. The key is to get the gene The availability of gene therapy tech-
transferred into the stem cells at the niques in humans will raise many social
correct site. Stem cells are capable of di- and ethical issues. The greatest challenge

will be to decide the extent to which

these techniques are used. Many ethi-
cists feel that once we have the poten-
tial to alter human inheritance, these
techniques may be abused.
The Human Genome Project

The Human Genome Project will ulti- Image omitted due to copyright restrictions.
mately map the location of somewhere
between 30 000 and 35 000 genes on
the chromosomes of the human genome.
In addition, the sequence of the bases
(A,C,G, and T) in the nucleotides of the
DNA comprising each gene will be cat-
alogued. The project began in 1990 and
now involves the co-ordinated efforts of
at least 40 countries. The development
of specialized sequencing machines FIGURE 7.43 Sophisticated
(Figure 7.43) and the input of funds sequencing machines have helped
from companies anticipating the com- scientists complete the Human
Genome Project ahead of
mercial applications of this information
schedule. The insert shows a com-
have ensured the progress of the metic- puter screen with a sequence of
ulous research. As a result, the com- base pairs forming part of the
pletion of the project is ahead of human genetic code. Each
schedule, with the rough draft of the coloured band represents one of
the four nucleotide bases.
human genome published in 2001. The
finished sequence should be available
sometime in 2003.
The rough draft outlines approxi- 30 000 and 35 000. This is only
mately 95% of our genome and has iden- twice as many genes as the worm or
tified many interesting and surprising fly. How can we explain human com-
facts. The list below outlines some of the plexity with so few genes? Scientists
information released in the initial draft. are suggesting that individual genes
• The distribution of genes on the may be somehow responsible for the
human chromosomes is surprising. production of more than one protein
Our functional genes are concen- and that the interaction of our genes
trated at specific places in our is more sophisticated than that of
genome, with other large regions other organisms.
simply containing so-called “junk” • More than 200 genes in the human
(or non-coding) DNA. These areas genome are similar to genes in
that serve no apparent purpose numerous types of bacteria, sug-
comprise 50% of our genome, a very gesting that there have been several
high percentage when compared different gene transfers from differ-
to other organisms like the worm, ent forms of bacteria during recent
C. elegans (7%) and the fly, evolution.
D. melanogaster (3%). See Table 7.4 • Scientists have been able to identify
on page 222. the ratio of mutations in males ver-
• It was originally thought that we had sus females by studying the X and
approximately 100 000 genes in our Y chromosomes. They found that the
genome. Current estimates put this ratio of mutations in males versus
number at somewhere between females is 2:1.

• Different regions of DNA have se- The completion of this project does not
quences that are almost identical to mean scientists now have a complete
one another even though they may understanding of our genetic traits.
be far apart on a given chromosome This simply means that we know the
or even on different chromosomes location and code of each gene. The
altogether. These repeated sequences ultimate goal of the geneticist is to un-
are the result of transposable ele- derstand the relationship between
ments that have spread by inserting genotype and phenotype. This will in-
copies of themselves in various crease the understanding of disease.
places in the genome. As much as What alterations in the code cause dis-
50% of our genome may be derived ease and why? Why are some alter-
from these transposable elements. ations harmless while others are so
• The human genome is now esti- detrimental? Using this “Book of Life”
mated to contain 3 164 700 million to find the answers to these questions
code letters (nucleotides). is the work of the twenty-first century.
• Recombination rates appear to be The human genome is not the first
higher towards the ends of chro- genome to be analyzed. Geneticists have
mosomes and also on the chromo- outlined the gene sequence in numerous
somes with short arms. The rate of organisms starting with yeast in 1989.
crossing over has been estimated as Table 7.4 summarizes the sequencing of
one crossover per chromosome arm several organisms and the possible
in each meiosis. applications of this knowledge.
TABLE 7.4 The Sequencing of Genomes
Organism S. cerevisiae E. coli C. elegans D. melanogaster A. thaliana H. sapiens M. musculus

yeast bacteria worm fruit fly thale cress human mouse
Sequencing 1989 1991 1990 1999 1996 1990 1999

process began
Sequencing 1996 1997 1998 2000 2000 2003 2005

process rough draft
completed available 2001
Number of 16 single 6 4 5 23 20
chromosome prokaryotic
pairs chromosome
Number of 12 million 4.6 million 100 million 180 million 119 million Approx. 3 billion
base pairs 3 164 700 million
Number of 6 241 4 405 19 000 13 600 25 500 Approx. 30 000 – Approx.

genes 35 000 40 000
Possible Knowledge of Used in gene Shows how Used in more Allows us to May lead to Used as
applications genetic splicing to genes construct advanced improve ability to models for drug
function transfer human tissues methods of nutritional eliminate tests on genetic
insulin gene gene value of crops genetic conditions
sequencing conditions

Cloning
There are different levels of cloning. The
production of insulin by bacteria is a
method of gene cloning as all the bac-
teria have the same new foreign gene in
their cells. Biologists often grow cells that
are identical to each other for studies of
cell processes. These are cellular clones. Image omitted due to copyright
Today, biotechnology in combination restrictions.
with reproductive technology is being
used to produce clones of whole organ-
isms by transfer of a complete nucleus.
This is nuclear cloning. The resulting
clones are identical to each other in
terms of the DNA found in their cells. FIGURE 7.44 Dolly, the first
mammal produced by nuclear
One of the more successful groups
cloning
headed by Ian Wilmut of Scotland pro-
duced the widely publicized “Dolly” in • The egg cell now behaved as if it had
1997. Dolly was the first mammal cloned been fertilized by the normal means
from the cells of another adult mammal. and began dividing. The DNA (from
Dolly was produced using the fol- the mature udder cell) was some-
lowing method: how reprogrammed by the proteins
in the egg cell to direct the normal
• Cells from the udder of a six-year-
development of an embryo.
old sheep were cultured in the lab.
• The embryo was put back into a sur-
• An egg cell of a second sheep was
rogate “mother” sheep.
extracted and its nucleus was
• Dolly was born 21 weeks later.
removed.
• The enucleated egg was then placed Dolly is the identical clone of the sheep
beside one of the nucleated udder that donated the DNA from the udder
cells in a Petri dish. cells. One area of concern with this type
• A small electric change was passed of nuclear cloning is that Dolly is aging
through the egg cell and the two at the same rate as the sheep that do-
cells fused. nated the nucleus from the udder cell,
surrogate
mother
DNA
udder cells
1 2 5
egg 3
Dolly
FIGURE 7.45 Cloning Dolly. An udder cell 1 from a white sheep and an enucle-
ated egg 2 from a black sheep were 3 stimulated with an electric current. Fusion
4 occurred. The embyro was implanted in 5 a surrogate mother. Dolly 6 was
born.

rather than at the rate of a sheep born the use of animal organs for human
on the day Dolly was born. transplantation. Recombinant DNA tech-
Since the birth of Dolly, Wilmut has niques could be used to remove the
extended this technique to include sheep genes for proteins that would
recombinant DNA. He inserted the cause organ rejection in transplantation.
human gene for clotting Factor IX, a These genes could be replaced with
chemical missing in one type of human genes that would be compatible
hemophilia, into the sheep DNA donor with the genes of an organ recipient. The
cell. The resulting clone that was pro- use of animals for this purpose and the
duced, named Polly, now produces this potential to clone humans raise many
human protein. The production of this questions about the ethics of such prac-
Investigation type of “transgenic” clone is thought to tices. Still more questions will be raised
Refer to page 228, have extensive applications in both the as more technologies are developed.
Investigation 1. production of human chemicals and in
lengths. The size of these pieces bloodstain labelled in Figure 7.46 is

will vary with the lengths of the compared to a number of profiles
repeat sequences that the DNA from different individuals. One of
donor possesses. these profiles, number 3, is a clear
DNA Profiling 3. The pieces of DNA are run match to the bloodstain profile.
through a process called gel elec-
In the mid-1980s a British geneticist trophoresis. This separates the
named Alec Jeffreys developed a new numerous DNA fragments based
method of identifying people on the on their length. The smaller frag-
basis of their DNA. Each person has ments migrate further in the gel.
nucleotide sequences that are re- 4. This arrangement of pieces with
peated many times at different loca- the order intact is transferred to
tions on the chromosomes. These a sheet of nylon.
repeat sequences don’t code for any 5. The nylon is treated with
protein and vary from person to per- radioactive probes. These probes
son. The identity process of DNA are sequences of DNA that
profiling or fingerprinting has now will recognize complementary
replaced to a great extent the use of sequences in the segments on the
blood types to convict criminals or to nylon.
identify fathers in paternity cases. 6. An X-ray film is exposed to the
The steps in this process are: nylon, with the radioactive probes
1. A DNA sample is removed from showing the location of the differ-
some nucleated cells. A very ent segments. A pattern that looks
small sample of semen, saliva, like a bar code is produced that is
hair roots, or blood can provide unique to the individual tested.
sufficient DNA.
2. The DNA sample is treated with Figure 7.46 shows how DNA FIGURE 7.46 Evidence of a match. Only
restriction enzymes to cut the profiles are used in forensic investi- one of the DNA profiles matches that of
DNA into pieces of varying gations. The profile from DNA in the the bloodstain profile.

Defining the Issue
Case Study
What Genes Can Tell Us Justifying the Course of Action
Huntington’s disease is a neurological dis-

order that affects portions of the central
nervous system that regulate movement,
intelligence, and behaviour. Onset of the
disease usually occurs at about age 40, and
the average life expectancy of a person with
Huntington’s disease is 55 years.
Huntington’s is an inherited disease
caused by an autosomal dominant trait.
The gene for the disease is passed from
parents to offspring from one generation
to the next. There is a 50/50 chance that Image omitted due to copyright restrictions.
offspring of a parent with the Huntington’s
gene will manifest the disease. A test is
available that will indicate if an individual
will get the disease by identifying a “genetic
marker” on chromosome 4. The test can-
not indicate when onset of the disease will
occur.
For individuals who are at risk for
Huntington’s disease, the decision whether
or not to take the test may be a difficult one.
They have to consider the impact positive
test results will have on their lives and
the lives of their loved ones. In addition,
the test is very expensive and so cost may FIGURE 7.47 A lab technician examines a DNA profile. Sophisticated
profiling techniques allow identification of individuals who have the gene
be a factor.
for Huntington’s disease.
Analyzing the Issue

1. Identify the issue presented to a person who is at risk 4. Complete a risk/benefit chart to summarize your
for Huntington’s disease. research.
2. Research Huntington’s disease, focusing on symptoms, 5. Write a personal opinion piece, explaining what you
treatment, and the social impact of the disease. would advise someone at risk for Huntington’s disease
3. When a person at risk for Huntington’s decides to take to do.
the test, who are the people who will be impacted by the
test results?

The Ethics of Current Human genetic information has

Practices the potential to be misused. People could
be subjected to genetic discrimination or
The techniques and practices discussed
bias on the basis of their genetic
in this section have the potential to alter
makeup. Decisions about people’s op-
and direct the path of evolution in many
portunities are made every day. If peo-
species of organisms, including our own.
ple’s access to employment, education,
Genetic manipulation can bring about
insurance, or medical treatment, for ex-
sudden and significant changes in an or-
ample, are made in relation to their
ganism’s characteristics. Many ethicists
genetic makeup, ethical questions will
today say that we have no right to alter
arise. In the 1960s sickle-cell carriers
the genetic makeup of any species.
were inappropriately denied insurance.
There is no guarantee that use of this
This practice has now been prohibited.
technology will produce change that is
We naturally think of genetic infor-
in the best interest of the species, or of
mation as private. Most people view the
other species with which the altered
idea of using genetic information as an
species interacts. The complexity of the
invasion of privacy. Yet the use of genetic
interactions of genes means that altered
information could benefit society in some
organisms could have the potential to
instances. For example, England has
cause great harm. For this reason, strict
several hundred thousand DNA profiles
regulations now control the type and ex-
of individuals who have criminal
tent of recombinant DNA technology per-
records. Some people believe that these
mitted in the lab.
profiles should be actively used by po-
Our society has far more informa-
lice to solve crimes and to prevent fu-
tion about the genetic makeup of species
ture crime.
than ever before. The Human Genome
Government regulations do not al-
Project and the advancement of im-
ways keep pace with the advancement
proved identification techniques may
of biotechnology and commercial ap-
soon give us a glimpse of individual
plications. Several current applications
human’s genetic potential and predis-
have been developed prior to any con-
position to disease at a very early age.
sideration of the legal and ethical ram-
Do people want this information? For
ifications. Many countries are just now
example, although most cancers have no
outlining restrictions or bans on nuclear
obvious genetic link, about 10% of
cloning, well after the development of
women with breast cancer have inher-
this technique. New questions are being
ited a gene that indicates a predisposi-
raised every day. For example, a possi-
tion to breast cancer. Would these
ble decision facing parents in the future
women behave differently if they knew
relates to the use of stem cells. Medical
they had this gene? Would they seek
research suggests that stem cells from
more intensive medical monitoring than
umbilical cord blood can be frozen and
if they did not know they had the gene,
used in future cancer treatment. Will the
or than if they did not have the gene at
freezing of stem cells be an option for
all? Difficult questions also arise in re-
future parents? What will be the impli-
lation to Huntington’s disease (an auto-
cations of their decision?
somal dominant disease). There is
With the laboratory as a classroom,
currently no cure for Huntington’s dis-
researchers learn more and more every
ease. Most people manifest this serious
day about how to interact with the ge-
illness in their thirties or forties. Would
netic code to predict, prevent, and treat
these people like to know that they will
disorders and diseases. These new tech-
become ill, or would they prefer to live
nologies have the power to enhance the
their lives without the knowledge of their
quality of life. They also challenge our
future?

ethical beliefs and multiply the choices brings with it the need for responsible
we will face in our lifetimes. The view of and ethical application of what we learn.
the future that genetic research provides
Section 7.3 Review

Understanding Concepts genetic screening become more
commonplace. Read the four state-
1. Why is it advantageous to control ments and select one. Make a point-
breeding in plants and animals? form Agree/Disagree chart to consider
2. How is inbreeding performed in both sides of the issue. Once you have
a) plants completed this summary chart, write
b) animals? a position paper outlining your posi-
3. List the problems that can result from tion on one of the issues described. In
inbreeding. order for your work to be persuasive,
you must consider both the legal and
4. Conduct research to find and describe
ethical aspects of the issue. In addition,
an example of hybridization in plant
you should also discuss/dispel some of
and animal breeding.
the arguments that people with the op-
5. Briefly outline three of the roles of posing viewpoint would suggest.
genetics in medicine.
a) Prospective parents who have a
6. What types of individuals are most family history of a genetic condition
likely to consult with a genetic coun- that can be identified in prenatal
sellor? testing and are at risk should be re-
7. Briefly explain how amniocentesis is quired to undergo genetic screen-
performed. ing.
8. Write a supported paragraph on the b) Ultimately you would hope all par-
use of recombinant DNA today. How ents would take advantage of
might this process be used in the fu- screening techniques in an effort to
ture to actually eliminate some hered- reduce the frequency of children
itary diseases? born with genetic abnormalities.
c) As long as there are strict guidelines
9. Outline the steps in each of the controlling gene therapy, society will
following: not have to be concerned about
a) DNA profiling abuses of this technology.
b) recombinant DNA d) Private biotech companies that have
c) cloning of mammals such as Dolly invested millions of dollars in the
Human Genome Project have a right
to obtain patents for specific gene
Making Connections
sequences. Other private companies
10. Each of the following statements con- or research facilities should have to
cerns an issue that society may have ask permission or even pay to use
to deal with as gene therapy and this information in their studies.

Inquiry Skills

Using Tools, material, Equipment
Gel Electrophoresis Simulation Analyzing and Interpreting
The application of gel electrophoresis was described Problem

for the production of DNA profiles. This technique can
also be used to determine the size of fragments from How many base pairs (bp) are present in DNA frag-
digested samples of DNA. This type of information has ments that have undergone gel electrophoresis?
helped in analyzing DNA and in the ultimate se-
quencing of DNA. The following exercise is a simula- Materials
tion of this technique. ruler
Gel electrophoresis combines the techniques of chro- calculator
matography and electrophoresis. DNA samples that note paper
have been treated with restriction enzymes, that split scissors
the DNA into fragments of varying size, are loaded in standard curve of fragment size
wells at one end of a sheet of gel. This gel is usually
made of agarose, a naturally occurring substance
extracted from a type of seaweed. An electric field is Procedure
applied to LAL1
the gel, and the DNA fragments migrate 1. On a blank sheet of note paper, construct a scale
across the gel from the cathode (negative end) towards down the left-hand margin. Your scale should start
the anode (positive end). Macromolecules separate with 0 cm at the top of the margin. This will rep-
according to their molecular weight and charge. Small resent the negative electrode where the sample wells
fragments move farther through the microscopic pores are located at the start. Run your scale down the
in the agarose gel. The gel contains a stain that causes margin to 20 cm, which will represent the end point
the DNA fragments to show up and a striped pattern and positive end of the electrophoresis process. Place
results. This technique is summarized in Figure 7.48. a horizontal line across your page at the starting
The movement of a DNA fragment of a specific point and at the end point.
size will be constant if the conditions of electrophore-
2. Cut a strip of paper 1 cm wide and 15 cm long. This
sis are the same (that is, voltage applied, gel type and
represents your unknown DNA sample. This sam-
concentration, and time allowed). Scientists have col-
ple has been treated with a restriction enzyme and
lected data on DNA “markers,” samples that have been
has been split into five fragments. Cut your sample
digested by restriction enzymes into fragments of
into five fragments with the following lengths:
known size. The length of these fragments is described
Fragment # 1 – 5.6 cm
as a number of base pairs (bp) for small fragments or
Fragment #2 – 4.4 cm
kilobase pairs (kb = 1000 base pairs) for larger ones.
Under set electrophoresis conditions, these known
fragments will have the same “relative mobility” value
(Rf) that is calculated using the following equation.
3. Following gel electrophoresis these fragments have
distance that the DNA fragment travels from arranged themselves on the gel the following dis-
the start (at the well in the gel) tances from the start (that is, from the wells at the
Rf = top of your page).
distance from the start to the end point of
Fragment #1 – 7 cm
the gel
Fragment #2 – 8 cm
Information from these markers is used to plot stan- Fragment #3 – 11 cm
dard curves on semi-log graph paper. The fragment Fragment #4 – 12 cm
size (in bp or kb) is plotted vs. the Rf value of these Fragment #5 – 14 cm
DNA segments of known size. The curve is used to
determine the size of unknown DNA fragments.

(continued)
FIGURE 7.48 Three samples of DNA have been treated with different combina-
tions of restriction enzymes and have been placed in the wells at the top of the
gel. When an electric charge is applied to the gel, the fragments migrate through
mixtures of DNA the pores with the smaller fragments travelling farther down the gel. The completed
fragments of different sizes gel has three different patterns of fragments because different restriction enzymes
have been used on the three samples.
cathode –
long fragments
gel
power
source
glass
plates
short fragments
completed gel
anode +
Analzing and Interpreting Concluding and Communicating

1. Describe the general trend that you observe for 5. Describe how this type of information is important
the arrangement of your fragments on the gel. to scientists studying DNA today.
2. Calculate the Rf values for each of the fragments. 6. This technique can be used to study genetic varia-
3. The graph in Figure 7.49 represents the standard tion in populations. A specific protein is extracted
curve plot for the conditions of your gel elec- from members of the same population and these
trophoresis. Use this graph to determine the size samples are subjected to protein electrophoresis.
(number of base pairs) of each of the five fragments The different molecular forms of the protein re-
in your unknown sample. sulting from differences in genotype create bands at
4. How many base pairs were in the original sample different locations in the gel. By studying variations
of DNA (your 15 cm strip of paper)? How did you at a number of loci, similarities in individuals in the
calculate this value? population can be studied. Describe several uses
of this type of information.
100 000 Extending

7. Research gel electrophoresis to describe the
following:
Fragment size (bp)
a) specific details of the process and the equipment

10 000 used
b) different types of restriction enzymes and gels
and the type of testing in which they are used
c) applications of these techniques in genetics
8. The technique of gel electrophoresis is so precise
1 000
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 that it is possible to determine if the individual being
Rf value tested is homozygous or heterozygous. Discuss how
this fact might be applied in genetic studies.
FIGURE 7.49 Standard curve of fragment size versus Rf
value

Inquiry Skills

Using Tools, Materials, Equipment

DNA Extraction Analyzing and Interpreting
Many sophisticated biochemical techniques exist today 7. Insert a glass stirring rod into the tube and spool the
for the analysis of DNA. Techniques like DNA profiling DNA onto the glass rod by slowly twirling the rod.
or the production of a karyotype that once appeared to 8. Place some of the DNA fibres on a microscope slide
be quite complicated are now used extensively in soci- and observe them under a microscope.
ety in medical and legal settings. The advent of se- 9. Place some of the fibres on blue litmus paper and
quencing techniques used in the Human Genome Project observe any colour change.
has raised the level of biochemical analysis to new 10. Place 10 mL of water in the third test tube and add
heights. Regardless of what DNA manipulation is being some of the DNA sample to the water using the glass
carried out, scientists must have samples of DNA that stirring rod. Stir the contents with the rod.
have been extracted from the cells under study. In this
lab you will extract a DNA sample from an onion. Analyzing and Interpreting
1. What purpose is served by cutting the onion into
Problem very small pieces?
How can we extract DNA from onion cells? 2. What effect does the extraction solution have on the
onion sample?
Materials LAL1 3. What does the filtering process tell you about the
120 mL of water filter paper DNA molecules?
1.5 g uniodized salt glass Petri dish 4. Describe the appearance of the extracted DNA. What
5 g baking soda 250-mL beaker physical features can you observe in the extract that
5 mL shampoo (no 3 large test tubes with makes you believe it is DNA?
conditioner!) stoppers 5. What happened when the isopropanol was added
10 mL isopropanol glass stirring rod to the liquid that passed through the filter? What
(chilled) blue litmus paper does this tell you about the behaviour of DNA?
scalpel safety goggles 6. What happens when you place some of the DNA
1/8 of an onion sample in water and stir it? What does this tell you
about the nature of DNA?
CAUTION: Wear safety goggles during the DNA extraction. 7. What happened when you tested the DNA sample
with the blue litmus paper? What does this tell you
about the nature of DNA?
Procedure
1. Prepare the DNA extraction solution by mixing Concluding and Communicating
the water, shampoo, salt, and baking soda in a
250-mL beaker. 8. List the characteristics/features of DNA that are
2. Place the section of onion you have been given in identified in this investigation.
the Petri dish and cut into small pieces. Gradually 9. Describe the appearance of the extracted DNA if it
add water as you cut the onion to give the final is heated.
product the consistency of applesauce. 10.Explain the effect of temperature in terms of the
3. Place 5 mL of the onion mixture in one of the large viscosity of the DNA material.
test tubes and add 10 mL of the DNA extraction
solution that you prepared in step 1. Extending
4. Place a stopper in this tube and shake the tube vig- 11.Carry out research to identify the role of each of the
orously for 2 minutes. following substances used in this investigation:
5. Filter the contents of the tube into another large test shampoo, baking soda, salt, and isopropanol
tube. Keep the filtrate and discard the onion residue. 12.Repeat this investigation with other plant sources
6. Add 10 mL of isopropanol to the liquid in this of DNA and compare the results and success rate
tube and gently swirl the contents to mix the iso- to those of the onion extraction.
propanol with the contents of the tube. Long strands
Adapted with permission from Let’s Talk Science, Partners in Science
of DNA should now start to appear.
Newsletter Vol. 2 Issue 2, 2000.

Key Terms
amniocentesis double helix karyotype selective breeding

autosomes Down syndrome Maternal Serum Screening semi-conservative
chorionic villus sampling genetic counselling messenger RNA (mRNA) teratogens
(CVS) genetic screening mutagen transcription
cloning genetic therapy pedigree translation
congenital defect hemophilia plasmid ultrasound
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) homogeneity recombinant DNA
DNA profiling Human Genome Project replication
(fingerprinting) restriction enzyme
7.1 Genes, Chromosomes, and DNA Population genetics studies have identified an
Chromosomes isolated from cultured cells can be increased risk of a Down syndrome birth in older
isolated, stained, and grouped in homologous pairs mothers.
Pedigrees are a very useful method of illustrating
in a chart called a karyotype.
Each species has a specific number of chromosomes family histories for specific traits.
The mode of inheritance of a particular trait can
in all body cells.
In humans the male genotype is identified as “XY” often be determined by studying a pedigree
while the female genotype is “XX.” involving that trait.
X-linked traits like hemophilia affect far more males
than females. 7.3 Applying Our Knowledge of Genetics
Scientists are attempting to map the loci of spe- Desirable combinations of traits can often be
cific genes on the chromosomes in gene maps. obtained in agriculture using inbreeding or
James Watson and Francis Crick outlined the molec- hybridization techniques.
ular structure of the chromosomal chemical, DNA Inbreeding may result in the appearance of a rare
(deoxyribonucleic acid). and sometimes severe genetic abnormality.
Replication is termed semi-conservative because the Genetic counsellors provide a valuable service for
halves of the DNA molecule are conserved, one in prospective parents.
each of the two chains of DNA produced. Amniocentesis, ultrasound, maternal serum screen-
DNA can produce a message during transcription ing and chorionic villus testing often provide valu-
(mRNA) to direct cell activity outside of the nucleus. able information about the fetus.
The messenger RNA is translated at the ribosome Recombinant DNA techniques are used to splice
during protein synthesis. together the genetic information of two different
organisms.
7.2 Genetic Disorders and Pedigrees Recombinant DNA has allowed scientists to make
A mutation may occur spontaneously or it may be bacterial “factories” useful in the chemical, phar-
induced. maceutical, and food processing industries.
One of the long-term goals of genetic engineering
Genetic conditions like hemophilia are the result
of a single gene defect. techniques is to cure genetic defects using gene
Genetic conditions like Down syndrome result from therapy.
DNA profiles have been extremely useful in con-
an abnormal number of chromosomes.
In population genetics researchers study the fre- victing criminals.
The cloning technique used to produce Dolly may
quency of a gene in the gene pool or the frequency
of a genotype in the whole population, rather than have extensive applications in agriculture.
The current and potential applications of our knowl-
in individuals or families.
edge of genetics raises many ethical issues.
1. One of your focuses for this chapter is the consideration today. Outline five different issues that must be dealt with
of the ethics of genetic technologies that are available when society pursues genetic biotechnologies.
CHAPTER 7 Using Our KnowledgeC HofA Genes,

P T E R 7 Chromosomes,
Genetics andand DNA
Society 231
CHAPTER 7 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts 12. Distinguish between the two types of genetic technolo-
gies, screening and therapy.
1. Harmful X-linked traits determined by a recessive gene
a) tend to appear in females only 13. How have restriction enzymes been critical in recombi-
b) do not skip generations nant DNA techniques?
c) are usually not passed on from father to son
d) are usually passed on by carrier males 14. Does amniocentesis guarantee a healthy baby? Explain
your answer.
2. Which of the following statements about chromosomes
is true? 15. What type of parental cross could produce a hemophil-
a) the greater the number of chromosomes, the more iac female?
complex the organism
b) different species of organisms have different diploid 16. Describe some surprising information that is being
numbers of chromosomes released concerning the Human Genome. How is this
c) the characteristics of a species are not determined information creating a different view of the genome
simply by the number of chromosomes but rather when compared to our view prior to the release of this
by the specific information on the chromosomes information?
d) most organisms have less than 10 chromosomes
17. a) How many Barr bodies would you expect to find in
3. Humans possess the cells of a Turner syndrome individual? Explain
a) 22 pairs of sex chromosomes and 1 pair of auto- your answer.
somes b) How many Barr bodies would you expect to find in
b) 23 pairs of autosomes the cells of a Klinefelter syndrome individual?
c) equal numbers of autosomes and sex chromosomes Explain your answer.
d) 22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromo-
somes 18. Scientists were initially puzzled when studying the func-
tion of DNA by the ability of the DNA in the nucleus to
4. The farther apart linked genes are on the chromosome control the activity going on in the cytoplasm. They were
a) the more frequent the crossovers particularly puzzled by the fact that the DNA never left
b) the less likely they are to be separated by a crossover the nucleus. How is this control feat accomplished?
c) the less likely they are to assort independently
d) the greater the chance of a mutation
5. The most important job of the genetic counsellor is to Applying Inquiry/

a) decide if couples should have children Communication Skills
b) make decisions for prospective parents
c) decide who should have amniocentesis 19. Colour blindness is inherited as an X-linked recessive.
d) provide useful information for parents A heterozygous (for eye colour) brown-eyed normal male
is married to a heterozygous brown-eyed, colour-blind
6. Which parent ultimately decides the sex of a child? female. Use a Punnett square to determine the answer
Explain. to the following questions. Assume that a heterozygous
brown-eyed individual carries the recessive allele for
7. Which type of genetic defect is easiest to identify in a blue eyes.
karyotype? a) What is the probability that they will have a daugh-
ter who is a carrier for colour blindness with brown
8. In a pedigree how would you recognize that a particu- eyes?
lar trait is inherited as an autosomal dominant trait? b) What is the probability that they will have a son who
is colour-blind with blue eyes?
9. Describe how the structure of DNA leads to its possible c) What is the probability that they will have a colour-
self-replication. blind child?
10. List the negative effects of homogeneity. 20. A woman, who is a carrier for colour blindness, has 8
children, 4 boys and 4 girls. Each of her children marry
11. How are inbreeding and hybridization different in terms and have 8 children, 4 boys and 4 girls once again. Of
of the genotypes produced? When is it advantageous to her 64 grandchildren, how many would you expect to
use each approach? be colour-blind males according to probability? Assume

that her marriage and her children’s marriages are with Making Connections
people not carrying the recessive allelle.
30. A father has just been informed that his son has mus-
21. An old man said to his grandson, “One quarter of you is cular dystrophy. The father works at a chemical plant
me.” Is this statement correct in terms of the genetics and suspects he has been exposed to a possibly muta-
involved? Explain. genic substance during an accident. He has approached
you for advice about the genetics involved. What rec-
22. In the fruit fly, Drosophila, red eye (R) is dominant to ommendation would you make to the father if he asks
sepia eye (r), and straight wing (S) is dominant to curved for advice about suing the chemical plant for his son’s
wing (s). These genes are carried on different chromo- medical costs?
somes. If a pure breeding sepia-eyed, straight-winged
fly is mated with a pure breeding red-eyed, curve-winged 31. Should genetic engineering be done on humans? Write
fly, what phenotypes and genotypes will appear in the a paragraph to express your opinion.
F1? If two of these F1 flies are allowed to mate, what phe-
notypes will be observed and in what ratio? 32. Many of the biotechnology companies that are working
on the Human Genome Project have applied for patents
23. Studies have shown that more male babies are conceived on the genetic information. In Britain, authorities have
than female. How might this be explained? Eventually denied all patent applications on the basis that no one
throughout childhood these numbers become the same. can have a patent on the information of a living organ-
Why is there a higher mortality of male babies prior to ism. Do you think that companies should be able to
birth and after birth? patent this information? Why or why not?
24. Construct a model of the DNA molecule showing its chem- 33. Research cystic fibrosis. Write a description of this dis-
ical makeup. Your model should clearly illustrate how cease under the headings:
this molecule contains a coded message. a) cause
b) symptoms
25. Consider the trait of “hitchhiker’s thumb,” with pheno- c) rate of occurrence
types of curved and straight thumb. Construct a pedi- d) prevention
gree for your family outlining the inheritance of this trait e) treatment
for as many related individuals as possible. f) support groups
26. A pregnant woman, aged 37, is informed that there is 34. Research one of the plant products listed below in order
a 1 in 200 chance of her child having Down syndrome. to outline how genetic engineering has played a role in
Why is this probability significant? the development of this product.
Canola Potato
27. Tay Sachs disease is inherited as an autosomal recessive Corn Soybean
gene and is a fatal disorder. You have been approached Cotton seed Squash
by a couple who have lost a child to Tay-Sachs. There Flax Tomato
was no history of this disease in their immediate family.
They would like to have another child but they are con- 35. Some learning disorders can be linked to genetic ab-
cerned about the appearance of this trait in a second normalities such as fragile X syndrome. Some people
child. What advice can you give them about the chances argue that these children would be better to have a kary-
of this disorder appearing in a second child? otype test done to identify the genetic cause of the learn-
ing disorder. In this way the cause of the disorder has
28. Produce a graph to illustrate the relationship between been identified and the best path in educating these in-
maternal age and the incidence of Down Syndrome in dividuals can be pursued. On the other hand, some peo-
newborns. Choose the type of graph that will most clearly ple suggest that when we assign a specific chromosomal
illustrate this relationship. cause to the disorder then the classification of this
child may act as a roadblock to their opportunities. Which
29. A man with a Y-linked disorder has three sons and three argument seems to make more sense to you? Explain
daughters with the same wife. His first son has two sons your choice.
and two daughters with his wife and the second son has
three daughters with his wife. Draw the pedigree for this
family. How could you tell if this disorder was Y-linked
or X-linked recessive by looking at the pedigree?

EXPLORING CAREERS
Communicating Your Skills
Genetics to careers in biology is what co-op program at your university (a

the high-speed chip has been to careers co-op program is one in which you take
in the computer industry: a source of academic courses one term, then work
incredible growth that seems to gain in a related occupation the next). You
momentum with every new discovery or can give a prospective employer a list of
improvement in technology. There is your courses and marks, as well as an
already a vast number of careers and up-to-date résumé of any work experi-
opportunities in biotechnology and ence, but what you need is the ability to
genetics. You can find lists of jobs on the talk confidently about your skills and
Internet. There are even glossy print qualifications.
magazines filled with career advertise-
ments for biologists in all sorts of
From Classroom to the
specialties.
Jobs. That means application forms
Workplace
and interviews. Imagine you have grad- You’ve been asked to come for an
uated from university and are ready to interview at the local hospital. There are
look for a job. Or you’re taking the a wide variety of summer jobs available
for students, from cashier in the cafe-
teria to assisting in the laboratories to
helping with patients. You would prefer
a job helping with patients because
you are considering a career in
medicine. How could you talk about your
skills in a way that shows you would be
good at this type of job?
1. Which of the skills listed on the next

page would be most important in
Image omitted due to copyright restrictions. the job you want? (These are skills
you are developing in this biology
course.) Choose five you wish to
emphasize. For each of these skills,
write descriptive statements as if
you are:
listing this skill on your résumé.

listing this skill in an email or
cover letter.
putting this skill in the section
titled “Any Special Skills” on an
FIGURE 1 Dress for success. When you are invited to an interview for any job,
application form.
arrive in neat, business-like clothing. The job itself may require you to wear jeans
talking about this skill in an
and a lab coat, but this is not appropriate attire before you are hired. (Hint: If the
interview goes well, you might be offered a tour of the facilities. Depending on the interview.
facilities, it may be wise to wear shoes that can take a little punishment.)

Here’s an example:
Skill: communicating procedures and results
On a résumé: experience using data tables, graphs, and other

formats to communicate technical information
In an email or cover letter: I can communicate technical information clearly and

concisely, using a variety of formats.
On an application form (if asked): communicating technical information
In an interview: I’m hoping for a job where I’ll be helping with

patients and interacting with medical staff. One of
my strengths is communicating technical information,
which would help me understand instructions from
the nurses and record any observations required. I
have experience writing reports, making presentations,
and talking with others about procedures and results.
I’m comfortable using a variety of tables and
graphs, including creating these on computers.
Look over your statements. You are talk- any advice to improve your
ing about the same skill, but in each case presentation for next time. This
you had to adapt what you said to suit could be your next job interview!
how it was being presented. Sometimes,
as on the application form, you won’t
have much room. So use clear, mean- List of Skills
ingful terms. In an interview, it’s your • assembling
and using appa
opportunity to explain your skill in • communicat ratus
ing procedures
detail, pointing out any aspects that will • compiling an and results
d organizing da
show how that skill is important to the • coordinatin ta
g tasks
job you want. • decision-mak
ing
• designing pr
ocedures
• identifying va
Looking Outward • interpreting
riables
patterns and tr
2. Most people find writing about their • problem-sol ends in data
ving
skills a great deal easier than • recording ob
servations
talking about them, yet it is talking • researching
topics under st
that will make the difference • selecting an udy
d using instrum
between getting that job or not. So • selecting an ents effectively
d using the ap and accurately
practise! Write statements like the • time manag propriate grap
ement hi ng technique
ones here, then practise saying them • using approp
riate techniqu
out loud. Your family and friends can posing of labo es for handlin
ratory materia g, storing, and
be your first audience. Once you are • working in ls dis-
a team
confident, find a neighbour or fam- • working inde
pendently
ily friend who conducts interviews. • working with
Ask this person to listen to how you others
present yourself and your skills. Use
Exploring Carrers 235

ACHIEVEMENT TASK
View Rubric
Genetics and Discrimination

It is clear that knowledge of a person’s genetic make-up may be useful in
making all sorts of decisions in areas ranging from childbearing to job se-
lection. This “genetic prophecy” could lead to a new form of discrimination
in a society that places greater emphasis on genetics. It is possible that peo-
ple could be denied educational opportunities or turned away from jobs
because of their genetic makeup. As our knowledge of genetics increases,
society will have to decide how genetic information will be used.
SCENARIO
You have been appointed to an ethics panel studying the many potential
applications of genetic research. You have been asked to comment on the
current status of one of the following genetic technologies and to provide rec-
ommendations to limit the potential for discrimination in future genetic re-
search.
The Human Genome Project
Genetic Engineering
Genetic Markers
DNA Profiling

Part A: Genetic Disorders Part C: The Future of Research

1. Select one of the following genetic disorders 4. What are the variables that influence pub-
and describe the disorder according to the lic opinion on the continuation of genetic
following criteria: (1) chromosomes affected; research using this technology? Explain.
(2) physical effects; and (3) treatment.
5. Using your own research, complete a
• cystic fibrosis
risk/benefit analysis of the genetic technol-
• muscular dystrophy
ogy with respect to its potential for
• fragile X Syndrome
discrimination.
• Down syndrome
6. Based on the information you have found,
make recommendations about the future of
Part B: Research Technology genetic research.
2. Choose one of the technologies in the

scenario and research it according to the
following criteria: (1) define the technology; Part D: Proposing a Course of
(2) describe the technology involved; (3) Action
identify its potential uses or applications;
and (4) identify how information gathered 7. Write a recommendation that outlines
using this technology could be misused. control mechanisms to limit the potential
discrimination that could arise from the use
3. For the technology chosen, create a histor-
of this technology. Use the following crite-
ical timeline of the discoveries in genetics
ria for your recommendations: (1) include
that have led to its development. On the
a range of perspectives, both pro and con;
timeline, identify the individuals who have
(2) include recommendations for testing of
contributed to these discoveries.
future research and technologies; and (3)
look at the social, ethical, and economic
impact of the technology.
UNIT 2 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts c) a chain of sugar and phosphate molecules
d) a sequence of peptide bonds producing a polypeptide
1. A sex cell that results from meiosis will contain
a) the diploid number of chromosomes 9. A knowledge of linkage and crossing over has helped ge-
b) any given number of chromosomes neticists produce
c) one of each of the homologous pairs of chromosomes a) karyotypes
d) any combination of chromosomes that is the b) pedigrees
haploid number c) Punnett squares
d) genetic maps
2. Aneuploidy often results from
a) duplication 10. One of the drawbacks to inbreeding techniques is that
b) crossing over sometimes:
c) translocation a) severe mutations occur
d) nondisjunction b) abnormal numbers of chromosomes result
c) rare recessive traits can be found in the homozy-
3. The genes located at the same loci on homologous chro- gous condition
mosomes are known as d) resulting individuals are sterile
a) autosomes
b) homozygotes 11. Why is meiosis necessary in organisms that reproduce
c) alleles sexually?
d) heterozygotes
12. In what two ways does meiosis encourage variability?
4. Which pair of terms is most alike in meaning?
a) segregation, crossing over 13. In humans, at the end of reduction division in meiosis:
b) heterozygous, hybrid a) How many cells exist?
c) phenotype, genotype b) How many chromosomes exist in each cell?
d) recessive, dominant c) How many chromatids does each chromosome have?
5. An organism with the genotype AaBbcc would produce 14. How are homologous chromosomes the same? different?
how many different types of gametes?
a) 1 15. Why is it advantageous for females to produce one large
b) 2 functional egg in the meiotic process rather than four
c) 4 smaller ones?
d) 8
16. Why did Mendel propose each of the following ideas
6. If the diploid number of chromosomes is 30 for a given when developing his theory to explain patterns of
species, how many chromosomes are present in a ga- inheritance?
mete of this species? a) He suggested that his pea plants possessed two fac-
a) 1 tors for each of the seven traits studied (rather than
b) 14 one).
c) 15 b) He suggested that each pea plant passes on only one
d) 30 of its two factors in its gametes (rather than both).
7. If you crossed a brown-eyed dark-haired homozygous 17. How is the phenotype of a hybrid different when the trait
female with a light-hair blue-eyed male, given that dark shows dominance as opposed to incomplete dominance?
hair (A) and brown eyes (B) are dominant to light hair
(a) and blue eyes (b) respectively, and the genes are car- 18. Two parents who have the same phenotype for a given
ried on autosomes, which of the following would be the trait produce an individual with a differing phenotype
correct genotype of the offspring? for the same trait. How would Mendel have explained
a) AaBb this observation?
b) Aabb
c) AaBB 19. When long radish plants are crossed with round radish
d) AABb plants, the resulting plants produce oval radishes. How
would you explain this observation?
8. The Watson and Crick model indicated that the genetic
message is somehow determined by 20. What must be true in order for geneticists to observe in-
a) the number of chromosomes in a body cell dependent assortment? Explain why this must be true.
b) a sequence of nitrogenous bases in the nucleotides

21. There is a wide range of continuous shades of skin 30. A species of rabbit that lives in the harsh cold environ-
colouring in humans. How is this explained? ment of the Himalayas normally has black fur on its ears
and feet. If this black fur is removed and the rabbit is
22. Why are there more men than women with colour placed in a warmer environment, the hair that grows in
blindness? is not black. How would a geneticist explain this unex-
pected observation?
23. A farmer has a bull that has a black coat, the dominant
trait inherited as a simple Mendelian trait. In this breed 31. In fruit flies the genes for wing shape and body stripes
of cattle white coat is the result of the homozygous are linked. In a fly with the genotype WwSs, W is linked
recessive condition. How would the farmer go about to s and w is linked to S. How could this fly produce
determining the genotype of the bull? gametes with four different combinations of alleles?
Identify which of these combinations would be termed
24. “There will be nothing left for genetic researchers to parental and which would be termed recombinants.
study once the Human Genome Project is completed.”
Discuss the validity of this statement. 32. A knowledge of probability is important in any analysis
of genetic crosses.
25. Outline the two general approaches to gene therapy. a) If a couple has five children, what is the probabil-
Which one of these has been used extensively in the past? ity that they will have five sons? (Assume that the
What roadblocks still exist in trying to accomplish the probability of a son in any given pregnancy is 1/2.)
other method of therapy? b) If a couple has five children, what is the probabil-
ity that they will have three sons and then two
26. In a certain plant grey seed colour (G) is dominant to daughters?
yellow seed colour (g). In the crosses shown in the chart c) If a couple has five children, what is the probabil-
below the phenotype of the parent plants is known, but ity that they will have a family of three sons and two
their genotypes are not. The numbers of each phenotype daughters? (Note that this probability is different
are recorded for the F1 generation. Identify the possi- from the answer to part b.)
ble genotype(s) for the first parent given in each of the
following crosses. 33. Use the rules outlined in question 6 on page 167 to an-
swer the following questions.
a) What is the probability that the cross AABbCC
AaBbCc will produce an F1 individual with the geno-
Applying Inquiry/
type AABBCC? (Assume that the genes are not linked.)
Communication Skills b) What is the probability that the cross AABbCC
AaBbCc will produce an F1 individual with the same
27. Use a series of diagrams to show how crossing over leads phenotype as the first parent given in the cross?
to an increase of variation in genetic recombination.
34. In rabbits the allele for black hair (B) is dominant to the
28. Produce a table comparing sexual and asexual repro- allele for brown hair (b) and the allele for short hair (S)
duction using the headings listed below. is dominant to the allele for long hair (s). The genes
a) number of parents are not linked. If a pure-breeding black, short-haired
b) examples of this method male is mated with a brown, long-haired female, what
c) appearance of offspring relative to parents will their offspring look like? What are the genotypes
d) advantages and disadvantages of this process of the F1 individuals? If two of these F1 rabbits are mated,
what phenotypes would you expect to observe in the off-
29. If a mother is blood type AB and produces a child with spring and in what proportions?
blood type AB, list the possible genotypes of the father.
Which genotype(s) is (are) not possible? Explain why.
Cross Parent #1 Parent #2 Grey in F1 Yellow in F1 Genotype(s) of

parent #1?
1 grey yellow 52 52
2 grey grey 127 41
3 grey yellow 63 0
4 grey grey 86 0
Unit Review 239

35. A fruit fly that is heterozygous for both grey body and determine the value of q? What is this value?
red eyes (GgRr) is crossed with a fly having a black body d) Now use the equation p + q = 1 to calculate the value
and purple eyes (ggrr). When this cross is carried out of p.
most of the offspring look like the parents, but 7% have e) Now that you have values for p and q, you can cal-
grey bodies with purple eyes and 7% have black bodies culate the frequency of the three genotypes in this
with red eyes. How would you explain these results? student population using the following calculations.
Frequency of TT individuals = p2
36. A male fruit fly with normal wings is crossed with a Frequency of Tt individuals = 2pq
female fruit fly with miniature wings. The cross produces Frequency of tt individuals = q2
165 males with miniature wings and 170 females with f) What does p2 + 2pq + q2 equal? Why does this have
normal wings. How would you explain the inheritance to hold true?
pattern of this trait? g) Information of this sort concerning population ge-
netics questions can be summarized in a slightly dif-
37. Once nerve cells reach maturity, they do not replicate ferent version of a Punnett square. The outside of
their DNA. These cells have lost their ability to divide. the Punnett represents the frequency of genes in the
Assume that x represents the amount of DNA found in gene pool and the inside represents the frequency
one of these nerve cells. Four other cells that have of genotypes in the population.
been removed from various parts of the human body are
analyzed for their amounts of DNA. The researcher T=p t=q
obtains the following results: T=p TT = p2 Tt = pq
Cell Relative Amount of DNA t=q Tt = pq tt = q2
nerve cell 1.0 x
Cell #1 0.5 x h) Make a copy of this Punnett in your notebook and
Cell #2 2.0 x replace the letters p and q with the actual values for
the student’s population study.
Cell #3 1.7 x
Cell #4 1.0 x 39. Produce a pedigree chart that would be typical of
X-linked inheritance. Your pedigree should include at
Match each of the numbered cells to the correct location least 4 generations and 25 individuals.
in the human body listed below.
Location A – cell lining the intestinal tract in the S phase 40. Using a knowledge of blood types, match the parents to
Location B – a sperm cell their proper child.
Location C – a skin cell just beginning interphase
Location D – a bone cell beginning mitosis Baby Parent set (father/mother)
A: AB,MN,Rh– 1. B,MN,Rh– O,MN,Rh+
B: O,N,Rh– 2. O,N,Rh+ O,MN,Rh+
38. In a high school population genetics study, a student C: A,MN,Rh+ 3. A,M,Rh– AB,MN,Rh–
collects information on the simple Mendelian trait of D: B,M,Rh+ 4. AB,M,Rh+ O,N,Rh+
tasting in humans. The allele for tasting (T) is
dominant to the allele for non-tasting (t). The phenotype 41. Genes A, B, C, D, E and F are known to be linked.
of 100 students is identified, with 84 being tasters and The following information has been determined exper-
16 being non-tasters. Follow the steps outlined below to imentally. What is the sequence of the genes on the
calculate the frequency of the two alleles in this gene chromosome?
pool and the frequency of the genotypes in the population.
a) There are 100 students in the population. As a A is located at one extreme end of the chromosome
result there are 200 genes in the gene pool. A crosses over with C 15% of the time
b) Let the frequency of T in the gene pool be repre- C crosses over with E 10% of the time
sented by the letter p and the frequency of t in the C crosses over with F 20% of the time
gene pool be represented by the letter q. p + q must F crosses over with E 30% of the time
equal one as these are the only alleles in the gene E crosses over with B 20% of the time
pool for this trait. D crosses over with F 5 % of the time
c) The frequency of tt individuals in the population is D crosses over with B 15% of the time
16/100. The chance of two tt alleles coming together
in this gene pool is represented by q2(q x q). Thus 42. In fruit flies, red eyes are dominant to white eyes and
q2 = 16/100. How would you use this equation to long wings are dominant to vestigial (partially formed)

wings. Two red-eyed, long-winged flies are crossed 47. The possibility that a genetic profile of any individual
and produce offspring according to the results shown in could be produced in the near future raises many
the chart below. questions. Express a supported viewpoint in response to
each of the following questions.
Females Males a) Should an employer have access to this personal
Red-eyed with long wings 6/16 3/16 genetic information?
b) Should an insurance company have access to this
Red-eyed with vestigial wings 2/16 1/16 profile?
White-eyed with long wings 3/16 c) Should the government record and keep these
White-eyed with vestigial wings 1/16 profiles for all citizens?
d) Should this information be recorded by the law
enforcement agencies for all known criminals?
What are the genotypes of the parents? Produce a e) Would some individuals try to avoid having their in-
Punnett square that will show the results of this cross. formation recorded for fear of being discriminated
against because of their genetic makeup?
48. Search Internet and media sources to identify commis-

Making Connections sions that have been established in various countries to
study the ethical, social and legal implications of our ex-
43. Both competition and cooperation are common in sci- panding genetic knowledge. Describe any suggestions that
entific research today. How might competition between these commissions make concerning the impact of human
scientists and the corporations that employ them affect genetics research on individuals, families and society.
projects like the mapping of the human genome? What problem areas have been identified by these groups
and what suggestions or solutions are offered? Are dif-
44. Researchers have found that the incidence of spina bifida, ferent countries that are dealing with these considerations
a spinal cord disorder, can be reduced if women of child- producing the same recommendations? Give several ex-
bearing age who are capable of getting pregnant consume amples to support your answer to this question.
small quantities of folic acid in their diet. One of the eas-
iest ways to ensure folic acid consumption in these women 49. Experiments utilizing each of the following organisms
is to add it to common food sources like cereal grains. Is has contributed significantly to our knowledge of ge-
it acceptable for an entire population to receive an addi- netics.
tive of this type that benefits a small proportion of the i) Paramecium viii) thale cress plant
whole population? Defend your point of view. ii) yeast ix) bacteria
iii) fruit fly x) worms
iv) mouse xi) corn
45. Tests to determine individuals who are genetically sus-
v) humans xii) chickens
ceptible to developing various forms of cancer are cur-
vi) nematode xiii) Neurospora (bread mold)
rently becoming more sophisticated and widespread in
vii) Chlamydomonas (a green alga)
their use. There are people who think that the day would
come when society will insist that these individuals
Select one of these organisms and research in order to
must take steps to protect themselves against the devel-
identify the following:
opment of cancer so that society will not be financially
burdened by the cost of their treatment. Write a para- a) scientist(s) that has(have) worked with this organ-
graph to express your view on this issue. ism (you may need to select one scientist, as your
organism may have been used extensively by many
scientists)
46. Mendel concluded that some type of inheritable “factor”
b) a brief description outlining the steps in their re-
was responsible for the patterns of inheritance that he
search
observed in his pea experiments. This conclusion was
c) some of the results of their work
drawn without ever seeing or knowing about genes. In
d) the conclusions drawn from the experiments using
a similar fashion Morgan and Sturtevant described the
this organism
patterns of inheritance of linked genes without actually
e) the significance/impact of this work in the field of
observing the genes that were carried on the chromo-
genetics
some directly. Are these examples of bad science when
scientists suggest the existence of structures such as Write a supported paragraph to show how the study of
genes without actually seeing them? Support your view- the organism you selected has contributed to our knowl-
point with several arguments. edge of genetics.
Unit Review 241

UNIT
Internal Systems
3
OVERALL
EXPECTATIONS
A
ll living things require a way to bring nutrients and oxygen into
their bodies and a way to get waste products out. In single-celled or-
ganisms like the amoeba, the process is relatively simple: substances
By the end of this unit, enter and exit directly through the cell membrane. In complex multicellular
you will be able to: organisms, however, more sophisticated methods are required. Multicellular
creatures like humans rely on complex internal systems to get the job done,
describe and explain the major
processes, mechanisms, and among them the respiratory, digestive, and circulatory systems. Every time
systems, including the respiratory, you take a breath, you rely on your respiratory system to absorb oxygen and
circulatory, and digestive systems, deliver it to your bloodstream. Every time you take a bite of food, you rely on
by which plants and animals your digestive system to extract nutrients and pass them along to your blood-
maintain their internal environment stream. Every time your heart beats, you rely on your circulatory system to
illustrate and explain, through transport oxygen and nutrient-rich blood to all the cells in your body.
laboratory investigations, the
contribution of various types of
systems and processes to internal
regulation in plant and animal
systems
evaluate the impact of personal
lifestyle decisions on the health of
humans, and analyze how societal
concern for maintaining human
health has advanced the develop-
ment of technologies related to the
regulation of internal systems
Scanning electron micrograph of a human lung showing a bronchiole surrounded by alveoli
242
The quality of the air you breathe and the food you eat affects the smooth
operation of your internal systems. Smokers, for example, risk developing
respiratory illness, such as bronchitis, asthma, emphysema, and lung can-
cer. An unbalanced diet, like a diet with too many fatty foods, can cause con-
ditions like heartburn and weight gain. A high level of stress or a lack of
exercise can lead to circulatory system disorders such as high blood pres-
sure, stroke, or heart attack.
In order to make good personal choices about your nutrition and lifestyle,
it is important to understand how your internal systems work. In this unit,
you will investigate the structures, functions, and processes of the digestive,
respiratory, and circulatory systems. You will also examine diseases that can
affect these systems, as well as the drugs and technology currently available
to treat them.
BIOLOGY HEADLINES
Obesity Epidemic Costs Billions Pessimists Have Higher Higher Blood Pressure Than
Optimists
Canada has one of the worst obesity problems in
the world, with almost half of the adult population A recent study has shown that pessimists have
being overweight or obese. The problem also af- higher blood pressure than their more optimistic
fects a large number of children. Statistics indicate counterparts. In the study, 100 people were given
that obesity in young people is growing faster than monitors that recorded their blood pressures every
in adults. It is estimated that obesity is responsi- 30 min. After each interval, subjects were asked
ble for about 75% of diabetes cases and about 30% to describe their mood. Subjects with pessimistic
of cardiovascular problems. Physicians warn that outlooks tended to have higher blood pressures
treating obesity-related medical problems carries than the more optimistic subjects. Researchers be-
a costly price tag, approximately $15 billion a year. lieve that the pessimists in the group did not deal
as well with stress, which is a known cause of high
blood pressure.
Puffer Replacement
There may be some relief in sight for children who
rely on inhaled medication to control their asthma.
A new Canadian-developed asthma drug is the first
PREVIEW
of its kind to be approved by Health Canada for ACHIEVEMENT TASK
use by children. Young asthma sufferers over the
At the end of the unit you will demonstrate your learn-
age of six can take the medication in the form of
ing by completing the task Dissection in Science
a chewable, cherry-flavoured tablet. The medica-
Education. As a member of a school board you will be
tion blocks chemicals that constrict the airway. In
asked to prepare a position paper on whether the
one study, 40% of the patients taking the tablet
dissection of animals in the Science classroom should
were able to stop using inhaled corticosteroids, continue. See page 360.
which over time may hamper growth.
243
CHAPTER 8
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS Nutrition and Digestion
describe the importance of nutrients
and digestion in providing
substances needed for energy and
I n human society, food selection, preparation, and consumption are cen-
tral activities. The expression “you are what you eat” sums up the general
understanding that food is important to a person’s well-being. At the level
growth (8.1, 8.2, 8.3, Investigation 1, of a single cell, the equation for cell respiration tells us how glucose is
and Investigation 2) metabolized for the release of energy to the cell.
how fitness level is related to the
efficiency of metabolism and of the
cardiovascular and respiratory
systems (8.1)
describe how the use of
prescription and non-prescription
drugs can disrupt or help maintain
homeostasis (8.2, 8.3)
compare the anatomy of different
organisms—vertebrate and
invertebrate (8.4, Investigation 3)
select and integrate information
about internal systems from various
print and electronic sources or from
several parts of the same source
(8.1, 8.2, 8.3)
identify examples of technologies
that have enhanced scientific
understanding of internal systems
(8.3)
provide examples of Canadian
contributions to the development of
technology for examining internal
systems (81, 8.3)
analyze and explain how societal
needs have led to scientific and
technological developments related
to internal systems (8.3)
present informed opinions about
how scientific knowledge of
internal systems influences
personal choices concerning
nutrition and lifestyle (8.1)
FIGURE 8.1 The epithelium in the esophagus, false-colour scanning electron

micrograph (SEM). The epithelium is many layers of flattened cells. The microfolds
keep the esophagus moist and lubricate and protect the surface against abrasion.
244 UNIT 3 Internal Systems

How does food selection relate to cellular activity? The answer is the di-
gestive system. Every organism needs a supply of nutrients to fuel the pro-
cesses that drive cellular metabolism.
The human body requires six types of nutrients in order to function. It
can obtain these requirements from an infinite combination of foods. However,
you need to extract the useful nutrients from the food you eat, deliver them
to your cells, and eliminate wastes.
To take in and use food, the body needs the various organs of the diges-
tive tract. Examination of their unique structures will help you to understand
how they perform the vital functions of mechanical and chemical digestion,
secretion, and absorption. You need to be informed about how to balance
healthy nutrition and exercise to achieve overall fitness. This chapter will de-
scribe components in foods that are important for good health, suggest healthy
eating patterns, and discuss some common disorders that arise from a defi-
ciency or an excess of certain nutrients in the diet.
In this chapter, you will study the components of food required to fuel
your body and learn the food groups necessary to ensure a daily supply of
nutrients. By examining the structures of the digestive system and the way
they interact with other structures, you will be able to understand how nu-
trients are acquired, digested, absorbed, and distributed in order to meet the
needs of your body’s cells. You will consider technologies that enhance
understanding of the digestive system and Canadian contributions to the field
of nutrition and health.
CHECKPOINT
Discovering Biology Draw a branching diagram
to indicate the components
Food for Thought! of a balanced meal.
In our society today, people are becoming more aware of what they eat. Think
Balanced
of what you have eaten over the last 24 hours. List all these items in your meal
notebook. From your knowledge and experience, attempt to group these items
into the following categories: carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Compare your
list and a partner’s. Discuss with your partner the following:
the make-up, similarities, and differences in your diets over the last 24
hours
the functions of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats within your body
CHAPTER 8 Nutrition and Digestion 245

8.1 Nutrition
Key Understandings
describe the importance of proper nutrition and the nutrients needed for energy and
growth
explain how personal choices in nutrition are directly related to health and well- being
appreciate Canadian contributions to the field of nutrition
Your body is like a machine. To perform is the metric unit used to measure
at its best, it needs fuel to supply it with energy. The large amount of food energy
energy. When you provide your body required for maintenance, growth, and
with nutritious foods it is able to per- repair makes it more appropriate to
form well. However, when you eat foods measure energy in kilojoules (1 kJ =
with little or no nutritional value, your 1000 J). The joule and kilojoule are the
body is unable to function to the best metric units used to indicate food energy
of its ability. Taking care of your body content but many food companies still
through a balanced diet will help you to recognize and use the calorie as a unit
stay fit, have more energy, and be of measurement. It is important for
healthy. consumers to know that a calorie is a unit
Every cell in the body must have a of heat. It is the amount of heat needed
constant supply of energy to remain alive to increase the temperature of one gram
and perform its particular functions. of water by 1°C. To convert calories to
Energy comes from the consumption of joules, the value in calories is multiplied
nutrients and the circulatory system by 4.1855. A commonly used unit is the
plays a key role in delivering these vital kilocalorie (sometimes called the dietetic
nutrients throughout the body. The Calorie) with the symbol Cal. A kilo-
WORD ORIGIN amount of energy that different people calorie is the amount of energy needed
require depends on their level of activ- to increase the temperature of one kilo-
Macro from the Greek, makros ity, their specific medical conditions, and gram of water by 1°C (1 Cal = 4.1855 kJ).
meaning “ big” and Micro from whether they are male or female. As Table 8.1 indicates the recommended
the Greek, mikros, meaning shown in Table 8.1, males generally have daily energy intake.
“little”; for example, micro-
cosm means “a small sample higher energy needs and therefore must In human development, there are
of society.” take in more energy than females to times when growth spurts occur. For ex-
maintain health. This difference in the ample, during puberty, both males and
daily energy requirements of men and females grow significantly taller. In these
women is mainly associated with the dif- instances certain nutrients may be more
ference in average size between the useful than others. Also, a larger total
sexes. energy intake may be needed. However,
Food not only supplies the energy even after a person reaches adult size,
vital for life, but it also provides impor- maintenance and repair are important.
tant building materials that allow bod- All food substances can be divided
ies to grow, develop, and rebuild injured into two general groups: organic foods,
and damaged cells. In general, a which are produced by living organisms,
nutrient is any substance that has a and inorganic foods that come from
useful function when taken up by body rocks, soil, and the seas. The organic
cells. The food that provides your body components of food include carbohy-
with the energy it needs to function drates, fats, proteins, and vitamins, while
properly is measured in joules. A joule the inorganic components include min-

TABLE 8.1 Recommended Daily Energy Intake INFOBIT
Stage of Development Mass (kg) Height (cm) Energy (Cal) Energy (kJ) Lactose is a disaccharide pre-
sent in milk. Eighty percent of
Infants
the world’s population cannot
0.0–0.5 yrs. 6 60 __kg 115 kg 481 digest lactose after about the
0.5–1.0 yrs. 9 71 __kg 105 kg 439 age of two. The condition
results when lactase, the
Children enzyme that is required to
1–3 13 90 1300 5 441 digest lactose, is absent.
Lactase splits the lactose into
4–6 20 112 1700 7 115
two monosaccharides, glucose
7–10 28 132 2400 10 045 and galactose. The inability to
Males digest lactose is called lactose
intolerance. It is important to
11–14 45 157 2700 11 301 note that the lack of this en-
15–18 66 176 2800 11 719 zyme is the normal condition in
adult mammals, though many
19–22 70 177 2900 12 138
people perceive the lack of
23–50 70 177 2700 11 301 lactase to be abnormal. Milk is
51 + 70 177 2400 10 045 really an essential food only for
infants and toddlers.
Females
11–14 46 157 2200 9 208
15–18 55 163 2100 8 790
19–22 55 163 2100 8 790
23–50 55 163 2000 8 371
51 + 55 163 1800 7 534
Pregnant 300 1 256
Lactating 500 2 093
erals and water. Since carbohydrates, source of the glucose needed in cellular
fats, and proteins are consumed and respiration. Glucose is a simple, single,
needed in large amounts daily, they sugar unit or monosaccharide. Other
are also called macronutrients. monosaccharides include fructose and
Vitamins and minerals are taken in galactose. Simple sugars do not have to
minute quantities and are thus called be digested or broken down. They can
micronutrients. Roughage (nutritional be used directly and are therefore good
fibre) is also an important part of a com- sources of quick energy. More complex
plete diet. It does not have any nutri- carbohydrates, such as disaccharides
tional value, but it aids in good digestion. (two sugar units) and polysaccharides
(many sugar units) must first be digested
before they can be used by the body.
Macronutrients
Good sources of carbohydrates include
Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are breads, cereals, and pasta. Many plants,
organic compounds made only of car- such as potatoes, rice, and breadfruit,
bon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are store carbohydrates as starch. When
the major source of energy required more carbohydrates than your body re-
for all bodily functions. Common ex- quires are ingested, the excess amounts
amples of carbohydrates include are stored in the short term as glycogen
starches, sugars, and cellulose. They are in the liver, in muscle, or are converted
important because they provide a ready to fat. Cellulose is a polysaccharide found

INFOBIT in the cell wall of plants. It is not di- saturated. Generally if a fat is a solid at
gestible by humans and is therefore not room temperature it is a saturated fat.
Michael Julius, a researcher considered to be a human nutrient, even If it is a liquid at room temperature, it
at Toronto General Hospital’s though it is a carbohydrate. It provides is an unsaturated fat. Butter, lard, and
research unit, has shown a
possible link between a protein the human system with roughage. animal fat are solid at room tempera-
in breast milk and the activa- However, for a herbivore like a plant- ture and are therefore examples of sat-
tion, or start-up, of the infant’s eating rabbit, cellulose would be a very urated fats. In contrast, vegetable oil is
own immune system. important part of the diet. Rabbits, un- an example of an unsaturated fat.
like humans, are well equipped to break Some fat is a healthy component of
down cellulose into a useful digestible daily nutrition. Our society has led us to
form. They have a suitable bacterial flora believe that fats cause us to put on extra
in their large intestine. In humans, cel- weight and are therefore unhealthy and
lulose remains undigested and passes to be avoided. It is true that an excess
through the alimentary canal to be elim- of fat does contribute to weight gain.
inated through the anus as feces. However, your body requires a certain
amount of fat each day to function prop-
Fats Fats (also known as lipids), in mod- erly. It acquires this fat when you eat a
erate quantities, are part of a balanced balanced diet. There are various fatty
diet and are important for maintaining acids, such as linoleic, linolenic, and
good health. Fats perform several im- arachidonic that are considered
portant roles within the body. The phos- essential nutrients. They cannot be sup-
pholipid bilayer in the cell membrane plied by any other food source.
surrounding all body cells includes lipid Therefore it is important to include some
and cholesterol. Fats surround vital or- fat, even in a low energy diet.
gans and joints and act like a protective
cushion. Fats surround nerves and help Proteins Proteins are the most impor-
them to deliver signals quickly and actant compounds for providing struc-
curately. As well, a layer of fat just un- ture within the body. Not only do
derneath the skin helps to insulate the proteins make up critical parts of mus-
body against changes in the external en- cles, skin, and internal organs, but they
vironment. Fats are concentrated are also the most abundant of the or-
sources of energy. One gram of fat pro- ganic compounds found within body
vides approximately 37.6 kJ of energy, cells. Some proteins are enzymes that
while one gram of protein or carbohy- are vital for cellular function. In spe-
drate provides only 16.7 kJ. However, cialized cells, proteins act as cell surface
fat intake must be moderated since ex- markers that are targets for specific hor-
cessive fat intake can lead to obesity. mones. Cell membrane proteins provide
Fats, like carbohydrates, are organic channels in the phospholipid bilayer of
compounds composed of carbon, hy- cells. Without these channels, valuable
drogen, and oxygen, but the ratio of nutrients would not be able to enter or
these atoms is different from that in car- exit body cells.
bohydrates. The basic structure in fats The body has a variety of proteins
is the triglyceride, a three-carbon glyc- that differ in shape, size, and function.
erol molecule with three fatty acids All proteins are built from a set of 20
joined to it. Fatty acids are long chains amino acids. These amino acids are
M AT H L I N K of carbon atoms with an acid group at joined together by peptide bonds. Of the
one end. Depending on the hydrogen 20 amino acids, 8 must be obtained in
Remember: atoms present, a fat can be either a liq- the diet. These are called essential
1 g of carbohydrate provides uid or a solid at room temperature. If amino acids. If necessary, the atoms in
4 Cal or 16.7 kJ. every available chemical bond of the these essential amino acids can be re-
1 g of fat provides 9 Cal or carbons in the chain is holding a hy- arranged to form the other 12 amino
37.6 kJ.
drogen atom, the chain is described as acids. However, a well-balanced diet

ensures that all 20 amino acids will be amounts of other elements. Most vitamins
consumed. Table 8.2 summarizes com- act as coenzymes, joining to specific en-
mon functions of proteins. zymes (proteins) to make sure that bio-
Food sources of protein include chemical reactions within the cell take
meat, fish, eggs, milk, cheese, beans, place properly. Table 8.3 lists some key
nuts, and lentils. A lack or inadequate information about the vitamins that hu-
supply of protein in the diet leads to mans require. Vitamins fall into two major
disease. See Figure 8.4 on page 253. groups, ones that are fat-soluble and ones
that are water-soluble. The fat-soluble vi-
tamins are A, D, E, and K. They are found
Micronutrients
Vitamins and minerals are micronutri-
ents and differ from the macronutrients TABLE 8.2 Functions of Proteins
in significant ways. Vitamins and min-
erals are taken in extremely small quan- Role of Protein Function Within the Body
tities daily, often in milligrams; they Enzyme Help to catalyze chemical reactions within the body.
cannot be used as an energy source.
Hormone Substances that influence specific cellular and metabolic
There are many vitamins and minerals
functions. They act at a different location from where they are
needed on a daily basis to sustain life
formed.
and maintain health, each with a spe-
cific role to play in the body’s overall Cell Surface Marker Proteins on the surface help to identify specific target cells to
metabolism. which special molecules (for example, hormones) can bind.
Structural Provide support and structure to the organism (for example,

Vitamins Vitamins are organic com- hair and nails are made of a protein called keratin) and to the
pounds, required in very tiny amounts as cell (transmembrane proteins).
part of a balanced diet. They are vital to
Transport Many transport structures, such as channels and pumps, are
life. They contain atoms of carbon, hy- made of specialized proteins that help move materials into and
drogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and small out of cells.
TABLE 8.3 Important Vitamins and Minerals Required in the Human Diet
Vitamin or Mineral Some Common Food Sources Some Important Functions Within the Body
Fat-Soluble Vitamins
A eggs, butter, and leafy green vegetables growth and proper vision
D milk, liver, eggs growth, helps to absorb calcium from the digestive tract
E vegetable oils, milk, leafy vegetables protects cell membranes
K vegetables, tomatoes, soy beans blood clotting
Water-Soluble Vitamins
B1 seafood, meats, grains growth, proper heart muscle functioning
B2 milk, poultry, vegetables carbohydrate metabolism
B12 meats and liver production of red blood cells
C citrus fruits, vegetables growth, healthy gums and blood vessels
Common Minerals
Calcium milk and milk products tooth and bone formation
Iron meats, green vegetables hemoglobin formation
Sodium salt muscle contraction; transmission of nerve impulses
Potassium fruits regulation of the heart beat; transmission of nerve impulses
Iodine Iodized salt thyroid activity

INFOBIT in the fats and oils that you ingest. This imental group and one control group. A
is another reason that a certain amount food to be tested for its vitamin content
Most vitamins are easily lost or of fat intake is part of a healthy, balanced is fed over a period of time to one group,
destroyed by heat, by exposure diet. Vitamins A, D, E, and K cannot be and not to the other. Over time, the effects
to oxygen, or by being dis-
solved out of food into water. excreted, but break down over time as of the deficiency of the vitamin can be
To prevent the loss of vitamins, they participate in metabolic processes. observed.
it is recommended that as little Therefore a regular intake of fat-soluble
water as possible is used to vitamins is recommended to replace those Minerals Minerals are inorganic com-
cook vegetables and fruits. that are metabolized. Reduction of fat in- pounds required by the body. Some of
Foods rich in vitamins B and C
should be cooked for only a take over a long period of time will result the most important molecules in the
short time. in the elimination of these vitamins from body contain minerals. For example, the
your body. Water-soluble vitamins include hemoglobin molecule, the protein found
the B and C vitamins. Water-soluble vita- in red blood cells, contains four iron
mins are eliminated from the body rela- atoms. This arrangement allows red
tively quickly and so a daily intake is blood cells to transport oxygen to body
recommended. If too much vitamin B or cells. Calcium is another important min-
C is taken in, the excess is excreted in the eral and is a major component for
urine. healthy bones and teeth. Calcium also
Testing for the presence of vitamins helps nerve and muscle cells to function
in food is not a simple matter. It is usu- properly and helps blood to clot.
ally done in a laboratory. These tests are Although the body does not destroy
performed on animals like white mice, the minerals that it takes in, it does lose
guinea pigs, and monkeys. The animals many of them in sweat and urine. It is
are divided into two groups—one exper- therefore important for these minerals
the ships reached land. Sailors who of white rice and fish, fell ill to the
ate the fresh fruits that grew native disease beriberi (meaning I cannot!
to the shore on which they landed re- I cannot!) The disease weakens mus-
covered from the illness later known cles and finally paralyzes them.
Scurvy and the as scurvy. Japanese doctors discovered that
Discovery of It was discovered that English beriberi could be relieved and even
sailors who were fond of the juice of prevented by the addition of vegeta-
Vitamins lemons or limes did not experience bles, meat, condensed milk, and
scurvy. Or, if they did, they recovered whole grain rice to the diet. The
The discovery of the chemical food when fed lemon juice regularly. cause of beriberi is now known to be
substances now called vitamins has Although British Navy officials were a deficiency of thiamin (vitamin B1)
an interesting background. History unaware of the reasons for this, they in the diet.
relates that many of the sailors who passed a law that required every ship After years of study and experi-
were part of Magellan’s crew when to carry a cargo of lemons for the mentation, scientists in various coun-
he explored the Pacific Ocean in 1519 crew’s consumption. Of course, it was tries concluded that there are
became ill with an unknown disease. difficult in those early days before re- chemical substances in foods that are
The sailors lived on salted meats be- frigeration to prevent spoilage of necessary to regulate all body func-
cause these foods remained unspoiled fresh food. However this precaution tions and to prevent disease. These
throughout a long voyage. After did help to prevent the occurrence of substances were named vitamins.
weeks at sea, the sailors became list- scurvy, which we now know to be The diseases that result from an in-
less, their muscles became weaker due to a deficiency in vitamin C sufficency or total absence of vitamins
and weaker, and finally they suffered (ascorbic acid). are called vitamin deficiency
serious nosebleeds. Some died. At about the same time, it was diseases. In 1932 ascorbic acid, the
Others who had stronger constitu- discovered that Chinese and Japanese molecule now known as vitamin C,
tions survived and went ashore when seamen whose diets consisted mainly was isolated from lemons.

to be replenished. By consuming a
balanced diet we are able to obtain our
requirement of minerals. Plants are
reservoirs of minerals because they
are able to absorb them from the soil
and incorporate them into their tissues.
Fruits, whole grains, meats, and veg-
etables contain iron, phosphorus, cal-
cium, and magnesium. These foods also
contain a variety of other trace ele-
ments, such as zinc and selenium, that
the body needs in small amounts. Table Image omitted due to copyright restrictions.
8.3 details some minerals, including
iron, that make up an important part of
our diet, and are used by the body in
many ways.
Water
Although water is not an energy source
it is considered the most important sub-
stance for all animals, including humans.
Without food, you could survive for sev-
eral weeks, but without water you would
die within days. Most of the weight of the
human body is water. Plasma, the liquid FIGURE 8.2 The frosty breath in dry, wintry air shows that water is lost from the
lungs.
component of the blood, is more than
90% water. Water is the means of trans-
port for all the nutrients. Every living cell tations allow them to acquire and ingest
in your body is in contact with water in their food in different ways. Scientists
which life-sustaining molecules are dis- have used these feeding patterns to help
solved. The watery extracellular fluid them classify animals as herbivores
bathing each cell also carries away (plant eaters), carnivores (meat eaters),
metabolic wastes. or omnivores (plant and meat eaters).
On hot days, or when you exercise
vigorously, sweat glands remove water
from your tissues and use it to moisten
Anorexia nervosa
the surface of your body. As this sweat and bulimia
evaporates, it cools your body. Each time Anorexia nervosa and bulimia are two
you take a breath, some moisture from different but related medical and psy-
the surface of your lungs is lost to the chiatric conditions that are categorized
outside air. Since water is continuously as eating disorders. Both disorders are
lost from the body, it must be continu- more common in females than males.
ously replenished. It is recommended Adolescent girls have the highest risk of
that you drink six to eight glasses of developing these two illnesses. Patients
water each day, a volume of about 1–1.5 L. with anorexia nervosa are characterized
Clearly nutrients are important to by an intense fear of gaining weight and
the maintenance of health. An organ- a poor self-image. They also lack ap-
ism’s diet may vary, but the six basic nu- petite and are very thin and much below
trients that we have discussed are vital their ideal weight based on their height.
to sustain life. Since organisms have di- These patients have amenorrhea (a lack
verse feeding patterns, structural adap- of menstrual periods), and often

exercise excessively or abuse laxatives. Benefits of Healthy Eating

Bulimia is characterized by periods of
Healthy eating is a matter of personal
binge eating (often thousands of Joules
choice. Canada’s Food Guide to Healthy
at a sitting), alternating with fasting and
Eating on page 253, Figure 8.4 recom-
self-induced vomiting. Many individuals
mends the optimal amount and type of
with bulimia use diuretics, laxatives, and
foods that should be consumed daily. A
substances to induce vomiting. There
properly balanced diet and regular ex-
is some overlap between these two con-
ercise are two essentials for maintain-
ditions and bulimic behaviour can be
ing health and fitness. Regular exercise
seen in some patients with anorexia.
is one method of building muscle,
The causes of these eating disorders
reducing fat, increasing metabolism, and
are thought to be a combination of ge-
maintaining a healthy body weight. The
netic, social, and environmental factors.
metabolic rate is the total of all anabolic
Anorexia nervosa and bulimia can lead
and catabolic reactions going on in the
to many serious and possibly life-threat-
body at any time. It may be expressed
ening medical complications. Some of
as joules per hour.
these complications are outlined in Table
People who are physically fit have a
8.4 on page 253.
higher metabolic rate than those who
Treatment of these two conditions is
are unfit. This is because fit individuals
usually a slow process and involves a
have a higher percent of their body mass
combination of medical and psychiatric
composed of muscle rather than fat.
interventions. Some patients must be ad-
Muscle cells have a higher rate of
mitted to hospital if treatment is to be
metabolism than fat cells.
successful.
istry.” In 1994 he was named a a staple for their babies’ diets. Before
Companion of the Order of Canada. long Pablum became a household
name, and to this day, many
Drs. Alan Brown, Fred Tisdall, and Canadians use the brand name
Canadians Active Theo Drake invented Pablum in interchangeably with “infant cereal.”
in 1930. Their goal was to improve
the nutrition of infants. Pablum was
Nutrition Research the first ready-to-use vitamin-and
mineral-enriched baby cereal. These
three experts in their field had rec-
Raymond (Ray) U. Lemieux is a ognized the importance of proper nu-
prominent Canadian organic chemist, trition for normal growth and
recognized as one of the world’s lead- development, but also noted a lack of
ing scientists in carbohydrate chem- foods available to cater to the special Image omitted due to
istry. Ray Lemieux was born in Lac nutritional requirements of babies. copyright restrictions.
La Biche, Alberta, on June 16, 1920. Following extensive research and nu-
During his career, Lemieux has made merous trials, they created Pablum
contributions that go beyond chem- (from the Latin word “Pabulum,”
istry and extend into biology and which means food), the first thor-
medicine. He gained international oughly cooked and dried infant
recognition in 1953 as the first per- cereal.
son to synthesize sucrose (table With its high nutrient content
sugar). This discovery has been called and ease of preparation, Pablum was FIGURE 8.3 Pablum, a popular food for
the “Mount Everest of organic chem- quickly adopted by new mothers as generations of Canadian babies.

TABLE 8.4 Complications of Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia
Organ system Anorexia Nervosa Bulimia
Endocrine and amenorrhea, osteoporosis, thyroid menstrual irregularities

metabolic dysfunction, abnormal temperature
regulation
Cardiovascular bradycardia (too slow heart rate), Ipecac poisoning (ipecac is a substance
hypotension (low blood pressure), used to induce vomiting)
arrhythmias (irregular heart rhythm)
Renal (kidney) renal stones; decreased filtration low potassium (from diuretics)
properties of the kidney
Gastrointestinal decreased gastric emptying, acute gastric dilatation or rupture, parotid

constipation, abnormal liver function enlargement, inflammation of the
esophagus (esophagitis), low potassium
(from laxatives), esophageal rupture
Hematologic anemia, low platelets, and low white

blood cells
Respiratory aspiration pneumonia

© Ministry of Supply and Services Canada 1990. Cat. No. H39–166/1990E, ISBN 0-66217438-0
FIGURE 8.4 Canada’s Food Guide indicates the

importance of a balanced diet.

Defining the Issue
Case Study
Health and the Media Justifying the Course of Action
Different diet promoters bombard us each day in

the media, each claiming to make us feel healthy
and look better. Celebrity spokespeople work to con-
vince us that their diet is the best. But who is right?
The following are some examples of the variety of
diets that are marketed. Liquid protein diets that
claim to contain all the nutrients you require in a
powdered milkshake you can take at each meal.
Protein diets that consist of protein like chicken,
beef, cheese, and eggs. A fruit and vegetable diet
where you can eat as much as you want for break-
fast, lunch, dinner and snacks. A back-to-basics diet Image omitted due to copyright restrictions.
that contains all the food groups.
Which diet do you choose?
Liquid protein diets claim to contain all the
nutrients you require in a powdered milk-
shake you can take at each meal.
Protein diets consist of chicken, beef, cheese,
and eggs.
A fruit-and-vegetable diet allows you to eat as
many fruits and vegatables as you want for
breakfast, lunch, dinner, and snacks.
A back-to-basics diet contains all the food FIGURE 8.5 One type of diet allows unrestricted consumption
groups. of fruits and vegetables.
Analyzing the Issue
1. Behind every fad diet, there is a marketing campaign. 4. Why are fad diets so popular in our society? How does
Brainstorm different groups who contribute to the cre- this compare with other societies around the world?
ation of these campaigns. Explain.
2. Using the Internet, research one of the diets in the sce- 5. Should marketing influence something as important as
nario or select a fad diet currently in the media. Identify diet and health? Why? Why not? Explain fully.
the claims made by the diet. Compare the daily nutrient 6. What are the elements of a healthy diet? Use your re-
requirements of the fad diet with the recommendations search to prepare a promotion piece to highlight what
from Canada’s Food Guide. Summarize the comparisons you believe is the healthiest diet.
in a table.
7. Plan a class symposium on fad diets. Share media ad-
3. What are the risks associated with the diet? What are vertising and decide the most important criteria needed
the potential benefits? to assess the value of a fad diet.

Section 8.1 Review

Understanding Concepts 6. For breakfast, a student eats a bowl of
cereal and milk that provides 175 Cal
1. Runners often have a small snack be- of energy. Her walk to school requires
fore competing in a race. Based on 400 kJ of energy. Calculate whether the
your knowledge of macronutrients, energy yield from the breakfast would
suggest an appropriate snack for be sufficient to meet the student’s en-
runners before a race. ergy requirements for the walk to school.
2. Your uncle is a heart patient and asks 7. You are trying to maintain a diet that
you to help him decide between two dif- allows you to consume no more than
ference salad dressings. The label on 430 Cal at lunch. You decide to go to
one dressing reads that it has the local burger shop to buy your
completely hydrogenated fat and the lunch. The table summarizes three pos-
label on the other dressing reads that it sible meal selections. Based on your di-
has partially hydrogenated fat. etary requirements, explain which
Hydrogenation refers to the number of selection would be most suitable.
single bonds between the carbon atoms.
Which dressing would you recommend?
Meal Type Carbohy- Proteins Fats
3. What is the advantage of including drates (g) (g) (g)
bran in a balanced diet?
chicken burger 30 21 18
4. The table below lists three different
groups of people who have a special fish and chips 45 24 32
need for a mineral(s) in large amounts. pizza 38 19 23
Suggest reasons to account for their
special dietary requirements.
Group Mineral(s) required in Reason

particularly large amounts
youngsters aged 12 to 17 calcium and phosphorus
women and teenage girls iron
pregnant and breast-feeding women calcium and phosphorus
Applying Inquiry/
5. The table below shows the approxi-
mate daily energy requirement of
people in different age groups and
occupations.
Group Daily Energy Requirement (Cal) Daily Energy Requirement (kJ)

Male Female Male Female
age 13–15 2870 2400
age 16–19 3350 2200
adult office worker 2400 2100
adult construction worker 4300 2870
a) Copy out the table and calculate the

energy requirement in kilojoules
for males and females.
b) Suggest reasons why the caloric in- Making Connections
take suggested for a construction 8. In what ways do you think society
worker is different from that of influences an individual’s perception of
an office worker. a health body weight?
c) Explain why an individual has
higher caloric needs during the
teenage years.

8.2 The Digestive System

atom
Key Understandings
(hydrogen)
describe the digestive process
explain the structure of the gastrointestinal wall
molecule describe how nutrients are absorbed by the body
(water)
organelle From a Cell to a System— is composed of many organ systems,

(mitochondrion) Hierarchy in Biology each of which plays a role in the main-
tenance of your internal environment or
The living world is organized in a series
homeostasis.
of hierarchical levels. Hierarchy de-
As you learn about the digestive, res-
scribes a definite order from less com-
piratory, and circulatory systems, you
plex to more complex. The first level is
cell
will better understand their interdepen-
the cellular level. Cells can perform all
(muscle) dence. All cells in the body require nu-
the necessary functions that define life.
trients and oxygen. These essentials are
In considering nutrition and digestion,
provided by the digestive and respira-
a single cell acquires the nutrients it
tory systems. The circulatory system en-
tissue needs through diffusion, osmosis, and
sures that these substances are promptly
(muscle) active transport. Larger organisms con-
delivered to every body cell.
tain more cells and are more complex.
With increased complexity, more so-
phisticated methods are needed to ac- Structures, Functions,
quire and transport nutrients. Therefore, and Processes of the
cells in multicellular organisms spe-
Digestive System
cialize. Muscle cells, nerve cells, and skin
cells are all examples of this specializa- The digestive tract, also called the gas-
organ
(heart) tion. Cells that have similar functions are trointestinal tract or alimentary canal,
grouped together to form tissues. The is basically a tube that is open at both
tissue level is the second level of hier- ends. This muscular tube that passes
archy. There are four main types of tis- through the body from the mouth to the
sue that make up vertebrate bodies. anus is the central feature of the diges-
They are connective tissue, epithelial tive system. The inner surface of this
tissue, nervous tissue, and muscle tube is continuous with the outer sur-
tissue. face of the body, and so technically, is an
extension of the external environment.
Its structure allows food to enter through
Building a Digestive System one end, products of digestion to become
One level of complexity higher than the absorbed through the lining of the tube,
tissue level is the organ level. This level and waste products to be eliminated
consists of several types of tissues that through the other end. This basic design
organ system come together and coordinate to perform is present in simpler organisms, such as
(cardiovascular) one overall function. Some examples of the earthworm. With evolution, only the
organs in the digestive system include complexity of the system increases
the stomach, the liver, and the small as each component takes on specialized
intestine. An organ system is a group structures and performs specific
FIGURE 8.6 Levels of orga- of several organs that work together to functions.
nization in the human body perform a vital body function. Your body

In mammals, the digestive tract con- circular layer of smooth muscle; 4) a lon- WORD ORIGIN
sists of a long convoluted alimentary gitudinal layer of smooth muscle; and 5)
canal extending from the mouth to the the serosa (Figure 8.7). Tissue from the French tissue
anus (Figure 8.8). The digestive system The mucosa, or epithelial lining, meaning “woven.” This is an
appropriate use of the word
also includes accessory organs: the sali- consists of a variety of mucus-secreting, since many tissues are woven
vary glands, pancreas, liver, and gall- enzyme-secreting, absorptive, and en- together to make organs.
bladder. Accessory organs provide the docrine (hormone-secreting) cells. The
enzymes and other substances that are submucosa is a layer of connective tis- System from the Greek
essential for digestion to occur. The di- sue that supports blood vessels, lym- sustema, which means “an
organized whole.”
gestive tract begins with the oral cavity phatic vessels, and nerves. The
and includes the mouth, pharynx, esoph- lymphatic vessels are part of the lym-
agus, stomach, small intestine, large in- phatic system and serve the role of
testine, and anus. Each of these areas is transporting lipids that cannot enter the
specialized for a particular phase in the blood. The circular smooth muscle
overall process of digestion, but the basic forms a ring around the lumen; con-
structure of each is similar. traction of this muscle constricts the
lumen. The longitudinal smooth mus-
cle is arranged along the length of the
Structure of the Wall of the
digestive tract so that its contraction
Digestive Tract shortens a segment of the tract. The
The layers of tissue that make up the serosa is composed of connective tissue;
gastrointestinal wall, surrounding the it forms the covering of the digestive
lumen, which is the central space, are: tract and separates it from the rest of
1) the mucosa; 2) the submucosa; 3) a the abdominal organs.
Absorption of
nutrients
microvilli
FIGURE 8.7 The digestive tract is a tube that consists of
various layers of tissue—the mucosa, submucosa, circular VILLUS epithelium
and longitudinal muscle, and the serosa.
lymphatic
vessel
capillary
network
SMALL
INTESTINE
Mucosa: highly folded

lining of intestine where
absorption occurs
Submucosa: connective
tissue containing blood
vessels and nerves
Circular and longitudinal
muscle layers: used
for peristalsis
Serosa: connective tissue

Steps in Digestion teeth to shred, tear, and grind food. This

helps increase the surface area available
The central function of the digestive sys- for chemical digestion. Incisors are flat,
tem is to change the foods you eat into blade-like teeth used for biting,
chemical forms your body can use. canines shred and tear, and pre-
Anything your body cannot use must be molars and molars grind and crush.
properly eliminated. The digestive sys- Carnivores have greatly enlarged canine
tem acquires food through ingestion. teeth for biting and tearing. These teeth
Food is typically in a form that is com- are primarily used to shred meat.
pletely unsuitable for use by body cells. Canines are the fang-like teeth located
Food becomes useful only after it has at the front corners of the mouth.
been converted into diffusible substances Herbivores, on the other hand, have in-
that can pass though the walls of the cisors specialized for snipping leaves and
small intestine and blood and lymphatic flat pre-molars and molars that are used
vessels in the process of absorption. primarily to grind the tough fibrous plant
Therefore, food molecules must be trans- food that they eat into a fine pulp. Since
formed into smaller and simpler units. most humans eat both plants and ani-
This preparation of food for absorption mals, they are omnivores. Therefore,
is termed digestion, and takes place in human teeth resemble the teeth of both
the alimentary canal. During digestion carnivores and herbivores.
all carbohydrates are converted into Chemical digestion can occur once
monosaccharides, such as glucose, fruc- food has been broken down into smaller
tose, and galactose. All proteins are con- components that have a high surface
verted into amino acids, and fats are area. The food is mixed with various
broken down into fatty acids and glyc- juices from the digestive glands and then
erol. Two types of digestion are involved: enzymes act upon the broken-down food.
mechanical digestion and chemical The steps of mechanical digestion
digestion. occur at several stages, aided by a va-
Mechanical digestion occurs mainly riety of mechanical activities generated
in the mouth and stomach. In mechan- by the muscular walls of the digestive
ical digestion, solid food masses are system. As a result, a rich, soupy juice
shredded, torn, ground, and shaken. All is formed. This soup is not necessarily
mammals that eat solid food use their in the final form from which food
salivary glands liver sphincters

gallbladder accessory organs
alimentary canal
anus
pancreas
mouth with esophagus stomach small intestine large intestine

teeth
FIGURE 8.8 Components of the digestive system

substances can be properly absorbed. Close your eyes and swallow. WORD ORIGIN
Absorption occurs primarily in the small Analyze the familiar movements in your
intestine. In the large intestine only mouth and throat. First, the tongue lifts Peristalsis from the Greek
water and some vitamins are absorbed. the bolus to the roof of the mouth and peri, meaning “around” and
stellein meaning “wrap”
Elimination occurs through the rectum pushes it back so that it can be swal-
and anus. The nervous and endocrine lowed. The bolus passes through the
systems help the digestive system to pharynx and glides over the epiglottis,
function by providing impulses and a sort of trap door that prevents food
hormones that target and stimulate di- from entering the trachea (windpipe) so
gestive organs and glands. that choking does not occur. Food then
drops into the esophagus, a long thin
tube with muscular walls.
Organs of the Digestive Tract
The Oral Cavity Food enters the human

digestive system by manipulations of the
mouth (Figure 8.9). Besides taking in
food, the mouth begins to dismantle it,
using lips, tongue, teeth, and jaw mus-
cles. Incisors, chisel-like teeth in the front Image omitted due to copyright
of the mouth, cut food into bite-sized restrictions.
pieces. Canines are used for gripping
and tearing food. The tongue, a slippery,
mobile platform, manipulates food dur-
ing chewing, pushing it back to the
molars. In the mouth, the chewed food
is mixed with saliva that contains the
enzyme salivary amylase. This enzyme
FIGURE 8.10 False-colour scanning electron micrograph (SEM) of the
begins the chemical digestion of carbo-
lining of the esophagus. The epithelium consists of many layers of
hydrates. The mechanical and chemical flattened cells. The microfolds on the cell keep the espohagus moist.
digestion of food results in a moistened
ball-like mass, or bolus, that is easier to
swallow. The bolus is well lubricated The Esophagus The esophagus is a mus-
so that it does not scratch the delicate cular tube with a diameter of 2 cm that
mucous membranes of the digestive connects the pharynx and the stomach.
tract. At its point of connection with the stom-
incisors
ach there is a ring of smooth muscle
(for cutting) called the cardiac or lower esophageal
cuspid
sphincter. Constriction of this sphinc-
(for tearing) ter prevents reflux, or back flow of food
from the stomach into the esophagus.
premolars When constriction of this sphincter is
(for crushing) weak, reflux of food occurs easily. This
upper
dental is commonly what causes babies to
arch spit up after a feeding.
molars Peristalsis is a series of coordinated
(for crushing) hard palate muscular contractions. It is the mecha-
nism that moves food along the diges-
tive tract. Food starts at the mouth
and is moved along the alimentary canal
toward the anus. Peristalsis is indepen-
dent of gravity and is the main force that
FIGURE 8.9 The oral/buccal cavity

moves the bolus of food down the that propels food forward at a rate that
esophagus and into the stomach. When is appropriate for digestion and
a bolus of food stretches a segment of absorption.
the digestive tract, the smooth muscle
behind the bolus contracts while the a)
smooth muscle in front of the bolus
relaxes. This coordinated contraction of bolus of food
the circular and longitudinal muscle tongue
pharynx
layers produces a wave of constriction
epiglottis
trachea
b)

Epiglottis protects
opening to larynx.
esophagus
c)
FIGURE 8.11 A cross-section of the esophagus
Discovering Biology A Model of Peristalsis

larynx
Peristalsis is the mechanism that moves food along the digestive esophagus
tract. Take an old nylon stocking and cut off both ends, so that it is bolus of food
tube-like. Now, take an orange and attempt to pass the orange from
one end of the d)
nylon tube to the a) esophagus
other.
What kinds of
things do you
have to do to
keep the or-
cardiac sphincter
ange moving b)
through the
stomach
nylon tube?
How is this
FIGURE 8.13 The movement of food down the
model similar
esophagus
to peristalsis?
a) Upper esophageal sphincter contracted.
How is it dif- b) Upper esophageal sphincter relaxed.
ferent? c) Bolus of food passes to esophagus.
FIGURE 8.12 A model of peristalsis d) Peristalsis moves bolus of food toward
stomach. Cardiac sphincter still closed.

The Stomach The human stomach is a microbes that may be ingested with the INFOBIT
J-shaped stretchable organ that is able food. Mucus is secreted by mucous cells
to hold approximately 1.5 L of food. The within the gastric glands. It lines the Heartburn occurs when stom-
stomach acts as a reservoir to receive all stomach, forming a protective coating ach acids reflux into the
esophagus. The esophagus
the food at once, before releasing it into against the corrosive effects of the hy-
does not have a mucus lining
the intestine at intervals. Sphincter mus- drochloric acid. Approximately 500 mL to protect it and as a result,
cles regulate the movement of food of gastric fluid is produced after the con- the acid irritates the cells,
throughout the digestive tract. Two sumption of a large meal; about 1500 mL causing a burning sensation.
sphincter muscles control the passage of of gastric juice is secreted daily.
food coming into and out of the stom- Chemical and physical digestion in
ach: the cardiac sphincter and the the stomach changes the food bolus into
pyloric sphincter. The contraction of the a liquefied paste called chyme. Muscular
cardiac sphincter closes the opening to contractions of the stomach wall that mix
the stomach but when this sphincter food with gastric secretions also propel
relaxes, food is allowed to enter. The car- the mixture through a ring of smooth
diac sphincter gets its name from its muscle, called the pyloric sphincter, into
location close to the heart. The stom- the small intestine. The sphincter is usu-
ach’s muscular walls churn and squeeze ally partly open so that small amounts
each bolus that enters the stomach from of chyme (about 5 mL) squirt into the
the esophagus. Thick layers of smooth duodenum with each wave of gastric
muscle, and numerous folds in the stom- peristalsis. Some chemical digestion, but
ach, called rugae, enable the stomach no absorption of any significance, occurs
to expand. When expansion occurs, the in the stomach.
smooth muscle stretches and the rugae Stomach ulcers are very common
gradually disappear. This stretching can disorders. They are caused when the hy-
be compared to the coiled cord on a tele- drochloric acid creates a hole through
phone. When the cord is stretched, the the mucous lining of the stomach.
coils disappear, and the wire straightens Excessive hydrochloric acid secretion
out and lengthens. contributes to peptic ulcers. Beneath the
Within the stomach, food is me- thin layer of stomach cells lies a rich
chanically digested and mixed with
gastric juices. Gastric glands in the stom-
ach lining contain cells that secrete
hydrochloric acid, and other cells that
secrete pepsinogen, an inactive form of
pepsin. In the stomach’s acidic envi-
ronment, pepsinogen is converted into
pepsin, an enzyme that breaks down
esophagus
protein. Pepsin can actively break down
protein only at a low pH. The pH of the muscular
stomach is 2; therefore, protein diges- wall
tion is initiated in the stomach. A sec-
ond enzyme found in the stomach of
children is rennin. This important en-
STOMACH
zyme slows down the movement of milk
through the digestive tract by clotting pyloric sphincter
the milk and so allows more time for the
breakdown and absorption of nutrients. duodenum of
Hydrochloric acid not only provides an small intestine
rugae
ideal acidic environment for pepsin to
function, but it also sterilizes the upper
FIGURE 8.14 An internal and external view of the stomach
digestive tract and destroys invading

INFOBIT network of capillaries. Acids irritate the contract and relax. This results in a thor-
cells of the stomach lining, resulting in ough mixing of the contents with in-
Aspirin and alcohol are two further irritation. Therefore, antacids testinal juices before the chyme is
examples of the few sub- usually provide prompt pain relief as propelled further along the alimentary
stances that can be absorbed
they neutralize excess acid. Recent in- canal. Intestinal juices contain secretions
into the bloodstream through
the lining of the stomach. vestigations suggest that many stomach from the small intestine and from large
This explains why pain relief ulcers are the result of infection by the accessory digestive glands, the pancreas
occurs soon after ingesting an bacterium Helicobacter pylori. This in- and the liver. The ileocaecal valve is an
aspirin and why intoxication fection results in the loss of protective anatomical landmark that separates the
can happen rapidly.
mucus and so allows damage to the small intestine from the large intestine.
stomach wall. Many ulcers can be cured The small intestine is considerably
permanently by antibiotics that treat the longer than the large intestine. The name
underlying bacterial infection. small intestine is attributed to its
diameter, which is smaller than the
Investigation The Small Intestine Ingestion takes food diameter of the large intestine. The small
into the mouth and alimentary canal, but intestine is as long as 6 m on average,
Refer to page 349,
Fetal Pig-Dissection not into the body. The small but the large intestine is only about
Investigation 3 intestine, the major site of digestion and 1.5 m in an adult.
absorption, enables food substances to Mechanical and chemical digestion
enter the body’s internal environment. is ongoing as food travels through the
WEBLINK The small intestine consists of three con- digestive tract. Once the food reaches
secutive sections called the duodenum, the small intestine, it is broken down to
Absorption through the wall of jejunum, and ileum. Chyme containing its simplest form and ready for absorp-
the small intestine is the digested food particles enters the small tion. Almost every nutrient digested is
mechanism by which nutrients intestine. The partially digested food is absorbed into the body through the walls
can be taken up by the body. further subjected to mechanical diges- of the small intestine. Intestinal absorp-
Research active and passive
cellular transport mechanisms tion through segmentation movements. tion uses active and passive cellular
in absorption and set up a In these movements, segments of the in- transport mechanisms. Some transport
T-chart. Begin your research at testine that are not adjacent alternately mechanisms are unique to the intestinal
www.pearsoned.ca/ biology11.
SMALL INTESTINE
Duodenum:
receives secretions
from pancreas
and liver
Jejunum:
performs most of
digestion and
chemical
absorption
Ileum:
absorption
continues
large
intestine
FIGURE 8.15 The small intestine

absorptive cells. After passing across the The lining of the small intestine has INFOBIT
mucosal epithelium, the water-soluble finger-like extensions of the mucosa
nutrients flow into the blood capillaries called villi that project into the lumen. It takes food approximately five
of the villi for transport to the liver and In turn, the surface of each cell in a hours to pass through the
human small intestine. The
then to all the body’s cells. The products villus is covered with a carpet of tiny total surface area available for
of fat digestion are absorbed into the microvilli. The net effect of the villi and absorption of nutrients is ap-
lacteals, tiny lymphatic vessels in the microvilli is to increase the surface area proximately 300 m2, about the
villi, that connect to the lymphatic of the intestine to maximize its ability to size of a tennis court.
system. See Figure 8.16. absorb food. Approximately 80% of all
FIGURE 8.16 The intestinal wall

a) One fold with many villi
b) The structure of the intestinal wall
c) The surface cells of a villus carry microvilli one plica or fold
a)
villi
microvilli
epithelium
mucosa
capillary network
lacteal
sub
mucosa
circular
muscle
longitudinal
muscle lymphatic
vessel
serosa
c)
b)

WORDORIGIN absorption occurs in the small intestine. The Large Intestine The large intestine
The remaining 20% of the absorption oc- consists of consecutive sections—the
Itis, from the Greek it is, indi- curs in the stomach and the large intes- caecum, colon, rectum, and anus. The
cating sickness or disease; so tine. The possibility of maximizing colon is divided into the ascending,
appendicitis means an inflam-
surface area to allow for efficient diffu- transverse, descending, and sigmoid
mation of the appendix and
colitis means an inflammation sion of substances is an important theme colon regions. The main functions of the
of the colon. in biology. Single cells divide to keep the large intestine are to reabsorb water and
ratio of cell surface to volume at the op- to hold and compact the unabsorbed
timum for diffusion. In the small intes- material from the small intestine. The
WEBLINK
tine the villi and microvilli increase the caecum is the chamber where chyme
Using the Internet, research surface area available for diffusion of nu- passes from the small intestine into the
signs and symptoms that a trients into the cells of the intestinal wall. large intestine. Passage of chyme
person suffering from Crohn’s Villi are nestled within a network of cap- between the small and large intestines
disease might display. illaries that allows for easy diffusion and is regulated by the ileocaecal valve.
Begin your research at transport from cells in the intestinal wall Jutting out from the caecum is the
to the blood. In this way the products of appendix. The function of the appendix
digestion of food can be transported and is debatable, but the presence of a large
distributed to all body cells. amount of lymphoid tissue suggests it
functions as part of the lymphoid sys-
tem. When the appendix becomes in-
flamed, appendicitis occurs.
The unabsorbed material moves
slowly through the colon and as water,
salts, and some vitamins are reabsorbed
into the body, the waste products of di-
gestion are accumulated and are pre-
pared for elimination. The solid waste is
called feces or stools. Feces pass
through the rectum and exit the body
LARGE INTESTINE
through the anus. A subsidiary function
of the large intestine is to assemble
certain vitamins, for example, vitamin K.
Vitamin production occurs due to the
activity of micro-organisms in the large
intestine.
Colon: Inflammatory bowel disease is a
reabsorption
ileum of of water and common illness that affects the small
small intestine vitamins and large intestine. There are two main
types of inflammatory bowel disease:
Caecum: Crohn’s disease and ulcerative
receives material colitis. Each of these conditions has at
from small its root an inflammatory process that af-
intestine
fects the lining of the small and large in-
appendix testine. In ulcerative colitis, the
Rectum: inflammation starts at the rectum and
ileocecal
end of
valve
digestive tract
spreads backward, through the large in-
testine. In Crohn’s disease, the inflam-
mation can start anywhere along the
anus
gastrointestinal tract, but is mainly lo-
calized in the small intestine.
FIGURE 8.17 The large intestine

Defecation is controlled by two anal

sphincters and occurs usually once or
twice a day in humans. The feces are
about three-fourths water and one-
fourth solid matter. Of the solid matter,
about 30% is bacteria (normal residents
of the intestine), about 30% is undigested
roughage, about 20% is fat, about 15%
is inorganic matter, and about 3% is pro-
tein.
Constipation is one of the most com-
mon problems of the digestive tract
and affects approximately 2% of the
population at any given time. Numerous
medical conditions can cause constipa-
tion. Regular bowel movements are
important in maintaining health.
Individuals who have constipation often
complain of abdominal discomfort and
bloating. Laxatives, whether purchased
over the counter or through a
prescription, are one method of treating
constipation. Generally, laxatives act to
increase the passage of stool through the
rectum. There are various forms of
laxatives—tablets, liquids, and powders.
Foods high in fibre also function as
laxatives. Some of these are bran,
prunes, and raw fruits and vegetables.
Other laxatives work by increasing
the water content of the feces, or by
softening the stool.
FIGURE 8.18 A radiograph of the large intestine
INFOBIT
water While 1500 mL of watery mate-

rial arrives in the colon daily,
bacteria about 1350 mL are reabsorbed,
leaving only about 150 mL that
are eliminated with the feces.
undigested roughage
lipid
inorganic matter
protein WORDORIGIN
Feces, from the Latin fauces,

pl. meaning “dregs” or
“sediment.”
FIGURE 8.19 The percent composition of feces

Section 8.2 Review

Understanding Concepts a) Why is the pH scale appropriate to
measure the effects of an antacid
1. Draw a diagram to explain how food tablet?
ingested into the digestive tract is re- b) What is the normal pH of the
ally still a part of the outside world. stomach?
2. Explain how peristalsis moves a bolus c) What acid is responsible for main-
of food from the mouth to the stomach. taining this pH?
What is the function of the epiglottis? d) Account for the change in pH in the
3. List ways that mechanical and chemi- stomach over the 30 min after a
cal digestion differ. person has ingested several antacid
tablets.
4. What is the function of hydrochloric
acid in the stomach? 9. You are a zoologist working at a zoo.
You are studying the ingestion patterns
5. Why are villi and microvilli important
of various animals. Examine the two
to the function of the small intestine?
animal skulls below, and create a T-
What would be the result of a reduc-
chart that summarizes whether the an-
tion in the number of microvilli?
imals are herbivores or carnivores.
6. Comment on the appropriateness of the Suggest types of foods that zookeepers
names “small” intestine and “large” could feed these animals.
intestine.
7. Having surgery may require that a
patient does not have anything to eat
or drink for 12 h before the operation.
a) Research the mechanisms that help
the body cope without food for a
long period of time.
b) What happens to the body under
conditions of starvation?
Skull #1
Applying Inquiry/
8. Plot the data below using a line graph.
Time after Ingesting an pH of Stomach

Antacid Tablet (min)
0 1.5
10 1.68
Skull #2
20 1.8
30 2.1 FIGURE 8.20 Skulls #1 and #2

8.3 Accessory Organs in Digestion and

Their Associated Enzymes
Key Understandings
explain the functions of enzymes involved in digestion
illustrate a feedback loop as a mechanism of homeostasis
explain how the hormone insulin helps to maintain blood sugar levels
appreciate the work done by Canadian scientists Banting and Best
describe the technology used to examine the digestive system
analyze improvements in liver transplantation in response to societal needs
The accessory organs of digestion are esophagus also secrete mucus. As the
the salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and tongue is stimulated by many taste and
gallbladder. Salivary glands secrete saliva tactile sensations, parts of the nervous
that contains enzymes that initiate the system respond to increase the secretion
breakdown of starch. Both the pancreas of saliva.
and the gallbladder release their secre-
tions into ducts that empty into the duo-
The Liver and Gallbladder
denum. The pancreas secretes a number
of enzymes that help complete chemical The liver is the second-largest organ in
digestion that has been started in other the human body, after the skin. It weighs
regions of the alimentary canal. The pan- about 1.5 kg, and its major digestive
creas also secretes an alkaline solution function is the synthesis of bile. Bile is
containing sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) a mixture of bile salts, bile acids, choles-
that neutralizes the hydrochloric acid re- terol, phospholipids, fatty acids, and
leased in the stomach. The liver pro- water. The liver is divided into two large
duces bile, a substance that acts like a lobes, the left and the right. In
detergent in the breakdown of fat. The biology, a lobe is a well-defined part of
bile is concentrated and stored in a sac an organ separated by boundaries.
called the gallbladder. Since the lumen Lodged within a recess under the right
of the digestive tract is actually an ex- lobe of the liver is the gallbladder. It is
tension of the outside world, secretions a muscular sac that stores and concen-
from these accessory organs are trates the bile that it receives from the
considered to be exocrine, or “outside” liver. When fat enters the duodenum, en-
the body. docrine cells in the duodenum release a
hormone called cholecystokinin (CCK)
into the blood. CCK causes the gallblad-
Salivary Glands der to contract and send bile through the
The salivary glands secrete saliva, a bile duct into the duodenum. Liver cells
fluid made up of two types of secretions. produce approximately 1 L of bile daily.
Some salivary glands (the parotids) se- The liver is an organ with many
crete a watery fluid that contains sali- functions. It plays a key role in regulat-
vary amylase. This is an enzyme that ing body metabolism. In fact all blood
digests starch. Others (the buccal glands) leaving the absorptive areas of the body,
secrete a thick, slippery fluid called the stomach, and the intestines, flows
mucus, which is high in the glycopro- through the liver before entering the
tein mucin. The cells that line the general circulation. This allows the liver

LIVER
right left
lobe lobe
common
hepatic
duct
common bile duct
cystic PANCREAS
duct
pancreatic
duct
GALLBLADDER
duodenum of
small intestine
FIGURE 8.21 The accessory organs. The liver and pancreas release their secretions into the
small intestine at the duodenum.
to extract absorbed nutrients or toxins individual’s internal environment. The

Investigation from the blood. The nutrients continue development of alcoholic cirrhosis is cor-
Refer to page 279, into the general circulation, while the related with the duration and quantity of
Investigation 1 toxins are properly disposed of. Catalase, alcohol consumption. There are many
an enzyme found in almost all body cells, ways in which alcohol can damage the
but in highest concentration in liver cells, liver. It causes direct damage and even-
plays a key role in decomposing toxins tual death of hepatocytes (liver cells). It
like hydrogen peroxide into the safe also changes the fat composition of liver
products of water and oxygen. cells, resulting in a fatty liver. Some of
Additionally, when people use sub- these changes are reversible if the
stances like drugs and alcohol, the liver person stops drinking alcohol.
detects these as toxic to the body and Individuals with alcoholic liver
tries to eliminate them. People who disease may show a variety of symptoms.
abuse alcohol and drugs experience liver The most common complaints in people
damage over time. with alcoholic hepatitis, a condition
causing inflammation of the liver, are
Alcohol and the Liver The relationship be- anorexia, nausea, vomiting, and abdom-
INFOBIT tween excessive alcohol use and liver inal pain. Some people experience weight
damage has been known for many years. loss, fever, and jaundice which causes a
The liver is the largest reser-
In fact, in the western world, alcohol is yellow discoloration of the skin. Ascites,
voir of blood in the body, hold-
ing about 25% of the cardiac the most common cause of liver disease. a condition where fluid collects in the
output at any given time. That Heavy alcohol consumption for many abdomen, is also common in liver
is why, when administering years can lead to cirrhosis of the liver. disease.
cardiopulmonary resuscitation Cirrhosis is a condition where the liver The mainstay of treatment for
(CPR), it is vital to “landmark”
is scarred and contains fibrous tissue. alcohol-induced liver disease is complete
so that you do not damage the
liver. If you were to compress Cirrhosis hinders blood flow through the abstinence from alcohol. Other forms of
on the breastbone without first liver and so hinders metabolic processes. therapy include a combination of dietary
landmarking, you might cut the It depresses all functions of the liver. changes, vitamins, and steroids. In
liver and cause severe internal In this way, excessive alcohol consump- severe cases, liver transplantation may
bleeding.
tion disrupts the homeostasis of the eventually be necessary.

The Pancreas 2. Receptors detect the change and sig-

nal other parts of the body to respond
The pancreas lies behind the stomach
in order to restore the steady state.
and extends laterally from the duode-
3. Organs receive the signal and
num. It is a finger-shaped organ and
respond accordingly. The responses
measures about 15 cm in length. It is
restore the body to its normal con-
specialized for secretion and is the
dition. Sometimes, the response is ac-
source of a number of substances es-
complished by the release of
sential to the digestive process. When
hormones.
chyme leaves the stomach through the
pyloric sphincter it is slightly acidic. The The response of the organ to correct
chyme must be neutralized so that this the problem and restore balance is called WEBLINK
acidic mixture does not corrode and ir- negative feedback. Many organ systems
ritate the cells that line the small intes- in your body help maintain homeosta- Estimates suggest that obesity
tine. Once acid enters the small intestine, sis. The pancreas, for example, is the is responsible for 75% of
a hormone called secretin is released most important organ responsible for diabetes cases and 30% of
from the cells in the duodenal wall. This cardiovascular problems.
blood sugar control. Lifestyle changes can reduce
hormone is absorbed into the blood- The body has a well-defined system these risks. Research the
stream and carried to the pancreas. for dealing with fluctuations in blood information on one of these
Here, it signals the release of bicarbon- sugar. The overall goal of homeostasis as diseases and prepare a
ate ions from the pancreas. Bicarbonate it relates to blood sugar is to maintain summary chart to indicate
ions not only help to neutralize the ways to prevent these diseases.
blood sugar at approximately 4–6 mmol•L–1. Begin your research at
hydrochloric acid, but also increase the This range is considered the body’s set www.pearsoned.ca/biology 11.
alkalinity in the duodenum to a pH of 9. point under normal conditions. After a
This is significant, because in an alka- meal, as simple sugars are absorbed into
line environment, the enzyme pepsin the bloodstream, there is a direct rise in
(from the stomach) becomes inactive. blood sugar level. This rise is detected by
The pancreatic secretions also con- specialized receptor cells that then stim-
tain enzymes that continue the break- ulate the release of insulin from the beta-
down of the three major components cells found in the pancreas. The release
of foods: carbohydrates, proteins, and of insulin, which promotes the uptake of
lipids. Lipases work on lipids, carbo- glucose from the blood will ultimately re-
hydrases digest sugars and starches, store the blood sugar level to its normal
and proteases break apart proteins. range of 4–6 mmol•L–1. At this point the INFOBIT
receptor cells respond to the normal con-
Diabetes affects millions of
Regulating Blood Sugar— ditions and the release of insulin stops. If
Canadians. There are two
an Example of Homeostasis blood sugar levels fall below the set points, types: Type 1 and Type 2.
the hormone glucagon from the alpha Generally, Type 1 diabetes
To maintain health, your body must keep
cells of the pancreas stimulates reactions occurs when there is destruction
certain conditions constant or within an of the specialized pancreatic
to mobilize energy reserves so that
acceptable range. Examples of these con- cells that make insulin. These
glucose is released from the liver. See
ditions are blood pressure, respiration beta (β) cells are within struc-
Figure 8.22b). tures called the Islets of
rate, body temperature, and blood sugar
Homeostasis is an important concept Langerhans. As a result there
levels. Homeostasis means the mainte-
in biology and involves other body sys- is no insulin produced in the
nance of a steady internal state. body and individuals with Type
tems. However, it is not exclusive to bi-
Negative feedback is an important con- 1 diabetes must take insulin
ology. A thermostat is another example
cept associated with homeostasis and from an external source, by
of a negative feedback loop. Heat flow injection. Type 2 diabetes is
can be summarized in three steps:
through a house is controlled to keep usually age dependent, though
1. A variable is identified that has room temperature at a constant level, the other factors like poor diet,
changed by either rising above or set point. The thermostat is a device that high blood pressure, obesity,
falling below its normal range, called helps to monitor and regulate room tem- and infections can help bring it
about.
the norm or set point. perature. It consists of a thin coil made

in the laboratory of John J.R. Macleod pancreases. When the diabetic dogs
at the University of Toronto. Banting were injected with the isolated hor-
and Best tied the pancreatic duct of mone, their symptoms of diabetes
experimental dogs. They waited for disappeared. The replacement ther-
The Discovery of Insulin seven weeks for the pancreas to apy was successful.
shrink. From the remaining pancreas Banting and Best wanted to call
tissue of these dogs, they collected the the hormone “isletin” after the cells
In 1921, two Canadians, Frederick hormone insulin produced by the that produce it, the Islets of
Banting, a physician, and Charles beta-cells of the Islets of Langerhans. Langerhans. However, it was agreed
Best, a science summer student, iso- They isolated the hormone and that the hormone would be known as
lated insulin. Their ground-breaking then injected it into other dogs made “insulin” which is derived from the
physiological studies were conducted diabetic by the removal of their Latin word insula meaning “island.”
M AT H L I N K of two different metals fastened together. Human Digestive Enzymes

Because the different metals expand and
Enzymes are proteins found in both
The concentration term mmol • L–1 contract at different rates, the coil bends
relates the molar mass of a plants and animals. They act upon other
and unbends with changes in air tem-
substance to a volume of a substances called substrates. Enzymes
perature. The moving coil pushes on an
liquid. Since the molar mass speed up all chemical changes in the
of glucose is 180, 4–6 mmol • L–1 electric switch that turns the heat source
body, not only those connected with di-
means 0.72–1.08g• L–1. on or off. When the temperature falls
gestion. They speed up reactions with-
below the normal range, the metal coil
out themselves becoming changed in the
responds to switch the heat source on.
process and are therefore known as bi-
WORD ORIGIN This response results in the temperature
ological catalysts. Enzymes are produced
rising back to normal. If the temperature
by two kinds of glands: those with and
Thermostat from two Greek overshoots the normal temperature
those without ducts. The pancreas and
words, therm meaning “heat” range, the coil responds by switching the
and statos meaning “steady.” salivary glands have ducts, while duct-
heat source off. This response results in
less glands line the stomach and small
the temperature falling back to normal.
intestine. The entire gut is also lined
See Figure 8.22a).
by millions of mucous gland cells.
Thermostat switches no heating insulin release

heating OFF.
response/s response/s
Heating continues. Temperature Glucose Glucose
result
Temperature rises falls to level in level falls to
stimulus return stimulus result
above set point. set point. blood rises. set point.
to norm
Blood Glucose
Norm or Set Point
4-6 mmol L-1
•
Temperature Temperature Glucose Glucose

result
rises to stimulus falls below level rises to result stimulus level in
return
set point. set point. set point. blood falls.
to norm
response/s response/s
heating Thermostat glucagon release and other reactions

a) switches heating ON. b) to convert storage products to glucose
FIGURE 8.22 Negative feedback loops

a) a thermostat
b) regulation of blood sugar in human

The lock-and-key model is an aid to disaccharides. Further digestion of car- INFOBIT

understanding the relationship between bohydrate occurs in the duodenum.
the enzyme and the substrate. This The enzyme pepsin works only in You have three pairs of salivary
model implies that the enzyme and the a very acidic environment. Protein di- glands. The sublingual glands
in the floor of the mouth, the
substrate fit together in a specific man- gestion occurs in the stomach where the submandibular glands just
ner so that the enzyme can carry out its acidic environment allows pepsin to below the jaw, and the parotid
function. work optimally to break proteins into glands deep to the cheek.
Digestive enzymes break down car- shorter chains of amino acids. Most en- Saliva is an alkaline, watery,
bohydrates, proteins, and fats into sim- zymes involved in completing the di- mucus solution. It contains
potassium, chloride, and
pler units by adding water. Water can gestion of macronutrients are produced bicarbonate ions as well as
break the bond holding two monomers in the pancreas and empty into the duo- amylase, a digestive enzyme
together. This is called hydrolysis, which denum of the small intestine. Pancreatic that begins starch digestion.
literally means “destruction by water.” enzymes work best in a pH of 7 to 8.
Carbohydrate digestion begins in the Therefore, the bicarbonate ions that the
mouth. Salivary amylase breaks down pancreas secretes provide the ideal con-
starch, a complex carbohydrate, into ditions for these enzymes to function.
H 20 H 20 H 20
Chemical
digestion
Absorption to
blood
Absorption to
lymph
a) Carbohydrate digestion b) Protein digestion c) Lipid digestion vessel
FIGURE 8.23 Activity of enzymes in regions of the digestive system

a) Areas of carbohydrate digestion
b) Areas of protein digestion
c) Areas of lipid digestion

Investigation Pancreatic juice is a mixture of several Bile

enzymes. Protein-digesting enzymes or
Refer to page 281, Food in the small intestine is mixed, not
Investigation 2 proteases are made and stored in inac-
only with pancreatic fluid, but also with
tive forms, so they do not digest the pan-
bile. Recall that bile is made by the liver
creas itself. The inactive enzymes become
and stored in the gallbladder. Bile enters
active only after they have reached the
the intestine through a duct. Though it is
intestine. For instance, trypsinogen is re-
not an enzyme itself, bile has two func-
leased and becomes activated in the in-
tions in the intestine.
testine as trypsin, an enzyme that
It acts in the same fashion as a
completes protein digestion by splitting
detergent. While detergents help to
dipeptides into amino acids. Other pan-
emulsify fatty substances in your kitchen
creatic enzymes include pancreatic
sink, bile emulsifies fat in your small in-
amylase, lipases, and nucleases. All of
testine by breaking the fat down into
these enzymes require particular con-
small globules. It is important to note
ditions for their most efficient action.
that the chemical structure of the fat is
not changed even though it has been
physically broken down. The globules
are kept separate from each other within
the watery environment. Bile salts also
help in the absorption of lipids from the
intestine.
Gallstones sometimes develop when
Image omitted due to copyright restrictions. large amounts of water are absorbed
from bile, leaving behind solids, which
block the bile duct. Removal of the gall-
bladder because of gallstones sometimes
results in difficulty with fat absorption
later on.
FIGURE 8.24 An endoscope

Endoscopy
An endoscope is a device consisting of
a tube containing an optical system
composed of a light-emitting glass fibre.
It is used for observing the inside of a
hollow organ or cavity. These observa-
tions may be made through a natural
body opening or through a small inci-
sion. When the endoscope is used to ex-
Image omitted due to copyright amine the digestive system, it can be
restrictions. inserted through the mouth to investi-
gate the upper digestive tract. A
colonoscopy can be performed in a sim-
ilar manner by inserting the optical sys-
tem through the anus to investigate
the lower digestive tract. The endoscope
is used to view such things as stomach
ulcers or polyp formation in the colon.
Tiny forceps, fitted into the endoscope,
FIGURE 8.25 The inside of the small intestine can even extract small pieces of tissue
as photographed by an endoscope. for further testing.

Frontiers in Liver segment will grow as the child grows,

and will provide satisfactory liver func-
Transplantation
tion. Donors with a compatible blood
Of all the wonders of modern medicine, type can donate part of their liver to an-
none has captured the public imagina- other person. Within three months, the
tion more than organ transplantation. donor’s liver grows back to its previous
Today, organs such as the heart, kidney, size and shape.
lung, pancreas, and liver are being trans- In any organ transplant, it is important
planted with increasing success around to create conditions so that the new organ
the world. The first successful human and the patient’s own body cells communi-
liver transplant was performed in the cate properly. If the organ is not properly
mid-1960s by Dr. Thomas Starzl in matched to the recipient, then the recipi-
Denver, Colorado. ent’s body cells will reject the organ. There
The liver is the second-largest organ are drugs called immunosuppressants
in the body, and is vital to life. It per- that help to suppress the recipient’s
forms many essential functions. The liver immune system, and fight the rejection
breaks down and removes harmful of the transplanted organ. Transplant
chemicals and drugs. It changes nutri- recipients must take immunosuppressants
ents into energy for growth and activity. for the rest of their lives.
It produces bile, a substance that helps There is, however, a paradox in organ
the body absorb vitamins and metabo- transplant success and advancement. The
lize fat. The liver also produces proteins, greater the success in human-to-human
particularly proteins responsible for organ transplantation, the more demand
blood clotting and balancing body fluids. there will be for such procedures. This
For liver transplants, the only re- will undoubtedly create longer and longer
quirements are that the donor and re- waiting times for organ recipients. Already
cipient are approximately the same size, in Canada alone, thousands of frustrated Image omitted due to
and of compatible blood types. Donors and desperately ill candidates are wait- copyright restrictions.
and recipients do not have to be ing for donor organs. In March 2001, pe-
matched by tissue type, sex, or age. The diatric cardiologist and transplant
donor and recipient of the transplant immunologist Dr. Lori West at Toronto’s
must also be free from any chronic in- Hospital for Sick Children reported suc-
fections or untreatable cancers. cessful heart transplants between new-
Very often livers are donated, with borns of incompatible blood types.
the consent of the next of kin, from in- Because the infant’s immune system is
dividuals who are brain dead, usually as not fully functional, the rejection problems
a result of a head injury or brain hem- seen in older people have not occurred.
orrhage. When such a donor is identi- In this way precious donated organs were FIGURE 8.26 Dr. Lori West
showed that heart transplan-
fied, a computer network contacts able to be used rather than wasted. tation between newborns of
transplant centres and arrangements are With modern medicine, physicians incompatible blood types was
made to retrieve whatever organs may can keep critically ill patients awaiting possible.
be donated. Frequently this involves a transplantation alive. Surgeons are also
team from a transplant centre flying to successfully transplanting organs into
the donor hospital to remove the organs, patients who are sicker and older. The
and returning with them for the trans- number of patients awaiting transplants
plant operation. continues to climb. To deal with these es-
Transplant using liver from a living calating numbers, medicine is exploring
donor is also possible, especially for pe- a variety of alternative solutions, includ-
diatric patients. Liver cells are unique ing xenotransplantation, meaning the
because they have the ability to regen- use of organs from animals as transplants
erate quickly. Therefore, some pediatric in humans. Biotechnology initiatives are
patients receive only a small portion of studying designs for drugs to prevent the
a liver from a larger donor. This liver rejection of these transplanted organs.

Section 8.3 Review

Understanding Concepts Note that a () indicates that the item
is present in the test tube and a ()
1. Draw the alimentary canal to show
indicates that it is not present in the
where the accessory organs are lo-
test tube. Note also that iodine turns
cated. Why does the digestive tract
dark blue in the presence of starch.
need accessory organs?
a) In test tube #1, Benedict’s test
2. What is the role of the liver in
shows an orange precipitate. What
digestion?
substance in the test tube accounts
3. What is the role of the gallbladder? for this precipitate?
4. Define an enzyme and indicate why b) Tubes #2 and #5 are controls in
shape is important for enzyme this experiment. Why do you think
function. these controls are necessary?
c) What does boiling saliva do to its
5. What digestive enzymes does the
activity and its effect on starch?
pancreas produce?
How can you know this from the
information in the table?
Applying Inquiry/
Communications Skills Making Connections
6. A diabetic must test her blood sugar 8. Crohn’s disease is a condition in which
several times during the day. Below are the small intestine becomes inflamed
her blood sugar readings for the past and the absorption of food through the
24 h. Recall that a normal blood sugar small intestine is affected. What social
reading is 4–6 mmol•L–1. implications might there be for a
teenager suffering from Crohn’s dis-
Time of day Blood sugar reading ease?
8:00 a.m. 4.6 9. In a chart, show the pros and cons of
10:15 a.m. 7.8 using animals in health care research.
6:15 p.m. 3.2 10. There are differing opinions about the
practice of organ donation and organ
11:00 p.m. 13.0 transplants. Describe the ethical con-
siderations that might influence how
a) Which value represents her blood
decisions about these practices are
sugar in the fasting state?
made.
b) She finishes her soccer game after
school and comes home feeling
very hungry. Why do you think that
her blood sugar is low at 6:15 p.m.?
What could she have done to pre-
vent low blood sugar?
c) As a celebration of her soccer vic-
tory, she has a hot fudge sundae
after dinner with her friends. How
will this affect the amount of insulin
in her next dose?
7. Examine the table below.
Tube Starch Saliva Iodine Test Benedict’s test

1 no change orange precipitate
2 boiled dark blue no change
3 dark blue no change
4 no change no change
5 no change no change

8.4 Digestion in Various Organisms

Key Understandings
compare the anatomy of different organisms
understand how the components of digestive systems have been modified to suit the
unique digestive needs of different organisms
Amoeba
As a one-celled organism, the amoeba
does not have a complex system for di-
gestion. Its means of acquiring and stor-
ing food are very simple. The amoeba
surrounds its food by extensions of the
cytoplasm called pseudopods. This pro-
cess of engulfing and ingesting food,
called phagocytosis, requires energy
from ATP. Once inside the amoeba, food
can be stored in a food vacuole. Food
vacuoles can move within the amoeba. FIGURE 8.28 The jellyfish is
able to absorb nutrients from
Enzymes that break down the food are
its gastrovascular cavity. It can
released into the food vacuole. Within acquire its nutritional needs
the food vacuole the specific pH allows through diffusion.
enzymes to work at their optimum.
it. Only the lining cells have direct ac-
cess to nutrients, but the nutrients have
only a short distance to diffuse to other
body cells.
Earthworm
Image omitted due to copyright restrictions. The regions of the alimentary canal in
the earthworm differ according to their
function in the digestive process. The
earthworm burrows through the ground
and uses a shovel-like prostomium to
scoop up soil. The muscular pharynx
then sucks soil into the worm’s mouth.
FIGURE 8.27 An amoeba. Since the amoeba is The nutrient-containing soil passes
unicellular, the basic means of acquiring food through the esophagus and is stored and
(diffusion, active transport, and phagocytosis) are moistened in the crop. Since the earth-
sufficient to meet its nutritional needs. Excess
worm lacks teeth, the muscular gizzard
food is stored in vacuoles.
is equipped with small grains of sand
and gravel, allowing food from the crop
to enter and mechanical digestion to
Jellyfish occur. Organic matter in the food is
Jellyfish have a gastrovascular cavity chemically digested and nutrients are
with branches that radiate outward from absorbed in the intestine. The indi-
a central circular canal. Digestion occurs gestible material is eliminated through
within this cavity and in the cells lining the anus.

softens and helps break down plant

fibres, making them more accessible to
esophagus
the bacteria, and thereby more
mouth crop digestible.
intestine
pharynx anus Plants

In most ways, plants are organized dif-
gizzard
ferently from humans. However, there
are mechanisms within plants that are
similar to human digestive processes.
For example, plants need to have a high
surface area to allow for proper nutri-
interior wall of
of intestine intestine ent absorption. This is accomplished
through their root system, which ab-
sorbs water and inorganic nutrients
from the soil. Important minerals include
FIGURE 8.29 The earthworm exhibits all the main components of an alimentary
potassium, phosphorus, and nitrogen.
canal. Some added features include the crop where food is stored and the gizzard
where pebbles help to mechanically break down food. Each root has many root hairs that in-
crease the absorption capacity of the
root. Compare this situation to humans
where villi in the small intestine have
microvilli that also increase surface area
Bird to enhance absorption.
Birds have an alimentary canal with or- Of course plants are very different
gans similar to the earthworm. Birds are in that they manufacture sugars through
able to eat a variety of foods, including photosynthesis. However, they do require
insects, worms, berries, and seeds. Like a transport system to carry water and
the earthworm, birds have both a crop inorganic nutrients to the site of photo-
for storing food and a gizzard for me- synthesis in the leaves and to carry man-
chanically digesting food. Gravel pieces ufactured nutrient products (sugars) to
in the gizzard help grind the food into other tissues for use and storage. These
digestible pieces. Most chemical diges- two aspects are kept separate. The xylem
tion occurs in the bird’s stomach. transports water and minerals from the
Nutrients are absorbed in the intestine. roots to the leaves, and the phloem car-
ries sugars away from the leaves to other
tissues. Compare this to the human
Cow where the transport system, the circu-
Ruminant mammals, such as cattle, latory system, receives the products of
sheep, and deer, have a more elabo- digestion and carries them to the liver
rate system with a stomach that has four and the rest of the body tissues.
chambers. This is because they digest Xylem and phloem are discussed in
cellulose, a substance that is undigested detail in Chapter 16.
in humans. When a cow first chews and A third similarity between plants
swallows a mouthful of grass, the food and people is the importance of home-
enters the rumen. It later travels to a re- ostasis. Just as humans regulate their
gion called the reticulum. Bacteria found blood sugar, breathing rate, tempera-
in the rumen and reticulum start to ture, and so on, plants control the re-
break down the cellulose. The cow helps lease of water through their stomata.
in this process by regurgitating and re- Stomata are the site of gas exchange in
chewing food from time to time. This plants and also the sites of water release
“rumination” or “chewing the cud” through the process of transpiration. For

these purposes the stomata are open. move away from the norm), responses
If the external humidity drops so that the occur in the leaf so that the stomata
plant is losing water faster than it can close. Transpiration is reduced and in-
be replaced from the xylem (conditions ternal conditions return to normal.
mouth
esophagus gizzard
intestine
crop
stomach
anus
FIGURE 8.30 The digestive system of a bird
intestine four-chambered
stomach
reticulum
esophagus
rumen
FIGURE 8.31 Ruminants, such as cows, have four stomachs. As herbivores, their
diet requires that they break down cellulose, a very complex carbohydrate. This re-
quires that they “chew the cud” to break the fibrous material into small pieces.

Section 8.4 Review

1. How does the single-celled amoeba in-
Communications Skills
gest its food? 5. In a paragraph compare mechanical
and chemical digestion in the earth-
2. Which structures in the earthworm’s
worm, the bird and the cow. Include
alimentary canal are similar to those
the role of muscle contraction in each
in humans? Which are different? A
species’ digestion.
Venn diagram may be useful to com-
pare these two organisms. 6. Construct a table to show the various
organs and components of the diges-
3. What is the purpose of a cow “chew-
tive tract. Identify the structures com-
ing the cud”?
mon to all of the organisms discussed
4. a) Why do you think that organisms, in this section. Explain why each is
such as earthworms and birds, vital to the proper functioning of the
might find a storage device like the digestive system.
crop useful?
b) Study the food web that includes
these animals and predict how the Making Connections
web would be affected if some of
7. Animals in captivity do not hunt for
these organisms did not have the
their food.
ability to gather food and store it
a) Research how the dietary needs of
in their crop for later use.
the animals are determined.
b) Describe the impact this has on
their ability to survive if returned
wolf to the wild.
bird
snake
frog
worm
insect
grass
FIGURE 8.32

Inquiry Skills

What Effect Does Temperature Have Analyzing and Interpreting
on an Enzyme?
A catalyst is something that speeds up a chemical re- TABLE 8.5 Set-up of Test Tubes for Investigation
action while itself remaining unchanged. An enzyme
is a biological catalyst. Enzymes work best under Test tube #1 Liver at room temperature
specific conditions, and these conditions can vary for Substrate: water
each enzyme. Each enzyme acts specifically on a sub-
Test tube #2 Liver at room temperature
stance called the substrate. This investigation will en-
Substrate: H2O2
able you to explore the role of temperature in enzyme
activity. The enzyme will come from a homogenate of Test tube #3 Liver in an ice bath
fresh liver. The substrate used will be hydrogen per- Substrate: water
oxide. Remember that one of the roles of the liver is
Test tube #4 Liver in an ice bath
detoxification. One way that the liver accomplishes Substrate: H2O2
detoxification is through oxidation.
Test tube #5 Liver in a hot water bath
Substrate: water
Problem
How does temperature affect the function of enzymes Test tube #6 Liver in a hot water bath
present in fresh liver? Substrate: H2O2
Materials 3. Plug in the hot plate. Add about 150 mL of water

safety goggles blender to a 250-mL beaker and place it on the hot plate.
100–150 g liver per ice Set the temperature gauge on the hot plate high
group knife enough to allow the water in the beaker to boil.
hot plate test-tube rack 4. Add approximately 2 mL of liver homogenate to
water tape each of the 6 test tubes so that the homogenate
6 test tubes black marker occupies about 1 cm from the bottom of the test tube.
250-mL beakers hydrogen peroxide 5. Take test tubes #3 and #4, and place them in the
beaker tongs (3% H2O2) ice bath for approximately 15 min.
test-tube tongs non-latex gloves 6. Take test tubes #5 and #6 and place them in the hot
water bath, after it has come to a boil. Leave these
test tubes in the hot water bath for 15 min.
CAUTION: Wear safety goggles when adding the hydro-
gen peroxide substrate and observing the reaction. The
test tubes in the boiling water bath will be very hot. Use
beaker tongs to handle the glassware.
Procedure
1. Use the knife to chop the liver into fine bits. Place the
chopped liver into the hand blender. Add about
50 mL of water. If the homogenate is too thick and
stringy, you can add a little more water (10–20 mL).
Blend the liver until it is homogenous. Pour this into
a 250-mL beaker and label it “liver homogenate.”
2 Place the 6 test tubes in a test-tube rack. Use the
tape and black marker to label each of the test tubes
as in Table 8.5. FIGURE 8.33 Set-up for enzyme investigation

(continued)
7. While test tubes #3–#6 are in the hot water bath, 9. Similarly, take test tubes #5 and #6 from the hot
add the substrate to test tubes #1 and #2. Add water bath. Turn off your hot plate. Add 2 mL of
2 mL of water to test tube #1 and record your ob- water to test tube #5 and 2 mL of H 2 O 2 to test
servations. Similarly, add 2 mL of H2O2 to test tube tube #6. Record your observations.
#2 and record your observations. Using a data table 10. As an addition, take test tube #2, and when it has
like Table 8.6, record the rate of reaction on a scale settled, add another 2 mL of H2O2. What do you ob-
of 0–4 as in Table 8.7. serve? Repeat this step for test tubes #4 and #6.
TABLE 8.6 Observations of enzyme activity

Test tube #1 1. From your observation chart, suggest how tem-
perature affects the functioning of the enzyme.
Test tube #2 2. Account for the differences in the rates of reaction.
Test tube #3 Concluding and Communicating

3. Based on your observations, why were both water
Test tube #4
and H2O2 used in this investigation?
4. What do you think happened to the enzyme in the
ice bath?
Test tube #5
5. What do you think happened to the enzyme in the
hot water bath?
Test tube #6 6. What was the purpose of repeating the addition
of H2O2 to test tube #2 at the end of the investiga-
tion?
7. Considering your observations from test tubes 5
TABLE 8.7 Rates of Reaction
and 6, how might this experiment be compared to
the changes that occur when frying an egg?
Scale Number Rate
0 No reaction Extending
1 Slow 8. If large chunks of liver were used as a source of
enzyme instead of homogenizing the liver, what
2 Moderate
might you have observed? Explain your answer.
3 Fast 9. If potato had the same enzyme as liver, at what tem-
4 Very fast perature would the enzyme work best? Why?
8. After 15 min, take test tubes #3 and #4 from the

ice bath and add 2 mL of water to test tube #3 and
2 mL of H2O2 to test tube #4. Record your obser-
vations.

Inquiry Skills

Enzyme Activity in Fruit Concluding and Communicating
Food breaks down into different sub-units through the Analyzing and Interpreting
action of specific enzymes. Some fruits contain an
1. Which fruits contained an enzyme that breaks down
enzyme that breaks down gelatin or prevents it from
gelatin?
forming into a matrix.
2. Why do you suppose that there are only certain
flavours of Jell-O?
Problem 3. What are some limitations of your study?
Which common fruits contain an enzyme that prevents
gelatin from forming?
Materials 4. How could you apply your results to food
preparation?
gelatin
hot water 5. How is this investigation comparable to the condi-
cold water tions in your stomach?
pineapple 6. What is meant by “protein denaturation”? Suggest
other fresh fruits advantages and disadvantages of this property.
a number of bowls or beakers of uniform size 7. Write a lab report to summarize your procedure
stirring rods and observations.
Experimental Design Extending

1. In groups develop a hypothesis to answer this prob-
8. Research whether pineapple has any therapeutic
lem. Design your investigation.
benefits in losing weight or in maintaining good
2. Describe the purpose, materials, and methods that
health.
you plan to use. Decide how you are going to record
and report your observations and conclusions. 9. A meat tenderizer (available as a powder in most
3. Select the control you will use for the presence of grocery stores) has a chemical effect that helps to
enzyme activity. tenderize meat. Hypothesize the mechanism by
4. Design a procedure to test for enzyme activity. which this occurs and predict whether meat ten-
5. Suggest variables that you could manipulate to test derizers would also prevent gelatin from solidify-
for effects on enzyme activity in fruits. ing and forming a matrix.
6. Have your teacher approve your investigative de- 10. Conduct an investigation to show whether the en-
sign before you carry out the experiment. zyme papain, from fruits like the pineapple, can
be successfully used as a meat tenderizer.

TABLE 8.8 Structure and Function in the Human

Digestive System
Organ Function
Mouth Mixes food with saliva and salivary

forms a bolus; begins the gland
process of mechanical and
chemical digestion
mouth tongue
Esophagus Passageway to allow the bolus (oral cavity)
pharynx
of food to travel from the mouth
to the stomach salivary
esophagus
glands
Stomach Continues mechanical and
chemical digestion of food;
protein digestion begins in the
acidic environment
Small Intestine Major site of absorption of

nutrient molecules through
specialized villi
Liver Synthesizes bile; remove toxins

from the blood; many metabolic
functions liver
Gallbladder Stores bile produced by the gallbladder stomach

liver; releases it to duodenum
pancreas
Pancreas Secretes insulin that helps
sugar to enter cells; releases colon
bicarbonate ion to duodenum
make duodenum alkaline;
caecum
secretes pancreatic enzymes small
jejunum
intestine
large
Large Intestine Absorbs some vitamins; appendix
intestine ileum
absorbs water from feces and
stores feces before elimination
rectum
Rectum and Anus Site of elimination of feces
anus
FIGURE 8.34 Use this figure and information in Table 8.8 to summarize what
you have learned in this chapter.

Key Terms
absorption elimination mechanical digestion serosa

alimentary canal homeostasis micronutrient submucosa
bolus immunosuppressants mineral villi
Calorie ingestion mucosa vitamins
carbohydrate kilojoule negative feedback xenotransplantation
chemical digestion lipase organ system
chyme longitudinal smooth muscle peristalsis
circular smooth muscle macronutrient protease
8.1 Nutrition Digestion is the result of many different organs that

There are six main types of nutrients: carbohydrates, work together along the digestive tract.
fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water. 8.3 Accessory Organs in Digestion and their Associated
Macronutrients are needed in large quantities, Enzymes
micronutrients in small quantities each day. Accessory organs help to complete the digestion of
food molecules by secreting enzymes into the ali-
Humans require a well-balanced diet to ensure
mentary canal.
proper growth, repair, and function of body tissues.
Human digestive enzymes are catalysts that speed
Many diseases result from too much or too little
up chemical reactions; there are three main types:
nutrient intake.
carbohydrases, proteases, and lipases.
8.4 Digestion in Various Organisms
8.2 The Digestive System
Organisms have developed specialized structures
The alimentary canal is a long hollow tube that is
to help them digest food in their respective
open at both ends.
environments.
Proper digestion is a result of both mechanical
and chemical digestion.
1. Refer to the Checkpoint activity on page 245 and review 3. Research the employability skills and educational re-
the branching diagram you made to show the compo- quirements necessary to become a nutritionist. In what
nents of a balanced meal. Revise your diagram based on businesses can a nutritionist expect to find employment
what you learned in the Chapter. opportunities?
2. Construct a concept map to explain the process of 4. Reflect on your learning. Describe the impact of society
digestion. on the way many individuals define nutrition.

CHAPTER 8 REVIEW

1. The salivary glands produce an enzyme that begins the
digestion of 14. Exposed photographic film has black silver salts bonded
a) starches b) lipids to it by a thin layer of gelatin (a protein). An experiment
c) proteins d) monosaccharides was conducted to better understand the digestion of
gelatin by the enzyme trypsin. The end point of the ex-
2. Bile is stored in and released from the periment is shown by the clearing of the film as shown
a) pancreas b) gallbladder in the diagram below.
c) duodenum d) liver pH Time to clear (min)
6.0 32
3. The function of bicarbonate in the duodenum is to
a) digest protein 6.5 20
b) neutralize acid from the stomach 7.0 13
c) combine with the bile to dissolve food Exposed clear
film
8.0 4
d) activate the production of intestinal enzymes film
9.0 9
silver
4. The large intestine functions mainly in salts 9.5 20
a) absorption of water and the synthesis of some start finish 10.0 35
vitamins FIGURE 8.35
b) digestion of fats and proteins Seven test tubes, each with a different buffered pH so-
c) absorption of nutrients lution and 1 mL of 1.0% trypsin solution, were placed in
d) recycling of digestive enzymes a water bath at 37°C for 5 min. Small pieces of ex-
posed film were placed in each test tube simultaneously,
5. This enzyme breaks down fats: and the time taken for the film to clear was recorded.
a) amylase b) bile The results are shown in Figure 8.35.
c) glycerol d) lipase a) Plot a graph of time to clear versus pH. Include all
the graphing conventions that you have learned.
6. What is the function of a sphincter in the body? List four b) At what pH does trypsin work most effectively?
different sphincters along the digestive tract. c) Explain why it was necessary to place the seven test
tubes in the water bath for 5 min before inserting
7. What is an ulcer? the film into each.
8. Why are you able to eat an orange while standing on 15. Reflect and write a short paragraph on the importance
your head? of biological hierarchy. Suggest a non-biological exam-
ple of when hierarchy might be useful.
9. Why does pepsin not remain active in the duodenum?
16. Generalize why surface area is an important concept in
10. What is heartburn and how is it caused? biology. Use a mindmap to brainstorm some specific
examples of the importance of surface area in a living
11. What is an enzyme and how does it work? system. (Note: There are many examples, and using an
encyclopedia or the Internet may be helpful.)
12. Complete the following chart on digestive enzymes and
their substrates. 17. Explain why homeostasis is vital in a living organism.
Use one concrete example of homeostasis that you
Enzyme Substrate Product(s) learned in this chapter to help support your explanation.
maltase maltose
sucrase glucose and fructose 18. Sketch a diagram of the topography of the wall of the
alimentary canal in your notebook. Label the various
lactase glucose and galactose
tissue layers starting from the lumen and working out-
peptidase polypeptides ward. Explain why each tissue layer is important.
lipase lipids
19. An experiment was conducted to better understand the
properties of fats. The results of the experiment are sum-
13. Distinguish between a crop and a gizzard. Name two marized in the table on the next page.
animals that have these structures. a) What conclusion can be made about the relation-
ship between oil and water?

Tube Procedure Result b) Suggest ways that the media can prevent this kind
of imagery from affecting impressionable youth.
1 Shake 2 mL of oil vigorously with The oil separated c) What are some support systems that your local com-
4 mL of water and let stand for from the water. munity provides to help girls experiencing anorexia?
2 min.
2 Shake 2 mL of oil vigorously with A milky mixture 23. Obtain a community newspaper and clip out five ads per-
4 mL of detergent solution and let formed. taining to weight loss and dieting. Paste these ads on a
stand for 2 min. page and critique them. There is a big market for weight
loss. You will find ads ranging from pills, hypnosis,
3 Shake 2 mL of oil vigorously with A milky mixture
diet maintenance, and liposuction, to tummy tucks and
4 mL of alcohol and let stand for formed. diet shakes.
2 min. a) Rank the techniques in the ads that you chose in
b) Account for the “milky mixture” that was formed in order of most effective to least effective.
tubes #2 and #3. b) Evaluate the pluses and minuses of each method
c) In your digestive system, what substance behaves of weight loss.
similarly to the detergent in test tube #2? -You may wish to include cost in your appraisal.
-Contact some of the agencies to make specific in-
20. Study the table. quiries if necessary.
c) Since these esthetic procedures require the use of
Location in the digestive tract pH specialized technologies, they can be costly. This re-
stricts them to only some sectors of society. Should
mouth 6.8
these procedures be covered by a provincial health
stomach 2.0 plan?
duodenum 9.0
24. The Canadian Diabetes Association has a code that helps
a) Based on this information, would a bolus of carbo- diabetics to make healthy food choices.
hydrate be acidic or basic? a) Contact a local branch of this society and inquire
b) How does the pH of chyme change from acidic to about the symbols that they have in place to help
alkaline once it leaves the stomach? their members make good food choices.
b) With the information you gather, visit your local gro-
cery store and select five different items that have
these symbols on their packaging.
Making Connections c) Make a chart that outlines the products that you
have chosen and the smart food choice symbols as-
21. Dieting is very common in our society. One diet entails sociated with each item.
eating only proteins and avoiding the consumption of d) Using your five items, make some recommendations
carbohydrates, yet Canada’s Food Guide to Healthy to a diabetic friend who wishes to choose a healthy
Eating recommends that we eat a balanced diet daily. snack.
a) How has the popular media influenced the way that
people decide to diet? 25. Vegetarianism is becoming increasing popular in the
b) What is problematic about omitting entire food western world. Advocates for vegetarianism cite nutri-
groups from one’s diet? tional, ethical, and environmental reasons for this lifestyle
c) Some areas of the world rely only on carbohydrate- choice.
based diets to live. Propose a plan of action whereby a) Research the environmental impact of cattle raising
our affluent society can help developing countries versus agriculture and the various costs that are in-
meet their daily nutritional requirements. curred in farming plants versus farming animals.
b) Meat eaters argue that a vegetarian diet does not
22. Anorexia nervosa is a condition in which patients see provide enough protein. To what extent is this state-
themselves as overweight and stop eating almost comment true?
pletely. Food in fact becomes distasteful to them. They c) Animal rights groups maintain that it is cruel to raise
never feel hungry, deny their condition, and remain and kill animals for human consumption.
unconcerned for themselves. Although anorexia is an Furthermore, they protest against the injection of
eating disorder, anorexic patients are cared for by a psy- hormones into animals to make them gain weight
chiatrist (a doctor who specializes in mental disorders). and thereby become more marketable. Construct a
Society does a lot to impose certain images on youth, es- risk/benefit analysis chart to decide whether
pecially girls. animals should be used for human consumption.
a) Discuss some of the ways that society ushers girls
into a frame of mind that may cause them to be-
come anorexic.

UN
CHAPTER 9
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS Respiration
describe the process of ventilation
and gas exchange from the
environment to the cell (9.1)
A ll life is lived on the edge! You could live for a few weeks without food,
and for a few days without water. But, if you were without oxygen for
more than four minutes, irreversible brain damage and death could result.
efficiency of the respiratory system
(9.2, Investigation 1, Investigation 2)
describe how the use of prescription
or non-prescription drugs can disrupt
or help maintain homeostasis
(9.1, 9.3)
compare the respiratory anatomy of
different organisms—vertebrate and
select and integrate information
about the respiratory system from
various print and electronic sources
or from several parts of the same
source (9.1, 9.2)
that have enhanced understanding
of internal systems (9.1, 9.2,
Investigation 1)
to the respiratory system (9.1, 9.3)
how scientific knowledge of the
respiratory system influences
nutrition and lifestyle (9.2, 9.3)
FIGURE 9.1 The bronchial tree. Each bronchus divides into secondary and tertiary bronchi
and then into bronchioles.
286
To stay alive and function, your cells need energy. You have learned that
energy can be obtained when glucose is broken down during cellular respi-
ration as shown in the equation for energy release.
Oxygen is a necessary reactant in this equation and without it energy in
the form of ATP cannot be generated in the mitochondria. Carbon dioxide is
a product of ATP formation and must be disposed of. We live in a sea of air
that contains a variety of gases including nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon diox-
ide. Oxygen represents approximately 21% of air. The challenge is to bring
the oxygen to all the body’s cells and to remove the carbon dioxide. In mul-
ticellular organisms, a specialized system is required to ensure that adequate
amounts of oxygen are available for body cells. This is the respiratory sys-
tem. In your consideration of the human respiratory system you will
explore the anatomy of the organs and their function. You will consider some
of the basic requirements for efficient oxygen diffusion and investigate the
concepts of vital capacity, lung volumes, and reserve volumes. You will also
explore the relationship of exercise to breathing and overall good health. You
will also consider the effects that smoking and medications have on various
components of the respiratory tract and the techniques and technology
designed to maximize respiratory function.
Discovering Biology
Wait a Minute, Breathe! CHECKPOINT
Sit comfortably in your chair and relax. When your teacher gives the sig-
Using a K-W-L chart, list
nal, take a deep breath. Try to hold your breath for as long as possible.
what you know about the
When you can no longer hold your breath, let it out and immediately put
respiratory system in the
your head down on your desk to indicate that you have let your breath
first column, as well any
out. How long were you able to hold your breath?
questions about the respi-
What do you think causes you to let your breath out and inhale a fresh ratory system you have in
breath? the second column.
Work with a partner. Sit comfortably in your chair and relax. Have your Know Wonder Learn
partner count the number of times that you breathe in and out in one
minute. How many breaths do you take on average in one minute?
CHAPTER 9 Respiration 287

9.1 The Respiratory System

Key Understandings
explain the differences between external, internal, and cellular respiration
describe the pathway of oxygen from the atmosphere to a tissue cell
describe the anatomy of the respiratory system
explain how the structure of different parts enables them to perform their functions
explain the roles of oxygen and carbon dioxide in respiration
INFOBIT Respiration can be defined as the ex- dioxide, a waste product of cellular
change of oxygen and carbon dioxide activities. Reptiles, birds, mammals, and
SCUBA gear first allowed between an organism and its external some amphibians exchange gases in
humans to breathe successfully environment. Cells need oxygen to live, specialized structures called lungs. In
and move freely under water.
In fact the name SCUBA means but as a consequence of living they gen- humans, as in other organisms, the
“self-contained underwater erate carbon dioxide. The respiratory respiratory structure must have a large
breathing apparatus.” system supplies oxygen to the cells and surface area so that it can take up
removes carbon dioxide. When the level enough oxygen to supply every cell in
of carbon dioxide in the blood rises the body.
above normal, chemoreceptors detect
this increase and relay the information External Respiration External respira-
to the brain. As a result, the breathing tion is the exchange of gases across the
rate increases so that more oxygen is respiratory surface between the air sacs
brought into the body and more or alveoli and the blood. The respiratory
carbon dioxide is removed. surface is where the oxygen diffuses into
Additional functions of the human the organism and the carbon dioxide dif-
respiratory system include defending the fuses out. This surface must be moist to
body against invasion by micro-organisms, function so that diffusion can occur. The
producing sounds for speaking, and circulatory system functions as a link
assisting in the control of body fluid pH. between the different components of res-
The respiratory system, in combination piration. The blood carries the oxygen
with the circulatory and nervous systems, from the lungs to all the cells of the body.
works to maintain homeostasis, through
the operation of negative feedback Internal Respiration Internal respiration
mechanisms. is the exchange of gases between the
blood in capillaries and individual cells
The Components of in the tissues. Oxygen diffuses out of the
Respiration blood and carbon dioxide diffuses in.
Respiration can be divided into several This exchange at the level of individual
components (Figure 9.2). cells makes it possible for cellular res-
piration to occur.
Ventilation or Breathing Breathing is the
process by which oxygen is taken in from Cellular Respiration This process occurs
the external environment. Breathing in- at the cellular level, in the mitochondria.
volves both: inhalation and exhalation. It involves the use of oxygen to help in
These movements allow the body to take the harvesting of energy from food
in the oxygen it needs for cellular molecules. Cellular respiration needs
activities and to dispose of carbon to occur in every cell. To support cellu-

external internal
respiration respiration
respiratory system circulatory system tissue cell cellular

respiration
O2 O2 O2
atmospheric
air
CO2 CO2 CO2
mitochondrion
alveolar capillary capillary tissue

membrane interface
FIGURE 9.2 The relationship of external respiration, internal respiration, and cellular respiration, and
the interaction of the respiratory and circulatory systems. The circulatory system connects the lungs
and the tissues of the body and transports the gases to and fro.
lar respiration the digestive system pro- smaller conducting passageways, and
vides the reactant glucose to the cell. lungs.
The Anatomy of the

Respiratory System
The branches of an upside-down tree
can be considered a good analogy to de-
scribe the human respiratory system.
Many parts of a tree, such as its trunk,
branches, twigs, and leaves, nicely cor-
respond to the components of the human
respiratory system (Figure 9.3). A
restrictions.
respiratory system is a group of organs
working together to bring about the ef-
ficient exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide between an organism and its en-
vironment (Figure 9.4). The entire
human respiratory tract can be visual-
ized as one long tube that starts with the
nasal and oral cavities and ends in many
sacs called alveoli where the actual ex-
change of gases takes place. The human FIGURE 9.3 This inverted model of the respira-
respiratory system consists of the nose, tory system shows why a tree is a good analogy
nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, for the respiratory system.

The Nasal and Oral Cavities Air contain-

ing oxygen can enter the body through
the nose or mouth. Approximately 21%
of every inhaled breath is oxygen. If air
enters through the nose, it has the added
benefit of being warmed, moistened, and
filtered. In order to be efficiently utilized
by the body, oxygenated air must be
warmed to body temperature (37°C). The
nose is rich in blood capillaries that help
to warm the air. The nasal cavity is also
lined with mucus-secreting cells; the
mucus helps to moisten and filter the in-
coming air. Cilia that line the nasal FIGURE 9.5 False-coloured scanning electron
cavity beat back and forth together like micrograph (SEM) of cilia on the nasal epithelium.
The cilia beat to remove debris from the respira-
the oars of a row boat (Figure 9.5). Cilia
tory system.
and nose hairs both act to filter out de-
bris and large particles from the air.
When air is inhaled through the oral
cavity, some of these vital steps are The Pharynx After the oxygen molecule
missed. passes the nasal cavity and the oral cav-
ity, it encounters the muscular pharynx.
The pharynx is a common path for both
air and food. It has two branches: the
sinuses
trachea, or windpipe, and the esopha-
gus. There is a tiny flap of connective
nasal cavity
tissue called the epiglottis that goes back
pharynx and forth between the larynx at the top
of the trachea and the esophagus. When
you are eating, the epiglottis covers the
larynx opening of the trachea to prevent food
trachea from entering the windpipe. If you place
right lung left lung your finger at the top of your Adam’s
left bronchus apple (larynx) and swallow, you feel your
bronchioles larynx moving up against your epiglot-
tis. When air accidentally enters the
esophagus, it collects and is removed by
the process of burping. When food ac-
cidentally goes into the windpipe instead
of the esophagus, coughing occurs. If
coughing does not dislodge the food
item, choking may result.
The Larynx At the top of the trachea is

the larynx. The larynx is made up of sev-
eral pieces of cartilage, the largest piece
diaphragm
being the Adam’s apple. Because the lar-
ynx produces sound, it is sometimes
known as the voice box. Inside the lar-
ynx are two highly elastic folds called
FIGURE 9.4 The anatomy of the respiratory the vocal cords (Figure 9.7). Air being
system released from the lungs rushes past

pharynx
bolus of food
vocal cords
larynx
epiglottis folded over the
entrance to the larynx cartilages
(airway closed) glottis
tracheal cartilages
trachea
FIGURE 9.7 Posterior view
epiglottis of larynx and vocal cords.
upright Sound is produced by air
(airway open) vibrations that result from the
contraction of the vocal cords.
pharynx. The pharynx is common to the
digestive and respiratory systems, so
trachea when the dirt and debris reach the phar-
ynx, they can easily be swallowed.
Respiratory Structures
FIGURE 9.6 The epiglottis helps to direct traffic
into the respiratory and digestive systems.
Within the Chest Cavity
Within the chest cavity, the trachea di-
vides into two branches, the right and
the vocal cords and causes them to vi-
left bronchi (singular: bronchus).
brate. When muscles cause the vocal
Following the tree analogy, the trachea
cords to contract, the air passing be-
is like a trunk and the bronchi are the
tween them vibrates and produces
sound. a) b)
The Trachea The trachea, or windpipe,

larynx
is a hollow tube that allows air to pass
from the pharynx into the lungs (Figure esophagus
9.8). The trachea functions much like a
drinking straw. Its straw-like structure
provides a passageway that air can use
as it journeys from the pharynx to the trachea lumen of
bronchi. Tough, flexible, C-shaped trachea
cartilage rings surround the trachea,
prevent it from collapsing, and provide mucous
glands
it with support. The trachea also con-
tains some smooth muscle. Some of
the cells that line the trachea produce
mucus. This mucus is swept out of the tracheal
cartilage
air passageway by cilia on other cells.
In this way, particles trapped in the bronchi
mucus are carried to the upper part of FIGURE 9.8 The trachea. The
C-shaped cartilage rings keep
the trachea. This upward beating of the
the trachea open to allow air to
cilia in the trachea can be compared to pass to the lungs: a) Anterior
an upward-bound escalator. Dirt and de- right lung left lung
view b) Cross-sectional view of
bris are directed upward toward the trachea and esophagus

WORD ORIGIN main branches. The left bronchus leads smallest bronchioles. Each lung contains
to the left lung. The right bronchus leads approximately 150 million alveoli.
Alveolus, from the Latin alveolus to the right lung. Alveoli occur in grape-like clusters. In
meaning “the cell of a honey- The lungs are the main organs of the tree analogy, the alveoli might be
comb.” This is the diminutive of
alveus meaning “a beehive.” the respiratory system. The bronchi, like compared to the tree’s leaves since they
the trachea, are lined with cilia that beat actually allow gas exchange to occur. The
upward towards the pharynx. Filtering alveoli, in combination with an exten-
of air can still occur here if some of the sive network of capillaries, are the site
debris gets past the nasal and tracheal of gas exchange. The wall of the alveoli
cavities. Bronchi branch into smaller and the wall of the capillaries come
tubes called bronchioles. Both the together to form the respiratory mem-
bronchi and the bronchioles are lined brane. The alveoli and the capillaries are
with smooth muscle. The bronchi and each only one cell thick so that the
bronchioles branch, ensuring that inhaled air and the blood are separated
oxygen-rich air that has been inhaled is by a membrane only two cells in
Investigation delivered to all regions of the lungs. Cilia
Refer to page 349, and a thin layer of mucus line the larger
Investigation 3 bronchioles but are not present in the
very small bronchioles. The cilia and the
mucus sheet help to trap dust and for-
eign particles and prevent them from
reaching the alveoli.
WEBLINK The essential role of the bronchioles
is demonstrated if anaphylactic shock Image omitted due to copyright
Research the effect of air occurs. Anaphylactic shock results when restrictions.
pollution on childhood respira- a person is severely allergic to a foreign
tory illnesses. Compile a list substance. Some common causes of ana-
of illnesses, symptoms, and
suspected causes. Begin your
phylactic shock include nuts and bee
research at stings. When the allergic person comes
www.pearsoned.ca/ biology11. in contact with the harmful substance,
their body reacts to it by causing the
smooth muscles in the bronchioles to FIGURE 9.9 Each bronchus divides into smaller
swell. As a result, the muscles have a and smaller bronchioles that supply alveoli with
“pinching” effect on the brochioles. If the inspired air.
person is not treated quickly, the bro-
chioles can become completely blocked,
and air can no longer travel to the lungs. vein
An epi-pen is a portable treatment de- artery
vice. The epi-pen is used to inject
alveolus
epinephrine into the person experienc-
ing the anaphylactic shock. The
epinephrine causes the muscles to relax
and enables the person to breathe more
easily. Most people who have severe al-
lergic reactions carry an epi-pen with
them at all times.
capillary network
The Alveoli The bronchioles continue to
branch until they end in a cluster of tiny FIGURE 9.10 The alveoli. The alveoli and the
hollow air sacs called alveoli (singular: surrounding capillaries are the site of gas
alveolus). The alveoli are the ends of the exchange.

thickness. Gas exchange occurs across to one of lower concentration without

this respiratory membrane and the the use of energy. For diffusion to occur
alveoli must be moist to assist the diffu- in the respiratory system, a thin
sion. The respiratory system as a whole, membrane that can filter and moisten
from the nose to the lungs, brings clean, air is essential for the maximum amount
fresh air into the alveoli. The alveoli are of diffusion to occur. The total surface
the functional units of the respiratory area of the alveoli must be very large. In
system, where gas exchange happens. humans the respiratory surface is equal
Oxygen and carbon dioxide must dif- in size to half the area of a tennis court.
fuse across the delicate membranes of Foreign substances that reach the alve-
the alveoli, so the membranes must be oli, like inhaled smoke, may damage the
very thin. Recall that diffusion is the delicate membrane, decrease the sur-
spontaneous movement of a substance face area, and reduce a person’s ability
from an area of higher concentration to obtain oxygen by diffusion.
Section 9.1 Review

1. Compare the properties of air that
enters the respiratory tract through the 7. The graph shows the partial pressures
nose with air that enters through the of oxygen and carbon dioxide in dif-
mouth. ferent locations within the body. Decide
2. What do you think would happen if the which structures points A, B, and C
alveoli became much thicker than nor- depict.
mal? Explain how gas exchange would
be affected.
Partial pressure
3. There are certain conditions that

result in a decrease in production of
cartilage. Why might these conditions
cause difficulty breathing?
4. Cilia line the inside of the respiratory
tract and play a key role in trapping A B C
dirt and foreign objects. If the cilia beat
abnormally, what other mechanisms Oxygen Carbon dioxide
would there be to prevent debris from
entering the respiratory tract and caus- FIGURE 9.11
ing an infection?
5. “When an inhaled molecule of oxygen, Making Connections
enters your lungs, it is still a part of the
outside environment.” Explain the 8. Use various print and electronic
validity of this statement. sources to research household per-
fumes and analyze their positive and
6. Construct a Venn diagram to com-
negative effects on health.
pare external and internal respiration.
9. a) Describe the impact of local indus-
tries on air pollution.
b) Propose strategies to ensure that
the emissions in these industries
are properly regulated in order to
protect the encironment.

9.2 The Physiology of Respiration

Key Understandings
explain the process of ventilation and describe the structures involved
compare the anatomy and physiology of breathing to a mechanical model
understand how gas exchange occurs in the alveoli
explain how breathing rate is regulated in humans
understand the influence of fitness on respiratory efficiency
Efficient gas exchange can only occur muscles. Breathing delivers oxygen to
if the alveoli are regularly flushed with the alveoli and removes carbon dioxide.
fresh air. Every time a breath is taken, The average adult takes 12 to 16 breaths
or air moves in and out of your lungs, each minute.
two major actions occur. During When you breathe, you might think
inhalation or inspiration, the that your lungs are expanding. In fact,
thoracic cavity enlarges and the lungs your lungs are not able to expand on
fill with air. During exhalation or ex- their own. They are connected to a large
piration, air is pushed out of the lungs dome-shaped muscle called the
and the thoracic cavity decreases in size. diaphragm and to the walls of the tho-
Breathing is the cyclic repetition of in- rax by the pleura. The diaphragm is
halation and exhalation (Figure 9.12). It located along the bottom of the rib cage
requires the coordinated effort of many and separates the chest cavity from the
rib cage
air air
inhaled exhaled
Muscle Muscle
contraction relaxation
expands contracts
lung rib cage. rib cage.
diaphragm
contraction of relaxation of
diaphragm diaphragm
(moves down) (moves up)
a) Inhalation b) Exhalation
FIGURE 9.12 The mechanism of breathing

a) In inhalation the diaphragm contracts and moves down, and the intercostal muscles contract,
moving the rib cage out and up. These activities increase the volume of the chest cavity.
b) In exhalation the diaphragm relaxes and moves up, and the intercostal muscles relax, moving the rib
cage in and down. These activities decrease the volume of the chest cavity.

abdominal cavity. The pleura contain a To gain a better understanding of INFOBIT

lubricating fluid that allows the lungs to the mechanism of breathing, consider
move smoothly as they passively expand the bell jar model in Figure 9.13. In this Lungs have a total capacity of
and recoil. The diaphragm contracts and model, the jar represents the thoracic about 6 L and the more fit a
person is, the greater the
relaxes in response to stimulation from cavity, and a stopper with a tube rep- exchange of air. In a normal
the nervous system. resents the trachea. The tube opens into breath (at rest), we exchange
Pressure differences between the at- the neck of a balloon just like the tra- only about 0.6 L. While exercising,
mosphere and the chest cavity determine chea opens into the bronchi. The bal- a person can consume up to 20
the quantity and rate at which gas is ex- loon suspended inside the jar represents times the amount of oxygen
consumed at rest.
changed. To properly understand the the lungs. Bell jars are unique because
mechanism of breathing, it is necessary they have a flexible bottom. When the
to understand some basic principles flexible bottom of the bell jar moves
about how gases behave. Gases move down, it parallels what happens when
from areas of higher pressure to areas of the diaphragm in humans moves down.
lower pressure. Therefore, when the in- That is, the volume of the jar (chest cav-
ternal pressure is less than atmospheric ity) increases and the pressure inside it
pressure, gas is drawn inwards in in- decreases. The air outside the jar re-
spiration. When the opposite is true, gas mains at atmospheric pressure. To
moves outwards, resulting in expiration. equalize the pressure inside and out, the
air rushes through the tubing (trachea)
Inhalation air
Internal pressure decreases. into the jar, thus inflating the balloon
(lungs).
rib cage lung When the diaphragm relaxes, it re-
turns to its curved position. This action
causes the volume of the chest cavity to
decrease. As the volume decreases, the
pressure in the chest cavity outside the
balloon
lungs increases. This increased pressure
causes the lungs to deflate. This pushes
the air out of the lungs. Carbon dioxide
leaves the body with each exhalation.
During breathing, the body relies on
diaphragm the diaphragm and intercostal
muscles. The sequence of inhalation and
exhalation brings air into the body.
Rapid and deep breathing brings in
Exhalation air more air. When a person is short of
Internal pressure increases.
breath, the person can call upon other
muscle groups to help inhale and exhale.
One example of a time when other
muscle groups might aid in breathing is
during strenuous activities like running
and swimming.
Regulation of Breathing
Movement
When a child, in a temper tantrum,
holds his or her breath, the medulla
oblongata in the brain eventually takes
FIGURE 9.13 The mechanics of inhalation and over the control of breathing and the
exhalation. The bell jar models the relationship child is forced to breathe. Breathing is
between the diaphragm and lungs. an involuntary activity. It is controlled

by a negative feedback loop that keeps

the oxygen and carbon dioxide concen-
brain tration in the blood relatively constant
(Figure 9.14). Oxygen is vital to all parts
medulla breathing control of the body, but the brain is especially
oblongata centres sensitive to a low level of oxygen. If the
brain is deprived of oxygen for more
contraction
CO2 increase/pH than four minutes, irreversible brain
of muscles
triggered by decrease in blood damage occurs. Possibly for this reason,
nerve signals O2 sensor in the medulla oblongata controls vital
artery mechanisms like breathing and heart
rate.
The body continuously tries to main-
tain a steady state, or homeostasis.
Recall that negative feedback is one way
rib muscles your body responds to imbalances and
O2 decrease
in blood attempts to restore normal balance.
Breathing movements are involuntary.
diaphragm
The mechanism of breathing is coordi-
nated by chemoreceptors that detect
changes in the pH of the blood. These
FIGURE 9.14 Control centres in the brain that regulate the rate and depth of special receptors are sensitive to the lev-
breathing els of gases in the blood, especially the
level of carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide when mixed with
INFOBIT Homeostasis is water forms carbonic acid. Carbonic acid
at set point.
then breaks down into bicarbonate ion
The human body functions best –
(HC0 3 ) and hydrogen ion (H + ). When
at sea level. Above sea level
the air we breathe decreases Increase in blood the concentration of hydrogen ion in a
in pressure and there is a CO2 concentration solution increases, the pH is lowered.
gradual decrease in oxygen Blood that is high in carbon dioxide has
content. An inadequate supply Increase in the concentration a pH lower than the norm of 7.4. The
of oxygen in an area of low of carbonic acid (H2CO3) drop in pH (moving away from the norm)
atmospheric pressure is one of
the causes of altitude sickness. causes the medulla oblongata to relay
Increase in the concentration of messages to the muscles of the di-
H ions in the blood (lowered pH) aphragm and rib cage to stimulate
breathing. Breathing helps to expel ex-
Stimulation of chemoreceptors cess carbon dioxide, and so restores the
in the brain pH of the blood to normal; this inactivates
the chemoreceptors. See Figure 9.15.
Activation of respiratory _
+
centre in the brain CO2 + H20 H2CO3 H + HCO3
Message is sent to Gas Exchange in the Alveoli

increase breathing rate.
There are nearly 300 million alveoli in
the healthy lung. It is at the alveoli that
Decrease in
CO2 concentration
the respiratory and circulatory systems
interact (Figure 9.16). Deoxygenated
FIGURE 9.15 A flowchart
to show how breathing rate
blood is directed from the heart to the
is regulated to maintain Homeostasis is restored. lungs where it flows through the network
homeostasis of capillaries that surrounds each alve-

EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL RESPIRATION each breath. Air is a gas, and has the ca- INFOBIT
pacity to flow. Air moves into and out of
an organism much like the ebb and flow Carbon monoxide is an
air breathed of the ocean tide. It is fitting that the odourless, colourless, and
in potentially fatal gas. It is
O2 EXTERNAL amount of air that passes in and out of the commonly found in car
CO2 RESPIRATION lungs with each breath is known as the exhausts and cigarette smoke.
alveolus in tidal volume. It ranges from 250 to 500 When inhaled, carbon
lung
mL for most adults. The depth of each monoxide competes with
breath and the rate of breathing can vary oxygen to bind to hemoglobin,
the molecule in the red blood
capillary greatly, depending on the body’s needs. cell that normally carries
The total lung capacity is the max- oxygen. However, carbon
tissue imum volume of air that can be held in monoxide is more than 200
cell
INTERNAL the lungs at any given time. At rest, the times more efficient at binding
O2 RESPIRATION
tidal volume is only a small fraction of the hemoglobin than oxygen is.
CO2
High levels of carbon monoxide
total lung capacity, and even the deepest in the blood therefore deprive
expiration cannot expel all the air in the the body of oxygen.
lungs. The volume of air that can be
forcefully exhaled, after a normal tidal
volume is exhaled, is called the expira-
FIGURE 9.16 External and internal respiration. tory reserve volume. During a deep
External respiration occurs at the alveoli. Internal breath, an extra volume of air up to 2 L
respiration occurs at the tissue cells. The
circulatory system connects the two.
can be taken into the lungs. This is known Investigation
as the inspiratory reserve volume. In Refer to page 309,
normal people, 4.5 L of air can be inhaled Investigation 1
and exhaled with effort. The maximum
olus. This blood contains a large amount amount of air that can be moved into
of carbon dioxide and very little oxygen. and out of the respiratory system is
The air in the alveolus has a high oxy- called the vital capacity. The vital ca-
gen content, but a low carbon dioxide pacity is always about 1.0–1.5 L less
content relative to the surrounding than the total lung capacity because if
blood. These conditions are ideal for dif- the lungs became completely deflated,
fusion. After the alveoli are ventilated they would collapse. Therefore, biolo-
with fresh air, the next step in the res- gists call the air that remains in the lungs
piratory process is diffusion of oxygen after maximal expiration the residual
from the alveoli into the blood and dif- volume. See Figure 9.18 for the rela-
fusion of carbon dioxide in the oppo- tionship of the respiratory volumes. The
site direction. The process of diffusion space occupied by conducting airways,
is simply random motion of molecules the trachea, the bronchi, and the bron- Image omitted due to
intertwining their ways in both direc- chioles is termed “anatomical dead copyright restrictions.
tions through the respiratory membrane. space.” That is, 150 mL of the air in the
The oxygen-rich blood then returns to airways is “stale.” It is always the last
the heart for transport to the body’s cells. bit of air to be exhaled from the
previous exhalation and is therefore
depleted of oxygen. When 500 mL of air
Lung Volumes and Vital is inhaled, and 150 mL occupies anatom-
Capacity ical dead space (and does not even reach FIGURE 9.17 The air within
The average adult breathes once every five the alveoli), only 350 mL of the inhaled the swimmers’ snorkels does
seconds, about 12 breaths per minute. If air is available to be exchanged. not enter the lungs for gas
exchange. Like the 150 mL of
the function of breathing is to fill the alve- Your vital capacity is greatly affected
air that remains in your
oli with fresh air, and we understand the by your daily activities. Regular exercise trachea with each breath, a
mechanism behind breathing, it is natu- increases the body’s need for oxygen. snorkel adds to the volume of
ral to wonder how much air is moved with Strenuous exercises like swimming help anatomical dead space.

6000
tidal volume
residual volume
expiratory reserve volume
5000 inspiratory reserve volume
total lung capacity
3300 vital capacity
mL
4000 4000
4800
mL
Volume (mL)
Volume (mL)
1900
6000 mL
3000 3000
mL
3100
500 mL mL
4200
2000 2000 500 mL mL
1000
mL 700
mL
1000 1000
1200 1100
mL mL
a) Lung capacity in males b) Lung capacity in females
FIGURE 9.18 Lung volumes a) in males b) in females
WEBLINK to increase vital capacity. Some swim- released to the cabin. A five-person crew
mers have a vital capacity of over 6 L. uses about 3.5 kg of nitrogen and 4 kg
Explore the benefits to the However, other lifestyle choices, like of oxygen per day. In cellular respiration
respiratory system of time smoking or inactivity, dramatically de- the astronauts use the oxygen and pro-
devoted to regular exercise.
Design an exercise program for
crease the vital capacity by reducing the duce carbon dioxide, which they expel
a healthy teenager. Begin your ability to exchange oxygen for carbon each time they exhale. Carbon dioxide
research at dioxide. Vital capacity can be measured could be fatal if allowed to build up in
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11. with a device called a respirometer. the cabin. To get rid of the carbon diox-
ide, the cabin air is continuously filtered
through replaceable canisters that con-
Breathing In Outer Space
tain lithium hydroxide and activated
Inside the crew compartment of the charcoal. These two substances remove
space shuttle, the life-support system carbon dioxide and any other contami-
maintains an atmosphere of 79% nitro- nants from the air. One of the biggest
gen, 21% oxygen, and an atmospheric dangers astronauts face while in space
pressure of 100 kilopascals (kPa). This is a fire inside the cabin, because smoke
is identical to Earth’s atmosphere at could quickly overwhelm the life support
standard sea-level conditions. The system and poison all on board. For this
shuttle’s oxygen and nitrogen supply are reason, no flammable materials are al-
carried in separate tanks. The nitrogen lowed on board and fire extinguishers
is stored in gaseous form while the and smoke detectors are placed around
oxygen is stored as a super cooled the cabin.
liquid and is heated to a gas before being

contracted tuberculosis (TB) in As a result, he operated free clinics

1928, at a time when the chance of for the poor.
a recovery was very small. He Bethune fought the Fascists in
insisted on having the then-experi- Spain in 1936 and it was there that
mental technique of pneumothorax he developed the first mobile blood-
Norman Bethune, in which one of the patient’s lungs transfusion unit, which allowed
Physician, Inventor, is collapsed to allow it to heal. He wartime wounded to have transfu-
Humanitarian recovered and returned to Montreal sions in the field. This saved many
where he developed new surgical lives. Arriving in China in 1938, he
techniques and designed more than set up the first mobile medical unit
Norman Bethune who was born in a dozen new instruments for tho- and by the time of his death in
Gravenhurst, Ontario, in 1890, racic surgery. While treating patients November 1939 he had established
became world-renowned as a with tuberculosis, Bethune became more than 20 teaching and nursing
humanitarian. Bethune was also a convinced that access to medical hospitals.
gifted innovator. As a physician, he care was the right of every person.
Section 9.2 Review

Understanding Concepts 6. Evaluate the effectiveness of a bell jar
as a model of the mechanism of breath-
1. Copy the data table into your notebook. ing. Draw a T-chart, like the one shown
Complete the table to summarize the below, in your notebook. Brainstorm
major differences between inhalation the advantages and disadvantages of
and exhalation. the model.
Inhalation Exhalation Advantages of Disadvantages of

Volume in the lungs Using a Bell Jar Using a Bell Jar
Position of the
diaphragm
Position of the rib 7. Study the following set of data.
cage Patient A B C D
Breaths/Min 10 18 12 7
2. Draw a typical alveolus surrounded by
a capillary bed. Indicate on your
diagram whether oxygen and carbon a) From the data, decide which of the
dioxide levels would be higher or lower patients has a respiratory rate in
after an inhalation. What passive pro- the normal range.
cess occurs during gas exchange in the b) From the data, which patient(s)
alveoli? Explain why this process takes might have a respiratory condition?
place. c) Suggest factors that might cause a
person to breathe faster, resulting
3. Define “anatomical dead space.” How in more breaths per minute.
would wearing a snorkel affect your d) Assess whether the number of
anatomical dead space? breaths a person takes per minute
4. Draw a diagram to illustrate the role is sufficient to determine the health
of chemoreceptors in maintaining of his or her respiratory system.
homeostasis in the respiratory system. Are there other factors that need
to be considered?
Applying Inquiry/
Communication Skills Making Connections
5. The average human takes about 8. Technology has allowed us to prolong

1 breath every 5 s. Calculate how many life. What ethical and moral consider-
breaths the average human would take ations are involved in deciding whether
in 20 min. or not to sustain life on a ventilator?

9.3 Respiratory Disorders

Key Understandings
understand how adverse conditions within the respiratory system may lead to disease
states
explain the causes of respiratory diseases
describe how puffers and bronchodilators function
describe the impact of smoking on respiratory health
Investigation Asthma bronchioles to facilitate delivery of air to

Refer to page 311, and from the alveoli.
Asthma is a condition that results in the
Investigation 2
contraction of the smooth muscle that
surrounds airways. This reaction is Emphysema
thought to be partly allergic in nature. Emphysema is another respiratory dis-
This narrowing of the airways makes order often associated with chronic
Homeostasis at set point
breathing much more difficult. People bronchitis. Like bronchitis, emphysema
with asthma are prescribed puffers makes it difficult for air to pass through
that contain drugs that act as the respiratory system to reach the alve-
bronchodilators. That is, they cause the oli (Figure 9.20). When cilia, lining the
Asthma attack narrowed bronchi and bronchioles to in- bronchi and bronchioles, become dam-
crease in diameter, or dilate, which aged, they no longer effectively filter dirt
makes breathing easier. A puffer is an and debris or channel it up towards the
artificial way to restore bronchi and pharynx to be swallowed. Consequently,
Decrease in airway diameter bronchioles to their normal diameter.
due to bronchoconstriction the debris builds up in the air tubes. In
Each puffer is designed based on the res-
piratory health of its user. In addition to
specific health issues, puffer medication
Decrease in the air that
is adjusted for the person’s mass.
enters the lungs
The flow chart in Figure 9.19 sum-
marizes the homeostatic mechanisms
that occur during an asthma attack.
Intervention by the use of a puffer
Bronchitis
Bronchitis is an inflammation of the Image omitted due to copyright
Bronchodilation bronchial lining and is characterized by restrictions.
an overproduction of mucus and
sputum and frequent coughing. This
Increase in amount condition is commonly related to
of air that enters the lungs cigarette smoking, but it can also result
from other environmental irritants, such
as chemical vapours, and air pollutants.
Over time, the increased mucus
Homeostasis is restored. production can block smaller airways
and reduce respiratory efficiency, cre-
FIGURE 9.19 The flow chart
ating discomfort when breathing. FIGURE 9.20 This emphysema patient breathes
shows how puffers act to Bronchodilators may be prescribed to with the support of a portable air delivery system
restore homeostasis increase the diameter of the bronchi and enriched in oxygen.

The excess mucus leads to recurrent WORDORIGIN

Emphysema leads to a decrease
in alveolar surface area. lung infections. The person usually has
a persistent cough and may wheeze Emphysema, from Greek
asthmatically. The first signs and symp- emphusaein meaning “to puff
up.” Emphysema means
toms of cystic fibrosis typically occur in
“over-inflated lung.”
Decrease in oxygen delivery
childhood. The condition is detected in
to the blood approximately one in 2500 live births in
Caucasians.
This is a multi-system disease that
affects the respiratory and digestive
tracts. In the respiratory system it causes
Increase in respiration rate destruction of the airways. At the pre- WEBLINK
sent time there is no known cure for this
disease. However, with improvements in Research the availability in
antibiotics, pancreatic enzymes, and Ontario of programs that
chest physiotherapy, many people with promote respiratory health and
Oxygen delivery to the blood is support groups for people with
improved. CF live into adulthood.
respiratory diseases. Begin
your research at
Treatments Available for the www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
FIGURE 9.21 The flowchart shows how the
respiratory system attempts to compensate in Respiratory System
emphysema.
Nasal Sprays One common respiratory
medication is nasal spray. The most
common reason for using a nasal spray
turn, the bronchioles become con-
is to clear blocked nasal passages. Nasal
stricted. Less air is then able to get to
passages become blocked when there is
the alveoli. The air pressure that builds
inflammation in the passageway. This
up as a result of these hindered airways
can impair normal breathing because it
causes the lung to appear inflated. The
narrows the airway. Nasal sprays are
alveoli, and their very thin membranes,
effective because they contain a steroid-
are unable to support increased pres-
based chemical that helps to reduce the
sure. The alveoli try to accommodate
swelling. Nasal sprays come in different
to increasing pressure, but eventually
strengths based on the amount and type
their walls tear and become damaged.
of steroid chemical they contain.
Damaged alveoli result in decreased sur-
face area for gas exchange and some
cells may become deprived of oxygen.
To accommodate for this decreased gas
exchange area, the breathing rate in-
creases. The heart, therefore, has to
work harder than normal. This attempt
to maintain normal oxygen levels is not
true homeostasis because extra stress is Image omitted due to copyright
put on the heart (Figure 9.21). restrictions.
Cystic Fibrosis
Cystic fibrosis is an autosomal reces-
sive genetic disorder in which abnor-
mally thick mucus blocks airways and
other passages. The mucus is not easily
removed so the normal processes to FIGURE 9.22 The use of a puffer assists this
remove dirt and debris are not sufficient. person to breathe by opening the airway.

Bronchodilators A bronchodilator is a ceramic and glass manufacturing. Silica

medication usually taken with a puffer. It damages the lungs, causing them to be-
works by targeting the bronchioles that come fibrotic. This means that the lungs
sometimes become constricted and cause become less elastic and more rigid, caus-
respiratory difficulty. This difficulty is typing lung volume to decrease.
ically found in people with asthma. Some
common triggers that can narrow the air- Recycled Air Sick building syndrome is
way include pollution, smog, cold air, and a condition that results from indoor pol-
exercise. For this reason, people with lutants such as cigarette smoke and
asthma may use their puffers more fre- volatile organic compounds evaporating
quently during the winter, on smoggy from furniture and carpeting. The re-
days, and before they exercise. Recent de- circulation of air may also contribute to
velopments suggest that a chewable tablet the syndrome. People with sick building
may be able to replace puffers for some syndrome suffer from various complaints,
asthmatic conditions in young children. including nausea, headaches, fatigue, and
mucous membrane irritation.
Respiratory Health
WEBLINK Smoking and
There are many ways to maintain good
Second-hand Smoke
respiratory health. Regular exercise
Miners have a higher risk of Smoking is one of the leading contribu-
lung disease than the general helps to strengthen all body muscles in-
cluding your heart. The lungs are not tors to impaired respiratory health. More
public. Research the specific
technologies needed in mines muscles, but they are governed by the and more data are emerging to indicate
to protect the respiratory muscular diaphragm. Regular exercise that being exposed to the cigarette
health of the miners. Write a
increases your lung volume and allows smoke of others also causes damage.
paragraph on this topic. Begin Second-hand smoke is known to cause
your research at your body to utilize oxygen effectively.
lung cancer and contribute to respira-
tory diseases such as asthma, bronchi-
Environmental Hazards tis, and emphysema (Figure 9.23). The
Asbestos In the last few decades, soci- exposure of individuals to second-hand
ety has become more aware of the smoke is now a public health problem that
harmful effects of environmental and poses significant health risks to both chil-
workplace chemicals. For many years, dren and adults.
asbestos was a material used to insulate Tobacco smoke contains a mixture
buildings and schools. It has been shown of gases, liquids, and particles. Almost
that asbestos can cause diseases of the 4000 chemicals have been found in to-
pleura (the lining surrounding your bacco smoke. Dozens of these are toxic
lungs), which can ultimately lead to lung or known to cause cancer (carcinogenic).
cancer. This can occur even as many Some of the more common compounds
as 20 years after exposure to asbestos. in tobacco smoke include carbon monox-
Asbestos exposure is likely in occupa- ide, nitrates, ammonia, nitrosamines,
tions such as mining or the manufac- hydrogen cyanide, cadmium, sulfur
turing and installation of materials that compounds, vinyl chloride, hydrocar-
contain asbestos, such as brake lin- bons, volatile alcohols, urethanes,
ings, roofing shingles, and insulation. formaldehyde, benzene, and hydrazine.
Second-hand smoke is the mixture of
Silica Silica is a substance that can ir- smoke from a burning cigarette as well
ritate the respiratory tract as a result as the smoke that a smoker exhales.
of exposure over many years. Silica is Many toxic substances are found in
a major component of rock and sand. greater concentrations in second-hand
Exposure is a problem in the occupa- smoke. Tar (the most carcinogenic com-
tions of mining, sand blasting, and ponent) is 70% more concentrated in

FIGURE 9.23 Lung disease

causes obvious changes in
the structure of the lung.
a) A healthy lung
b) A lung from a person who
smoked
second-hand smoke than in smoke taken built-in filters. Though these might trap INFOBIT
in by the smoker. These substances also some particles that would enter the
linger in the air for a long time. Studies smoker’s lungs, non-smokers who inhale Teenage girls represent the
have shown that many of these pollu- second-hand smoke do so without a filter. fastest-growing population of
smokers.
tants are found in higher concentrations There are many things people can
indoors than outdoors. Second-hand do to decrease exposure to second-hand
smoke is known to be a leading work- smoke. They can limit the time spent in
place health hazard. environments where others are smoking.
Second-hand smoke is particularly They can also lobby for smoke-free
harmful to infants and young children. environments at work and school and
Studies have shown that children whose for laws that protect the rights of
parents smoke have a higher risk of non-smokers to breathe clean air. Cities
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS). are establishing local laws to encourage
They are also at a higher risk for devel- a smoke-free atmosphere in public
oping bronchitis, pneumonia, recurrent places. In fact, many restaurants already
ear infections, frequent colds, asthma, have smoke-free environments. If you
and allergies. They also have more fre- avoid smoking and second-hand smoke,
quent hospitalizations for bronchitis and you will help to keep your respiratory
pneumonia. Also, children whose parents system healthy.
smoke are more likely to smoke them-
selves as they grow older. Pregnant
women who smoke endanger their un-
Products that Help Improve
born fetus. Babies born to mothers who Air Quality
smoked during pregnancy are more likely Air filters are usually industrial devices
to be born prematurely and/or have a that decrease the amount of suspended
lower birth weight. Second-hand smoke pollutants released into the air. A
also increases the risk of developing humidifier is a household device that
cancer. By law, tobacco and cigarette helps restore moisture to dry room air.
companies must warn their patrons Moist air is easier to breathe than dry
about the risks associated with smoking. air because it is less irritating to the air
Many cigarette brands claim to have passages.

Section 9.3 Review

Understanding Concepts Patient Blood Carbon
1. Discuss how poor air quality and pol- Name pH Dioxide (mm Hg)
lution may affect a child with asthma. A 7.42 34
2. What is a bronchodilator? B 7.37 50
3. How does smoking contribute to bron- C 7.40 38
chitis?
Study the data and answer the fol-
4. What does emphysema do to the sur-
lowing questions:
face area within the respiratory tract?
a) Assuming that 7.4 is the normal ar-
terial blood pH, which patient is in
Applying Inquiry/ a state of acidosis?
Communication Skills b) What is the relationship between
blood pH and the amount of car-
5. The following table describes the fre-
bon dioxide in the blood?
quency with which a person with
asthma uses a puffer from summer to
winter. Making Connections
July August September October November December 7. Smoking is one of the leading causes
of lung cancer and contributes to other
2/week 2/week 3/week 3/week daily daily respiratory ailments. Another known
fact about smoking is that it is an ap-
petite suppressant.
a) What is the relationship between
a) Design and deliver a survey on
puffer use and the outside temper-
smoking to your class.
ature?
b) Summarize the reasons why some
b) What other factors can influence
teenagers feel the need to smoke.
the frequency of puffer use by an
c) Hypothesize what impacts teen
active child?
smokers might have on your com-
6. An arterial blood gas is a measurement munity’s future health care system.
of the pH, oxygen, and carbon dioxide
8. What are some substances currently
content of the blood. Usually, the radial
being mined in Ontario that might have
artery is used to obtain a sample of
broad implications for the respiratory
blood. The blood gases of three patients
health of citizens living near the min-
were taken by the hospital respiratory
ing site?
therapist and the pH values and CO2 val-
ues are summarized in the following
table.

Defining the Issue
Case Study
Health and the Global Justifying the Course of Action
Community
As the world becomes a global society, economics,

tourism, and families spread around the world, link
countries and people together as never before. This
can pose a challenge to health organizations. In
many developing countries, diseases that have long
been eradicated elsewhere, are still common.
Malaria, cholera and tuberculosis (TB) are all com-
mon ailments in developing countries. Canada has
been free of these illnesses, but as Canadians return
from countries where these diseases do exist, and
more immigrants and visitors enter Canada from
around the world, they bring with them the risk of
re-introducing diseases into Canadian society.
The media have recently given attention to the
increasing numbers of people in Canada being in-
FIGURE 9.24 Air travel links all parts of the world.
fected with TB—a bacterial infection that usually
targets the lungs. The World Health Organization
reports there are 8 million new cases of TB world-
wide every year, and only 16% of those who con-
tract the disease receive the available treatment. In coughs or sneezes, releasing the organism into the
1990, there were approximately 1 billion people in environment.
the world infected with TB. In Canada, there are ap- TB is a major disease within the global com-
proximately 2000 new cases reported every year munity. Health regulations and health actions, at a
and more than 100 deaths. The tuberculosis bac- national and international level, require ongoing re-
teria can be contracted when an infected person view.
Analyzing the Issue

1. Define the issue regarding the reappearance of a disease 4. What social conditions contribute to the contraction and
like TB in Canada. spread of TB, especially in urban centres?
2. Speculate who are the people most concerned about the 5. If you were working with the World Health Organization,
rising number of cases of TB in Canada? Explain your what actions would you propose to stop the international
reasoning. increase in cases of TB? Prepare a 1or 2 page report to
3. Research the history of TB in Canada and North America. justify your actions. Include social, environmental and
What is the risk of TB becoming a serious epidemic? In economic considerations in your proposal.
what ways could those risks be avoided?
The Origins
C H A P T of
E R the
9 periodic law
Respiration 305
9.4 Respiratory Systems in Various

Organisms
Key Understandings
compare the respiratory systems of different organisms
understand how an organism’s respiratory structures contribute to its internal

regulation
Earthworm worm’s skin (Figure 9.25). Earthworms

and other organisms that breathe using
Some animals use their entire outer skin
their skin must live in damp places or in
as an organ for gas exchange. Generally,
water, because their whole body surface
for an organ to be effective in gas ex-
must remain moist. Animals that breathe
change, it must be thin, moist, and have
only through their skin and lack gas-
a large surface area. The earthworm
exchange organs are generally small,
breathes through its skin. It has no spe-
and many are long and thin or flattened.
cialized gas-exchange surfaces. Oxygen
By remaining small and flat, all the body
diffuses into a dense net of thin-walled
cells are in relatively close proximity to
capillaries that lie just beneath the
the respiratory surface, so that oxygen
and carbon dioxide are exchanged effi-
ciently by diffusion.
Insect
Insects like grasshoppers have a tracheal
system that consists of a network of
branching tubes. The tubes transport air
directly to body cells that are always in
close proximity to a tracheal tube. Being
close to a tracheal branch allows oxygen
to reach the body cells by diffusion
FIGURE 9.25 The earthworm. (Figure 9.26). Recall that diffusion is a
The volume of the earthworm is passive process, and so this method of
sufficiently small that the entire
gas exchange enables insects to conserve
outer skin can serve as a
skin respiratory surface. Oxygen and the energy that would be expended if they
carbon dioxide are exchanged had to circulate gases using a circulatory
capillaries directly by diffusion through the system.
skin and capillaries just beneath Grasshoppers have enlargements at
the surface of the skin.
the end of their tracheal tubes, called air
sacs. These work like bellows. When the
grasshopper contracts its muscles, air is
air sacs forced out of the insect through tiny
openings called spiracles.
FIGURE 9.26 The grasshopper.
The grasshopper exchanges
gases through a tracheal Fish
system of branching tubes that
opening
In fish, gills are feather-like extensions
bring air directly to body cells
without the involvement of the for air of the body surface specialized for gas
circulatory system. tracheae exchange. Fish exchange gases with
the water that they live in so that they
do not have to spend energy to keep FIGURE 9.27 The fish. The flow of
the respiratory surface moist. On the water across the lamellae of the gill
arches allows the efficient exchange
other hand, the amount of oxygen avail-
of gases with the blood.
able in water is substantially less than
that in air. Gills need to be very
efficient to obtain enough oxygen from
water. The architecture of fish gills
allows them to efficiently exchange gases.
There are four gill arches on each
side of the fish’s body. Two rows of
gill filaments project from each gill arch. gill
lamellae
Each gill filament contains many flat of gill
structures called lamellae, which are the
actual respiratory surfaces of the fish.
A fish inhales water by opening its
mouth. As it does this, the gill cover-
ings (opercula) on the sides of its body
oxygen-
close tightly over the gills. The animal waterflow bloodflow
poor
exhales water by closing its mouth and blood
pumping water from its mouth cavity out
the sides of its body. The gill coverings
open during exhalation, allowing the
water to escape. These special ventila-
tion movements enhance the gills’ gas-
oxygen-
exchange efficiency by keeping the water rich
around the gills from stagnating and be- blood
coming deficient in oxygen (Figure 9.27).
Blood flows in an opposite direction to nostril
the water. This is called a countercur- glottis
rent flow. As blood flows by the incom-
ing water, it is able to efficiently pick up
the oxygen it needs to supply the fish’s
body cells. This system also minimizes
the use of energy.
lungs
Frog
The evolution from water to land de-
pended largely on the ability to retain a
moist surface for gas exchange. Living
on land meant that evaporation could dry
out the respiratory surface. The solution
was to internalize the respiratory sur-
face, and through this lungs came to be.
The amphibians are the group of or-
ganisms that bridge water and land
animals. Amphibians are able to exchange FIGURE 9.28 The frog. The frog combines the ability to exchange gases through
gases through their moist skin and their the skin and the mouth lining with the presence of lungs to maximize gas exchange.
moist lungs. Depending on the environ-
ment, they might use one or both of these surfaces for gas exchange. To help serve
methods. The frog is interesting because all body cells, frogs have their blood cap-
it is able to rely on its moist skin, its lungs, illaries located just underneath their skin
and the moist lining of its mouth as surface.

Bird flate. Air from the posterior sac is forced

into the lungs, while air from the ante-
Birds exchange gases differently from
rior sac exits through the bird’s trachea.
humans. In contrast to the in-and-out
flow of air in the human alveoli, birds
have a one-way flow of air through the Plants
lungs. Birds have several large air sacs The organ of gas exchange in the plant
in addition to their lungs. The air sacs is the leaf; its role is similar to the lung.
ventilate the surface of the lungs. During In humans, a large surface area of the
inhalation, both sets of air sacs expand. lung is assured by the presence of alve-
The posterior sacs fill with fresh air from oli. Plants can increase the surface area
the outside, while the anterior sacs fill available for gas exchange by growing
with stale air from the lungs. During more leaves. In the respiratory systems
exhalation, both sets of air sacs de- in animals moisture is essential for
proper gas exchange. Many multicellu-
anterior lar animals have internalized their
air sacs respiratory systems in order to keep
air air them moist.
lungs lungs Plants have evolved a number of
strategies to minimize water loss. Many
posterior trachea
air sacs plants have their stomata in pits on the
under surface of the leaf and have a
waxy cuticle. In others like Eucalyptus,
the leaves hang downward to cut water
loss from evaporation. In Canada’s conif-
erous forests leaves are reduced to nee-
Inhalation Exhalation
air sacs fill air sacs empty; dles so surface area for water loss is
lungs fill reduced. In desert plants like cacti and
FIGURE 9.29 The bird. There other succulents, leaves are reduced al-
is one-way flow of air through
most completely and form sharp spines.
the bird’s lung as air sacs act
as reservoirs for fresh and
stale air. Section 9.4 Review
Understanding Concepts 7. Rank the respiratory systems of the fol-
lowing organisms from most efficient
1. How does the earthworm incorporate to least efficient.
all the necessary criteria for effective
gas exchange in its simple structure? Insect __________ Frog ___________
Worm __________ Fish ___________
2. Why are a fish’s gills not suitable for
air breathing?
3. What is meant by “countercurrent Applying Inquiry/
flow”? Communication Skills
4. What are the three ways that a frog can 8. Many fish live in watery environments
exchange gases? that contain very little oxygen.
5. Compare the ways grasshoppers and Assuming that air is 760 mm Hg, what
birds exchange gases. How are they percent of air does oxygen represent?
similar? How are they different? How does this compare with the
amount of oxygen present in some bod-
6. After rain, it is common to see earth-
ies of water? See values below.
worms on the surface of lawns and
even on sidewalks. Hypothesize why
Oxygen Present in Oxygen Present in
this is so.
Air Water
160 mm Hg 4 mm Hg

Inquiry Skills

Measuring Lung Capacity— Analyzing and Interpreting
A Comparative Approach
There are three ways that you might measure lung 1. Set up your data tables as shown in Table 9.1.
capacity in a school lab. Each requires the calcula- 2. Pour 250 mL of water into an empty 2-L bottle. Mark
tion of lung volume under conditions of normal and the water line on the bottle with a permanent marker
deep breathing. The water displacement method de- and write 250 mL. Add 250 mL more, mark it and
pends on measuring the displacement of water as write 500 mL. Continue until the container is full.
the subject exhales through a straw into the exper- Write the numbers upside down on the bottle.
imental set-up. The balloon method measures the
3. Add water to the bucket or dishpan until it is 1/4
changes in the volume of a balloon as calculated
full. The container must be deep enough to
from its circumference. The respirometer method
accommodate the added height of the inverted soda
depends on using the technology of the respirome-
bottle.
ter to gauge the volume of air exhaled into it.
4. Hold your hand tightly over the mouth of the bot-
tle and turn it upside down in the dishpan. Remove
Problem your hand when the mouth of the bottle is below
Which method of measuring lung volumes is the most the water level.
useful and practical in a school setting?
LAL1 5. Put a clean straw into one end of the plastic hose
and place the other end of the hose into the mouth
Materials of the bottle (to about 10 cm). Keep the hose
respirometer water pinched or air may leak into the jug and water may
disposable mouth- bucket or dishpan leak out. Have a partner hold the bottle so that it
pieces 1 balloon per student does not fall over.
stopwatch 1 measuring tape 6. Pinch your nose closed and exhale normally into the
drinking straws calculator straw through your mouth. What is the volume of
2-L soda bottle funnel water displaced? That is your tidal volume. Repeat
black permanent this step two more times. Record the values in Table
marker 9.1. Average the values.
7. To get a measure of your vital capacity, repeat the ac-
CAUTION: If you have a latex allergy, do not use balloons tivity but this time exhale a deep breath into the hose.
unless you are sure they are non-latex balloons. Do not Repeat this step two more times. Average the values.
share straws, balloons, or disposable mouthpieces. Allow
a few minutes between tests of maximum exhalation, 8. To set up for the next student, carefully pour water
otherwise you might feel weak or even faint. If you have through a funnel from the tub back into the emp-
health concerns about this investigation, discuss them tied 2-L bottle. Reposition the bottle below the water
with your teacher. level with the plastic hose in place as before. Insert
a fresh straw. Repeat steps 4–6.
Procedure Method 2: The Balloon

Method 1: Water Displacement 9. Stretch the balloon to make it a little more pliable.
10. Breathe in normally and put the balloon to your
2-L bottle filled 250
500 plastic hose lips. Exhale normally into the balloon.

with water 750
1000 straw 11. While keeping the balloon pinched at the neck, have
1250 your partner take the tape measure and measure the
500 balloon at its widest part, or circumference. Record
1750
the circumference in your notebook in Table 9.2.
2000
12. Repeat steps 9–10 twice more and calculate the av-
water erage circumference.
13. Repeat steps 9–12 three times but exhale a deep
FIGURE 9.30 Experimental set-up for water displacement breath into the balloon. Calculate the average cir-
investigation. cumference.
(continued)
Volume is measured in cubic centimetres. To calcu- 3. Which person would be more physically fit—an in-
late your tidal volume, substitute the average cir- dividual with a normal expiratory reserve volume
cumference value, represented by the variable “C”, and extremely high vital capacity, or an individual
into the formula below. with an extremely high expiratory reserve volume
and a rather normal vital capacity? Explain the rea-
V 1/6 1/π2 C3 soning behind your choice.
4. Who do you think would have a shorter recovery
Method 3: The Respirometer time after exercising—a well-conditioned student
14. Obtain a respirometer and adjust it so that the athlete or an out-of-shape teacher? Explain your
gauge reading is zero. Most hand respirometers are answer fully.
calibrated in litres.
15. Place a new disposable mouthpiece onto the Concluding and Communicating
respirometer and then inhale and exhale normally
into the mouthpiece. 5. Copy and complete the following using your results.
16. Record the volume that the respirometer reads, and The tidal volume is _________ cm 3 and the vital
then zero the device. Repeat this for two more tri- capacity is _______ cm3 using the water displace-
als. Take the average volume over the three trials ment method. The tidal volume is _______ cm3 and
and record it in Table 9.3 in your notebook . the vital capacity is _______ cm3 using the balloon
method and the tidal volume is _______ cm3 and
17. Repeat the series of measurements for deep breath-
ing and record the values. the vital capacity is _______ cm3 using the respirom-
eter method.
18. Record observations for each member of the group
in tables similar to those shown below.
Extending
Analyzing and Interpreting 6. What were some possible sources of error in this
experiment?
1. Which of the three methods is the most practical
for determining vital capacity? 7. How would you improve the design of the experi-
ment if you were repeating it?
2. What is the significance of vital capacity? Account
for any differences between the measured VC using 8. Is this investigation accurate in assessing a person’s
the three methods. tidal volume and total lung capacity? Explain your
answer.
TABLE 9.1 Water Displacement Method
Tidal volume TV Water displaced in trial Average TV

#1 #2 #3
Vital capacity VC Water displaced in trial Average VC
#1 #2 #3
TABLE 9.2 Balloon Method
Tidal volume TV Water displaced in trial Average TV

#1 #2 #3
Vital capacity VC Water displaced in trial Average VC
#1 #2 #3
TABLE 9.3 Respirometer Method
Tidal Volume TV Reading #1 Reading #2 Reading #3 Total Average TV
Vital Capacity VC Reading #1 Reading #2 Reading #3 Total Average VC

Inquiry Skills

The Effect of Airways of Concluding and Communicating
Different Diameters
The respiratory system is an interconnected system of Analyzing and Interpreting

air passages of different sizes. In this investigation you
1. What do you notice about how easy it is to get air
will examine why it is important for the respiratory
to move through each object? How does this relate
system to have airways of different diameters and how
to the diameter?
the diameter of the air passage affects the flow of air.
2. What part of the respiratory system can the sand-
wich bag represent?
Problem 3. Did the number of breaths needed to inflate the
Why should the respiratory system have airways of dif- sandwich bag change for each of the three objects?
ferent diameter?
4. Explain the concept of “resistance” as it applies to
air flow and how the resistance relates to the
Materials diameter.
This investigation
LAL1 can be performed using simple 5. What problems do you think could arise if the di-
household items. Find at least three objects of differ- ameter of the airways were to become too narrow?
ent diameters. You can use, for example, a straw, an 6. What common respiratory illnesses affect the di-
empty toilet roll, and a piece of narrow rubber tubing. ameter of the airways?
7. Some people with respiratory illnesses use puffers
Experimental Design to help them breathe. Discuss the technology of
1. Place each object individually to your lips and blow puffers. What do they do to the airways?
air through each one. 8. Choose three respiratory disorders and complete
2. Set up a data table and note your observations, Table 9.4.
specifically how easy it is to blow air through
each object. TABLE 9.4 Respiratory Disorders
3. For the second part of the investigation, obtain three

small elastic bands and three small sandwich bags Respiratory disorder Symptoms Causes Treatment
of the same size. Using the elastic band, attach the
sandwich bag to each of the above three objects.
4. Again breathe through the three objects, noticing
how many breaths it takes to inflate the sandwich
bag. 9. Prepare a presentation using Bristol board, or pre-
pare a pamphlet to suggest how a person with one
5. Attempt to obstruct the flow of air through the three of the respiratory disorders listed in Table 9.4
objects. Record your observations. might improve, or at least maintain, his or her
respiratory health.

Summary Table of the Respiratory System
TABLE 9.5 Organs of the respiratory system
Organ Function
Nasal Cavity Filters, warms, and humidifies the air; detects smells.
Pharynx Chamber shared with digestive tract; conducts air to larynx.
Larynx Protects opening to trachea and contains vocal cords.
Trachea Filters air; traps particles in mucus; rings of cartilage help keep airway open.
Bronchi Airways in lungs; two main branches from the trachea (left and right bronchi); are lined with
cilia.
Bronchioles Smaller airways formed as main bronchi divide.
Alveoli Sites of gas exchange between air and blood; very thin membrane to allow for efficient diffusion.
Lung Organ that forms the foundation of the respiratory system in humans.
Diaphragm Muscle that separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity; during inspiration, the
diaphragm contracts and moves downward increasing the volume of the chest cavity; during
expiration the muscle relaxes, decreasing the volume of the thoracic cavity.
Intercostal Muscles Muscles that surround the ribs and help expand the thoracic cavity during inspiration.
sinuses
nasal cavity
pharynx
larynx
trachea
right lung left lung
left bronchus
bronchioles
FIGURE 9.31 Use this figure and

the information in Table 9.5 to
summarize what you have learned diaphragm
in this chapter.

Key Terms
abdominal cavity diaphragm inspiratory reserve volume residual volume

air sacs epiglottis internal respiration respiratory system
alveoli epi-pen lamellae respirometer
anatomical dead space exhalation or expiration larynx thoracic cavity
bronchi expiratory reserve volume lung tidal volume
bronchioles external respiration nasal cavity total lung capacity
bronchodilators gill arches opercula trachea
chemoreceptors gills oral cavity tracheal tube
countercurrent flow inhalation or inspiration pharynx vital capacity
9.1 The Respiratory System Specialized structures in the brain help to control
Respiration is necessary to allow efficient exchange breathing in response to information from chemore-
of oxygen and carbon dioxide between an organism ceptors. This maintains the internal environment.
and the external environment. Different lung volumes describe the different aspects
Respiration can be broken down into external res- of breathing.
piration, the actual gas exchange between the alve- 9.3 Respiratory Disorders
olar air and the blood; internal respiration, the
Some respiratory diseases are caused by constric-
gas exchange between the blood and tissue cells;
and cellular respiration at the level of the mito- tion or blockage of the airways.
chondria. Some respiratory diseases are caused by damage to
There are specialized structures that help with the the structure of the alveoli.
efficient exchange of gases. Medications may restore homeostasis by creating
The passage of air starts at the oral and nasal cav- conditions similar to a normal response.
ities and ends at the alveoli. Smoking is a preventable cause of lung damage.
9.2 The Physiology of Respiration 9.4 Respiratory Systems in Various Organisms
Muscles such as the diaphragm help with inhala- Organisms have developed a variety of special or-
tion and exhalation. gans to help with gas exchange.
The alveolus is the structure where the actual ex- The type of organ developed for respiration is as-
change of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place. sociated with the organism’s environment.
The large surface area of the alveoli allows efficient
diffusion of gases to occur.
1. Refer to the Checkpoint activity on page 287 and review 3. Reflect on your learning. Explain why surface area and
your K-W-L chart for the respiratory system. Complete a moist environment are essential for efficient exchange
the third column of your chart based on what you learned of respiratory gases to take place.
in this chapter.
2. Draw a concept map to describe how the respiratory sys-
tem functions.

CHAPTER 9 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts 15. What physical problems can produce a cough? Why is
the ability to cough an important one?
1. The order of air movement within the lungs is best de-
scribed as 16. What is the purpose of a filter on a cigarette?
a) bronchi to alveoli to bronchioles
b) bronchi to bronchioles to alveoli 17. Write a supported paragraph to discuss the contribu-
c) bronchioles to bronchi to alveoli tions of Norman Bethune or Banting and Best to
d) trachea to bronchi to alveoli innovations for use in internal systems.
2. Which statement about the respiratory surface in ani-

mals is not true? Applying Inquiry/
a) The respiratory surface must be moist. Communication Skills
b) The respiratory surface must be thin.
c) The respiratory surface must be in touch with a pro- 18. Study the following data:
portionally large blood supply. Animal Oxygen Consumption (cm3/kg/h)
d) The respiratory surface must be external.
earthworm 75
3. Which of the following is not a structure located within butterfly 500
the lung? frog 120
a) bronchi b) bronchioles
c) larynx d) alveoli hummingbird 11 000
mouse 3000
4. What component of the human respiratory system traps person 200
suspended particles and humidifies the air?
a) nasal hairs b) mucus
c) cilia d) epiglottis a) Suggest why the earthworm has the lowest oxygen
consumption rate.
5. The amount of air always present in the lungs is called b) Why do you think the butterfly would have a higher
the oxygen consumption rate than the frog?
a) tidal volume b) alveolar capacity
c) residual volume d) total capacity 19. Examine Figure 9.32, depicting oxygen concentration in
the vessels of two organisms, one undergoing concur-
6. What term describes gas exchange between alveolar air rent flow, and the other countercurrent flow. You may
and the blood? recall that countercurrent flow is a gas-exchange mech-
anism found in fish. Refer to Figure 9.27, page 307.
7. How is sound produced? a) For both systems, how does the oxygen concentra-
tion between the water and the blood change as one
8. What is the function of mucus in the nasal passage? travels toward the body?
b) In a concurrent flow system, what happens to
9. What is the relationship between the level of body oxygen diffusion when there is no concentration
activity and the rate of breathing? gradient? How does this differ in a countercurrent
system?
10. Explain how the concentration of carbon dioxide in the Concurrent Flow
blood can affect the breathing rate.
Water 100% 90% 70% 50% O2
11. Why is the “tidal” analogy appropriate for inhalation and
exhalation of air?
Blood 0% 10% 30% 50% O2
12. What happens if your brain does not receive oxygen
for more than 4 min? to body
Countercurrent Flow
13. What do you think happens inside your body when you Water 100% 70% 40% 15% O2
hold your breath? Why are you unable to hold your
breath forever?
14. Describe the journey of a carbon-dioxide molecule Blood 90% 60% 30% 5% O2
from an alveolus to the outside world. What structures to body
does it pass along its way out of the body?
FIGURE 9.32

20. Bronchcoscopy is the name of the procedure whereby Making Connections

a long tube is inserted into a patient’s trachea and
used to look at different parts of the respiratory tract. 25. A stoma is a hole created at the base of the trachea to
Based on your knowledge of the anatomy of the respi- facilitate breathing. Gather some information about
ratory system, propose what essential characteristics a stomas, and outline some of the daily lifestyle changes
bronchoscope must have. that a person with a stoma might be faced with.
a) Often patients with oral or throat cancer will have
21. One of the basic principles of first aid is to ensure that a stoma. Yet, many of these patients continue to
the airway is unobstructed. Based on the anatomy of the smoke through their stoma. Design a program that
upper respiratory tract, suggest why a “head tilt—chin would help to wean some of these individuals
lift” is the initial step to ensure that an airway is clear. from their smoking practice.
b) Compare the concept of a “stoma” in humans to the
22. The average adult takes about 12 breaths each minute. “stomata” of a green plant. How are they the same?
Poor fitness results in breathing shallower breaths more How do they differ?
frequently. If an unfit person took 15 breaths each c) Design a plan of action to educate people with
minute, how many breaths more than the average per- stomas to maintain good respiratory health.
son would he or she take in one hour?
26. Recent legislation requires that carbon monoxide detec-
23. Consider the data in the following table. tors be installed in all Ontario homes and buildings. This
is in response to deaths due to carbon monoxide poi-
Student Breathing Rate O2 content in the Blood soning.
(breaths/min) (mL/100 mL) a) Research why these devices are crucial to saving
A 15 20 lives.
B 19 14 b) What is carbon monoxide and what properties does
it have that are similar to oxygen? What proper-
C 12 22 ties are different from oxygen?
D 24 6 c) Why is an elevated level of carbon monoxide a threat
to the human respiratory system?
a) Which student is probably a smoker? Explain.
b) Which student is probably an athlete? Explain. 27. Humidifiers are popular electric devices in homes dur-
ing the winter. They can help to relieve symptoms such
24. Partial pressure is the pressure exerted by each gas in as cough and dry skin.
a mixture. It is directly proportional to the percent of a) Perform a product analysis on a humidifier.
each gas in the mixture. The partial pressure of oxygen Investigate exactly what it is used for, how much it
and carbon dioxide changes as blood flows through costs, and so on.
different vessels in the circulatory system. A lab techni- b) Suggest reasons why a family might invest in a
cian took several measurements at different vessel points, humidifier for their home. Are humidification sys-
and her results are summarized in the table below. tems included in the specifications for new homes
a) Draw a diagram to depict how these partial pres- and buildings? Why or why not?
sure values for oxygen and carbon dioxide might
come about. Include the following components:
lungs, heart, body tissues, major blood vessels.
(Hint: Take into account your knowledge of
diffusion.)
b) Account for the difference in the partial pressure of
oxygen between inspired and expired air.
Vessel Partial Pressure of Oxygen (mm Hg) Partial Pressure of Carbon Dioxide (mm Hg)
inspired air 160 0.3
blood leaving alveolar capillaries 104 40
blood entering tissue capillaries 104 40
tissues < 40 > 45
blood leaving tissue capillaries 40 45
blood entering alveolar capillaries 40 45
alveoli of lungs 104 40
expired air 120 27

C H A P T E R 10
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS Circulation
explain the role of transport or
circulatory systems in the transport
A ll cells require nutrients and oxygen to survive, function properly, and
carry out cellular respiration. In multicellular organisms, diffusion be-
comes an inefficient means of meeting an organism’s demands for nutrients
of substances in an organism (10.1,
10.2, 10.4)
efficiency of the cardiovascular
system (10.3)
describe how the use of
prescription and non-prescription
drugs can disrupt or help maintain
homeostasis in the cardiovascular
system (10.2, 10.3)
compare the anatomy of different
organisms—vertebrate and/or
that have enhanced the scientific
understanding of internal systems
(10.1, 10.2, 10.3, Investigation 1)
design and carry out, in a safe and
accurate manner, an experiment on
feedback mechanisms, identifying
specific variables (Investigation 2)
to internal systems (10.2)
how scientific knowledge of
internal systems influences
nutrition and lifestyle (10.3)
provide examples of Canadian
contributions to the development of
technology for examining internal
systems (10.2, 10.3)
FIGURE 10.1 A normal cardiac angiogram. This technol-

ogy demonstrates the coronary circulation. Blockages or
reduction in vessel diameter produce a pattern different
from that shown in a normal heart.
316
and oxygen. The circulatory system and its billions of red blood cells transport oxy-
gen and nutrients such as glucose to even the most remote body cells. It also
carries away the waste products of cellular respiration including
carbon dioxide. The components of the human circulatory system—the heart, the
blood vessels, and the blood itself—act to integrate the functions of the
digestive, respiratory, and other body systems and maintain the internal
environment. If we consider the central equation for cell respiration, the circulatory
system provides the reactants and carries away one of the products.
In this chapter, you will consider several characteristics of the circulatory system.
The four-chambered human heart is a unique double-pump system that supplies the
blood with the energy it needs to travel through two distinct circuits. One circuit car-
ries deoxygenated blood to the lungs to pick up a fresh supply of oxygen. The sec-
ond circuit carries oxygenated blood to all the body tissues.
You will also learn about blood pressure—how it is developed, what factors affect
it, and how it is measured. Finally, you will become aware of risk factors that pre-
dispose someone to diseases of the circulatory system, including coronary heart dis-
ease and heart attacks. In examining wider relationships, you will compare circulatory
systems in a range of animals and also compare them with circulation in plants.
Discovering Biology
Determining Your Body Mass Index
Your Body Mass Index (BMI) is important in determining whether you are
at risk for cardiovascular disease. You can calculate your BMI using the
simple formula below. First you need to know your mass in kilograms and
your height in metres.
mass in kilograms
BMI =
(height in metres)2
For example: If you have a mass of 70 kg and are 1.7 m tall,

CHECKPOINT
Calculation of BMI:
List the factors you know
70 kg that prevent heart disease.
BMI =
(1.7 m)2
Prevention Factors
= 24.22 kg/m2
•
Generally, a BMI of 20–25 kg/m2 is considered to be in the optimal range. A •
•
BMI of over 30 kg/m2 is considered obese and is associated with multiple
health problems such as Type 2 diabetes and heart disease.
CHAPTER 10 Circulation 317

10.1 The Human Circulatory System and the

Components of Blood
Key Understandings
describe the role of the circulatory system in complex organisms
explain how the circulatory system functions as a transport system
understand how the circulatory system works with other systems to deliver materials
needed for energy and growth
identify and describe the components of the blood
identify diseases that result if a component of blood is not functioning properly
The circulatory system interacts with from one part of the body to another. It
many other body systems, including the also helps to maintain a constant body
digestive system and the respiratory temperature and plays an active role in
system to maintain the body’s internal blood pressure control.
environment (Figure 10.2). The three essential components in
The cardiovascular system delivers any circulatory system are:
vital nutrients, such as oxygen, to all cells • a pump—the heart
in the body, and eliminates waste prod- • fluid—blood
ucts and carbon dioxide. It transports • vessels along which blood travels—
chemical messengers, such as hormones, arteries, veins, capillaries
FIGURE 10.2 Transport and THE TRANSPORT AND EXCHANGE SYSTEMS

exchange in the body’s
systems. The cardiovascular
system is the central system
of the body, which moves
materials into and out of
the other systems. The
respiratory system brings
oxygen into the body and
takes carbon dioxide out.
The digestive system
transforms the food you eat
into a form that can be used
Respiratory Digestive
and moved throughout the system system
body. The urinary system (O2 in, CO2 out) (nutrients in)
clears wastes from the body’s
fluids, conserving water and
other essential nutrients.
For good health all the
systems must work smoothly
together.
Urinary Cardiovascular
system system
(wastes (transport)
out)

The body’s principal extra-cellular centrifuge, it separates into these com-

fluid is the blood. The average human ponents. Heavier, solid, particles sedi-
adult has 4 to 6 L of blood in the circu- ment to the bottom of the test tube. The
latory system. Females are generally liquid component or plasma of the blood
smaller than males, so they tend to have remains at the top. Plasma accounts for
less blood in their bodies. The blood con- approximately 55% of the blood volume.
tains many individual components that Plasma is 90% water. As shown in
serve different functions. If blood is Figure 10.3, many constituents are dis-
placed in a test tube and spun in a solved in plasma. These include salts,
centrifuge
withdraw
blood
place in tube blood

sample
plasma
55%
Formed elements Plasma

45%
red blood cells 99.9% water 92%
formed
white blood cells elements plasma proteins 7%
platelets 0.1%
other solutes 1%
Red blood cells White blood cells Platelets
FIGURE 10.3 The composition of the blood. Blood is 55% plasma and 45% formed
elements. The formed elements include erythrocytes, leucocytes, and platelets.

INFOBIT proteins, hormones, nutrients, waste flexibility and allows them to move
products, and gases. The second major through vessels of different shapes and
Proteins on the surface of the component in your blood is the formed sizes. As red blood cells pass through
red blood cell determine blood elements: erythrocytes (red blood cells), the lungs, oxygen diffuses in and binds
type. Humans are divided into
leucocytes (white blood cells), and to the hemoglobin molecule. In this way
four major blood groups based
on the presence of two differ- platelets. The elements account for 45% the blood becomes oxygenated. Each
ent glycoproteins (agglutino- of the blood volume. hemoglobin molecule can bind four
gens A and B) on the surface Red blood cells are the most abun- oxygen molecules. In the systemic
of their red blood cells. dant cells in the blood. They are manu- circulation at the level of the tissues, the
Individuals with type A blood
factured in the bone marrow and stored oxygen is released from the hemoglobin
have agglutinogen A on their
red cells. Type B blood has ag- in the spleen. Their primary function is molecule. The oxygen then diffuses
glutinogen B, type AB has both to carry oxygen. The average person’s into tissue cells and the blood becomes
agglutinogens A and B, while bloodstream has approximately 25 trillion deoxygenated. The total surface area
type O has neither. Each blood red blood cells. These cells are constantly for diffusion in all your red blood cells
type is also associated with
being destroyed and replaced. In fact, is greater than the area of a football field.
specific proteins in the plasma,
called agglutinins. The plasma about two million red blood cells are
of type A blood has agglutinin destroyed every second.
B, plasma of type B blood has Red blood cells are unique because
agglutinin A. Plasma of type AB they do not have nuclei or mitochondria.
blood has neither, while plasma
The cytoplasm of red blood cells consists
of type O has both agglutinins.
of a watery solution containing
hemoglobin molecules that bind oxygen
(Figure 10.4). Each red blood cell con-
tains about 250 million molecules of
hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is a complex
protein-based molecule made of four Image omitted due to copyright
protein chains, with iron at the core of restrictions.
each. Iron is a key component of a red
WEBLINK blood cell and gives blood its bright
red colour when exposed to oxygen.
The thalassemias are a group
When a red blood cell is destroyed, the
of genetic conditions that af-
fect hemoglobin. Research the iron is recycled in the red bone marrow
origins, symptoms, and treat- and is incorporated into a new red blood
ment of the thalassemias. cell.
Begin your research at the As shown in Figure 10.5, red blood
Pearson Education Web site at
cells have a biconcave shape that gives
FIGURE 10.5 Red blood cells. Mammalian red
blood cells have a life span of approximately
β2 β1 120 days.
Anemia occurs when there is a de-

creased amount of hemoglobin in the
blood. This shortage may result from the
production of too few red blood cells
or from reduced amounts of hemoglobin
in each cell. Genetic disorders like sickle
FIGURE 10.4 The four cell anemia or thalassemias, or condi-
chains of the hemoglobin tions resulting in blood loss can cause
molecule. The heme groups this decrease.
are shown in red. White blood cells called leucocytes
are responsible for helping to defend the
α2 α1 body from disease and infection. There

are fewer white blood cells than red

blood cells. These amoeboid-shaped cells Discovering Biology Leukemia
destroy and consume invading bacteria
and damaged body cells. There are an Leukemia is a cancer of white blood cells. In this disease, leuco-
estimated five to nine million white cytes divide out of control. Therefore, large numbers of leucocytes
blood cells in one cubic centimetre of build up in the circulatory system.
blood. Like red blood cells, many leuco-
1. Examine the photomicrographs of blood smears in Figure 10.6.
cytes are manufactured in the bone mar-
row. When blood is tested, the presence 2. Devise a method of comparing the number of leucocytes in
of an elevated number of white blood the samples.
cells may indicate an infection within the
body. If you get cut, bacteria have a gate-
way into the body. White blood cells will
localize at the cut to fight bacteria. Pus
sometimes forms at the site of cuts and
scrapes. Pus is primarily a combina-
tion of living and dead white blood cells,
along with dead bacteria.
Platelets are important agents in
the blood for clotting. Platelets are ac-
tually cell fragments that have broken
FIGURE 10.6 What conclusions could you draw?
off from special cells in the bone mar-
row. There are about 250 million
platelets per cubic centimetre of blood.
When platelets encounter damaged
blood vessels, they break open. The
broken platelets then release chemicals
called clotting factors into the blood.
These factors help platelets to stick to-
gether to form a platelet plug. After that,
a more complicated sequence of bio-
chemical reactions takes place that re- Image omitted due to copyright restrictions.
sults in the formation of a strand-like
molecule called fibrin. Fibrin helps to
form a scaffold so that repair can be ini-
tiated. Many strands of fibrin gather at
the ends of cut vessels, forming a mesh
or clot (Figure 10.7). Clots trap blood
cells and prevent them from passing FIGURE 10.7 Clot formation. In the process of INFOBIT
through the damaged blood vessel. A clotting, red blood cells become enmeshed in a
protein called fibrin. This prevents further blood Aspirin is called a blood thin-
scab occurs when fibrin, platelets, and loss from a damaged vessel. ner since it alters the process
blood cells mesh together to seal a
of clotting by preventing
wound until new tissue can grow and platelets from adhering to each
repair the broken skin. other. H.J.M. Barnett at McMaster
The blood of some individuals does Shock is a medical condition that re- University in Hamilton con-
not clot properly because it does not have ducted the first randomized
sults when the circulatory system can-
trial to evaluate the use of
the necessary proteins to form blood clots. not meet the needs of vital organs like aspirin to prevent vascular
These individuals continue to bleed for the heart, lungs, kidneys, and brain. disease and stroke. Results
longer periods of time than normal in- When red blood cells that carry oxygen published in 1976 indicate that
dividuals. Hemophilia, one such blood are unable to reach these vital organs, aspirin treatment reduces the
condition, is inherited as an X-linked risk in stroke-threatened
the organs begin to shut down. In order
patients by 25%.
recessive condition (see Chapter 7). to prioritize the delivery of oxygen, the

body reduces blood flow to the extrem- Keeping the person warm and reassur-
ities (arms and legs) and reserves the ing him or her are also important.
blood for the body’s core. Shock can Severe bleeding can be controlled by
occur as a result of severe blood loss. It applying direct pressure. It is important
can also occur when a person is emo- to remember that shock can be life
tionally disturbed or frightened. The best threatening if overlooked and so
treatment for shock is to encourage the medical attention should be sought
person to rest in a semi-sitting position. immediately.
Section 10.1 Review

Understanding Concepts Normal values for hemoglobin: male
(140-180 g •L–1); female (120-160 g •L–1)
1. If 20 mL of blood is spun in a
centrifuge, approximately how many Normal values for white blood cells:
millilitres of plasma can be extracted? 4.8 10.8 103 leucocytes •mL–1
2. What special property of red blood 6. Survey your class to find out the
cells allows them to pass through different blood types of students.
capillaries? Record known blood types in a chart.
3. Explain why blood that is exposed to a) What is the advantage of knowing
oxygen has a bright red colour. your own blood type?
b) Determine the percent distribution
4. Compare the number of white blood of the different blood types in your
cells present in the blood of a leukemia class. How does this compare with
patient to the number of cells in a per- the distribution in the Canadian
son without leukemia. population?
c) Explain what is meant by the terms
Applying Inquiry/ “universal donor” and “universal
Communication Skills recipient.”
5. You are a summer student working in Making Connections

a blood laboratory. Blood samples from
three patients have arrived and you are 7. In recent years blood donation has
to analyze them. The names on the diminished. Propose a course of
labels are smudged and you are unable practical action that can be taken to
to determine which test tube belongs promote the safe donation of blood.
to which patient. On the hospital
database, you learn Patient A is a
healthy 40-year-old man; Patient B is
an 18-year-old girl who has a history
of chronic lung infections; Patient C has
a history of anemia. Using the follow-
ing table, match the tubes to the right
patients.
Hemoglobin (g •L–1) Leucocyte ( 103 • mL–1)

Tube 1 122 14.4
Tube 2 151 6.2
Tube 3 88 10.0

Defining the Issue
Case Study
Fair Testing for Athletes? Justifying the Course of Action
In 1999, world-class cyclist Marco Pantani was

disqualified from the Giro Italia for having a hema-
tocrit level of 52%. He was accused of enhancing his
performance by using Erythropoetin or EPO, a
synthetic compound that increases the number of
red blood cells in the body.
EPO is taken by injection, and stimulates the
body to produce more red blood cells. This allows
the blood to carry more oxygen to the muscles. It
can also be risky. Athletes with artificially high
hemoglobin levels are at a greater risk of strokes
and heart attacks.
Pantani denied the charge against him, but it is
difficult to determine whether he was lying or telling
the truth. Since EPO is a naturally occurring hor-
FIGURE 10.8 Training at high altitudes can increase the number
mone, it is present in everyone. Therefore it is not
of red blood cells.
easy to identify doped athletes. There is no test to
measure EPO itself; a surrogate test that measures
the density of red blood cells in the blood must be
used. This measurement is called the hematocrit. Pantani is known to be one of the best hill
A study from the 1980s, before the invention of syn- climbers in the sport, and is known to train at high
thetic EPO, showed that the average hematocrit in altitudes. This training regimen can also increase
the blood of cyclists was 43%. Given that there is a the number of red blood cells. “I am a clean rider,”
variation in this number among cyclists tested, it the 29-year-old rider told the press. “My conscience
was decided that anyone with a hematocrit above is clear. I have nothing to do with doping. I don’t
50% would be disqualified for taking EPO. need doping to win races. I need hills to climb.”
Analyzing the Issue

1. Identify the issue that is implied in this case study. 5. Consider different kinds of media available. What would
2. Create a T-chart to list the pros and cons that relate to be the most effective way to convey Pantani’s point of
this issue. view on his situation and the issue of blood doping to
his fans?
3. In a web set out the different perspectives that might
influence an athlete’s decision to use performance 6. Draft a press release that Pantani would release to the
enhancing drugs. media outlining his case and the scientific evidence to
support it.
4. Consider the analysis of Pantani’s hematocrit levels.
Based on your experience with experimental testing, 7. Plan a class role play of the jury that must deliberate
what are the factors you might consider when review- whether Pantani was innocent or guilty. Members of the
ing Pantani’s hematocrit levels to confirm his innocence jury include: a little league baseball coach; a manufac-
or guilt? turer of sports equipment; a news reporter; the widow
of a heart attack victim; a dietician; a hematologist.
The Origins
C H A P T Eof
R the
1 0 periodic law
Circulation 323
10.2 The Structure and Function of the

Human Heart and Blood Vessels
Key Understandings
explain the anatomy of the human heart
describe how the heart functions
identify the three types of vessels that are found in the human circulatory system
understand how the structures of arteries and veins differ
explain how technology has improved scientific understanding of the circulatory

system
give examples of ways Canadians have contributed to the development of technology
The heart is a muscular organ that func- right side of the heart and is pumped to
tions primarily as a pump. To do so, it the lungs to pick up oxygen. The oxy-
must have chambers that receive blood genated blood returns to the left side of
and chambers that deliver blood, and the heart and is pumped to all parts of
valves that direct the flow of blood the body. The heart contains four cham-
through the chambers. It must also be bers: right and left atria, which serve as
capable of contracting strongly to force receiving chambers, and right and left
the blood out of the heart and through ventricles, which serve as delivery
the vessels. Since the heart is an organ, chambers. The left and right sides of the
it is composed of various tissues. heart are separated from each other by
Epithelial tissue called endocardium a muscular septum.
lines the inside of chambers of the heart.
This provides a smooth surface that min-
imizes friction as blood flows from one
The Pulmonary Circuit and
chamber to another. the Systemic Circuit
The heart is made of muscle tissue The pattern of blood flow in the human
and has the ability to contract. The heart is complex. However, the flow of
propulsive force of the heart is made blood in the human circulatory system
WORD ORIGIN possible by the myocardium. This heart can be divided into two distinct patterns.
“wall” is made of cardiac muscle. The The pulmonary circuit is a low-
Myocardium: from the Greek heart contains its own intrinsic pace- pressure system. Deoxygenated blood
mus or muos meaning “mus- maker but also contains nervous tissue enters the heart at the right atrium. It
cle” and kardia meaning “a that responds to stimuli to increase or then flows to the right ventricle. The
heart”
decrease the heart rate. It contains right atrioventricular valve (AV-valve),
connective tissue that protects and also known as the tricuspid valve,
encases it. located between the atrium and ventri-
Your heart is about the size of your cle on the right side of the heart, prevents
clenched fist and is the hardest-working blood from flowing back into the right
muscle in the body. The ribs and sternum atrium. From the right ventricle the
(breastbone) protect it at the front and blood passes through the cup-like
the spine protects it at the back. pulmonary semilunar valve and enters
Deoxygenated blood is brought to the the pulmonary trunk. From the

PULMONARY
CIRCULATION
superior
vena cava aorta
lungs 7
pulmonary
3 arteries
pulmonary
The right side The left side of 4 veins
of the heart the heart pumps 5
pumps oxygenated right
atrium left
de-oxygenated blood to the
1 atrium
blood to the rest of the
lungs. body.
6 left
2 ventricle
a) SYSTEMIC b) inferior
CIRCULATION vena cava right
ventricle
FIGURE 10.9 A double circulation system
a) Blood returns from the systemic circulation, through the veins, to the right side
of the heart. The pulmonary circulation pumps the blood to the lungs to be oxygenated,
and then returns it to the left side of the heart. The blood is then pumped back out
of the left side of the heart, into the systemic circulation and through the arteries of
the body.
b) The right atrium of the heart (1) is filled with deoxygenated blood by the superior
and inferior vena cavae. The right atrium pumps the blood into (2) the right ventricle,
which contracts and sends the blood through (3) the pulmonary arteries to the
lungs. After picking up oxygen in the lungs, the blood is transferred back to the
heart, through (4) the pulmonary veins, and moves into (5) the left atrium. The left
atrium pumps the blood into (6) the left ventricle, which contracts and pumps the
blood out through (7) the aorta, and into the rest of the body
pulmonary trunk, blood is pumped pumped to the rest of the body through
to both lungs by way of two pulmonary the systemic circuit.
arteries. As the blood travels through The systemic circuit is a high-pres-
the lung capillaries, it picks up oxygen sure system. It must propel the blood
and releases carbon dioxide. The oxy- with enough force for it to travel to all
genated blood now travels from both of the body parts. For this reason the left
lungs through the four pulmonary veins ventricle of the heart is more muscular
to return to the heart at the left atrium. than the right ventricle.
From the left atrium, the blood When the oxygenated blood leaves
enters the left ventricle through the left the left ventricle it travels through the
atrioventricular valve (also known as the aortic semilunar valve and enters the
bicuspid or mitral valve) and then is aorta, which is the largest artery in your

body. The aorta has many branches

throughout the body called arteries. Each
aorta
artery branches into arterioles that in superior
turn branch into capillaries. It is at the vena cava pulmonary
artery
level of the capillaries that oxygen is re-
right
leased to individual body cells. coronary
Capillaries rejoin as venules that then artery
form veins. left
Oxygen-poor blood from the upper circumflex
artery
body returns to the heart through the
superior vena cava. Oxygen-poor blood
from the lower body reaches the heart
by way of the inferior vena cava. These
left anterior
two large veins empty into the right descending
atrium. coronary
artery
The circulatory system acts as the
conduit between the alveoli in the lungs
Investigation and the the tissues of the body. Without FIGURE 10.10 The coronary circulation. Damage
an efficient circulation system the tissue or blockage in the coronary arteries brings about
Refer to page 349,
many heart attacks. Blockage of the left anterior
Investigation 3 cells would be starved of the reactants
descending coronary artery, which supplies blood
needed for cellular respiration. to the heart muscle of the left ventricle, is in-
volved in almost half of all heart attacks.
Blood Supply to the Heart:
The Role of the Coronary
Circulation
The heart is no different from other mus-
cles in your body; it constantly requires
a fresh supply of oxygen. Therefore, in Humans are born with all the mus-
order to receive nutrients, the heart has cle and nervous tissue they will need
a special circulation called the coronary over their lifetime. This means that car-
circulation that delivers oxygenated diac muscle, once damaged, is not re-
blood directly to the heart muscle. This placed. Sometimes when some cardiac
mini-circulatory system consists of a left muscle dies, part of the heart may stop
and right coronary artery as shown in functioning properly. However, other
Figure 10.10. The left coronary artery parts of the heart take over that func-
has two major branches, the left cir- tion. For example, if part of the left ven-
cumflex artery and the left anterior de- tricle is damaged by a heart attack, the
scending artery. Disease in the coronary remaining functioning muscle in the left
arteries prevents the heart from re- ventricle will work overtime to make up
ceiving enough oxygen. If heart muscle for the loss. This process is called com-
tissue does not get enough oxygen, it pensation. In people with advanced
dies. If too much tissue dies, the heart heart disease compensation may no
cannot pump effectively. The sudden longer be sufficient because so much of
blockage of a coronary artery leading to their heart muscle has been damaged.
death of heart muscle is called a heart Heart disease continues to be a
attack. A heart attack can also cause an major cause of death in Canada.
irregular heartbeat and prevent the Contributing factors include smoking,
heart from filling and contracting nor- stress, lack of exercise, and a high-
mally. cholesterol diet.

The Valves of the Heart approximately 0.4 s. During this phase INFOBIT
of the cardiac cycle, blood pressure is
The human heart has four valves that
reduced and is referred to as diastolic Your “heart strings” are not
work to ensure that blood flows in the just the stuff of romance. The
pressure.
proper direction. The tricuspid valve sep- chordae tendinae are fibrous
Systole, the other major component
arates the right atrium and right ven- connective tissue structures
of the cardiac cycle, begins with the con- inside the ventricles that stabi-
tricle and the bicuspid or mitral valve
traction of the ventricles, which lasts for lize the atrio-ventricular valves
separates the left atrium and left ven-
approximately 0.3 s. At this time blood is during systole and allow the
tricle. The pulmonary valve is between valves to function properly.
expelled forcefully from the heart. Blood
the right ventricle and the pulmonary
from the right ventricle goes through the
trunk and the aortic valve is between
open pulmonary semi-lunar valve into the WORDORIGIN
the left ventricle and the aorta. Valves
pulmonary trunk and pulmonary arter-
open and close at different times to en-
ies. Blood from the left ventricle goes Systole, from the Greek sun
sure blood flows in the proper direction.
through the open aortic semi-lunar valve meaning “together” and
Scientists have been able to harvest
into the aorta. During this time, your tri- stellein meaning “to put”;
valves from animals, such as pigs, and therefore sustole, meaning
cuspid and bicuspid valves are closed so
to replace defective valves in humans. In a “putting together or a
that blood does not flow back into the
recent years, scientists have also de- drawing in.”
atria. During systole, blood pressure is in- Diastole, from the Greek, dia
signed synthetic valves made of a special
creased and is referred to as systolic pres- meaning “apart” and stellein
type of plastic that can be implanted into
sure. The average adult has a systolic to meaning to put; therefore dias-
humans. tole meaning “a pulling apart
diastolic pressure ratio of 120 mm Hg
or a letting out.”
over 80 mm Hg.
The Heart Cycle
and Heart Sounds
Your heartbeat is a result of the coordi-
nated contraction of heart muscle. There 1 Heart is
is a specialized region of heart muscle in relaxed. AV
valves are open.
the right atrium called the sinoatrial
Blood flows into
node or pacemaker that maintains the all four chambers.
heart’s intrinsic pumping rhythm. In fact,
heart muscle is unique because nerves
that carry impulses to the heart do not
initiate the heartbeat. As a part of the
homeostatic mechanism, they merely 0.1 s
influence the rate and strength of the
heart’s contractions.
The heart works in a continuous 2 Atria
cycle of relaxation and contraction called 0.3 s
contract.
the cardiac cycle (Figure 10.11). During 0.4 s
diastole, when the heart is in relaxation,
Systole
blood flows into all four chambers. Blood
enters the right atrium from the systemic
circulation via the inferior and supe-
rior vena cavae. Blood enters the left Diastole
atrium from the pulmonary veins. Also
during diastole, the tricuspid and bi-
cuspid valves are open, allowing blood
to flow into the right and left ventri- 3 Ventricles contract.
cles. Diastole ends with the contraction Semilunar valves
are open.
of the atria to further fill the ventricles
with blood. In total, diastole lasts for FIGURE 10.11 The cardiac cycle

INFOBIT Heart Sounds At the beginning of sys- Blood Vessels

tole, when the ventricles start to con-
Blood vessels transport the blood from
A heart murmur is a sound tract, the pressure generated forces the
made when one of the valves is one part of your body to another and
tricuspid and bicuspid valves to close.
not opening or closing properly connect all the body systems. Blood is
This produces the first heart sound. At
or when the diameter of the pumped away from the heart in thick-
open valve is less than normal. the end of systole, when the pressure in
walled blood vessels called arteries.
When a valve only partially the ventricles falls, the aortic and pul-
Arteries then branch out to form
opens or closes, some blood monary semi-lunar valves close. This
may spill back in the direction arterioles, which branch out further to
produces the second heart sound.
opposite to blood flow. The ac- form capillaries.
tual sound of a heart murmur is Arteries must withstand the pres-
due to turbulent blood flow. Cardiac Output The volume of blood sure of the blood within them. The
pumped from the left ventricle into the
biggest artery in the body is the aorta.
aorta per minute is called the cardiac out-
The major function of arteries and
put. It is the product of stroke volume and
arterioles is to transport blood under
heart rate. The stroke volume is the
pressure throughout the body. The
amount of blood pumped by the left ven-
arteries are structurally suited for this
tricle each time it contracts. The heart
task. They consist of three distinct
rate is the number of contractions per
layers: an inner layer of epithelial cells,
minute. Both heart rate and stroke vol-
a middle layer of smooth muscle, and
ume vary depending on factors such as
an outer layer of connective tissue con-
exercise and level of fitness.
taining elastic fibres that allow the ves-
Increased carbon dioxide in the blood
sels to stretch.
results in a lowered pH. This sets up a
Having muscular and elastic tissue
negative feedback loop. The heart rate
enables the walls of the arteries to
is increased so that more blood is sent
handle the high pressure of the pumped
to the lungs per minute. This results in a
blood. In fact, when the heart empties,
more rapid release of carbon dioxide from
the blood moves in a pulselike wave
the lungs and so carbon dioxide concen-
throughout the circulatory system. As
tration and pH return to the norm.
blood travels through your arteries it
pushes on the artery walls, causing
them to stretch. Just as a stretched rub-
ber band will store potential energy, an
artery will also store some energy when
stretched. When the bulge of blood flows
past a given section of artery, the artery
relaxes and releases some of the stored
energy. This helps to move blood along
farther. Branching in the circulatory sys-
Image omitted due to copyright tem allows the blood to be channelled
INFOBIT restrictions. into different areas.
Arterioles are smaller than arteries.
“oles”/“ules” – many terms in
biology have this ending—for They have a smaller diameter and are
example, bronchioles, arteri- a little less elastic. The contraction and
oles, and venules. Think of relaxation of arterioles is the major
“oles” implying “smaller than determinant of the overall blood pres-
the adjoining structure.” For
sure in the body.
instance, the arteries are the
structure that come before Capillaries are the narrowest of all
arterioles, therefore, arterioles blood vessels. Red blood cells must
are “smaller than arteries”; FIGURE 10.12 When a patient is attached to a squeeze through capillaries in single file
similarly, venules are “smaller heart monitor the traces show the conditions at and so they slow down. This slower
than veins,” and bronchioles points in the heart as well as blood pressure and pace allows them to pick up carbon
are “smaller than bronchi.” other vital signs. dioxide and unload oxygen by diffusion

into tissue cells. It has been estimated Blood flow to the heart is also af-
that nearly every tissue of the body is fected by physcial activity. If you stand
within 0.1 mm of a capillary. Branching or sit for long periods of time, this pre-
in the capillaries means a great increase vents skeletal muscles from squeezing
in the surface area available for diffu- blood back to your heart. As a result the
sion, and this makes transport within veins distend as the blood accumulates
the body more efficient. Because cap- in them. If veins are stretched constantly,
illaries are tiny structures and despite they lose their elasticity and the bulges
the slow pace of movement through may become visible as varicose veins.
capillaries, each red blood cell remains
in a capillary for only one to three sec-
The Anti-Gravity Suit
onds. Capillaries also provide a bridge
between the arterial and venous sys- The Anti-Gravity suit or “Anti-G Suit” is
tems. Capillaries merge to form venules. a device worn by aircrew to counteract
Venules in turn merge to form veins. the effects of positive acceleration on the
Veins act as a reservoir and collectively human body. Fighter pilots experience
hold about half of the total blood vol- extreme G-forces when flying. During
ume. Veins have thinner walls, larger acceleration, the blood is pushed into
diameters, and less muscle than arter- the lower half of the body and the shift
ies. These features help them to read- in blood volume away from the brain
ily receive blood from the capillary can cause the pilot to black out. In re-
network. sponse to this problem, during World
Veins transport blood back to the War II, Dr. Wilbur R. Franks of the
heart. Because most veins are below the Banting and Best Institute designed the
heart, they must work against gravity. To first anti-gravity suit. This special pres-
facilitate the movement of blood towards surized suit stopped pooling of blood by
the heart, veins have valves that allow boosting blood pressure and periph-
the blood to flow in only one direction. eral resistance. This prevented the pilot
Contraction of your skeletal muscles also from passing out at the controls. The
keeps blood flowing towards the heart. suits worn by astronauts and jet pilots
Skeletal muscles surround veins and today are still based on Franks’ original
squeeze blood when they contract. In this design. However, a new type of custom-
way, blood is pushed farther along on its fitted liquid-filled suit is now being
heart-bound journey. tested.
ARTERY CAPILLARY VEIN
connective connective
tissue tissue
valve
muscle
muscle
endothelium
endothelium
capillary bed
FIGURE 10.13 Branching in the systemic system. In the arterial system the aorta branches
into arteries and arterioles. In the tissues arterioles branch into capillary networks that increase
the surface area available for diffusion. In the venous system capillaries merge to form
venules and venules merge to form veins.

TABLE 10.1 Comparison of the Anatomy of Blood Vessels
Artery Capillary Vein
connective tissue connective tissue
smooth
muscle
smooth
capillary muscle
epithelium
valve in
epithelium
epithelial cells
• has 3 layers: epithelial cells, • thin with a very narrow diameter • elastic
smooth muscle and connective tissue • one cell thick • wall thinner than artery
• is able to stretch • abundant • has valves
• thick, muscular • site of gas exchange with tissue cells • carries blood towards heart
• carries blood away from heart
Cardiac Contractions
The sinoatrial node is a small patch of
specialized tissue that controls the rhyth-
mic pumping of the heart. It generates an
electrical signal that travels through the
heart to the atrioventricular node (AV
node) and then to the ventricles by way
of special fibres—the Purkinje fibres and
the Bundle of His. The electrical signal is
Image omitted due to copyright delayed for about 0.1 s at the atrioven-
restrictions. tricular node, so that the atria contract si-
multaneously, before the ventricles
contract.
The rhythmic contractions of the
heart are the result of special charac-
teristics of the cardiac muscle cells.
Cardiac muscle cells are unique because
they can contract rhythmically even in
isolation. If a cardiac muscle cell is iso-
lated and placed in a Petri dish, it begins
to beat. If another cardiac muscle cell
FIGURE 10.14 Varicose veins. Damage to from the same heart is extracted and
valves in veins results in a loss of elasticity and placed beside the cell in the Petri dish, it
a bulging of veins that may become obvious. will at first have its own beat. Soon, the
two cells will syncopate their contrac-
tions and beat in unison.

Wave of Electrical signal Contraction of Contraction of

contraction delayed at ventricles begins in ventricles complete.
begins. AV node. heart apex.
SA node AV node bundle Purkinje

branches fibres
FIGURE 10.15 The control of the heart’s rhythm. The sequence of excitation is asso-
ciated with the waves shown on an electrocardiogram.
An electrocardiograph is a device
used to detect the heart’s electrical ac-
tivity. The heart produces current that
radiates through the surrounding tissue
to the skin. When electrodes are at-
tached to the skin, they sense these elec-
trical currents and transmit them to the
ECG machine. A graphic record, the
electrocardiogram or ECG, is produced.
It shows the different waves that rep- restrictions.
resent the various parts of the cardiac
cycle. The appearance of the ECG varies
with the positioning of the electrodes.
Comparison of information from differ-
ent placements of the electrodes allows
you to check the performance of differ-
ent parts of the heart. ECGs are useful
because they are a non-invasive way of
diagnosing cardiac and non-cardiac ill- a)
nesses and enable monitoring of the
effects of many medications.
FIGURE 10.16 a) An electrocardiograph is an Image omitted due to copyright

instrument that monitors the electrical activity of restrictions.
the heart,
b) A normal ECG trace. The P wave shows depo-
larization of the atria. The QRS complex shows
depolarization of the ventricles.The T wave shows
b)
repolarization of the ventricles.

A pacemaker is an artificial de-

vice that electrically stimulates the
heart to contract. These devices are
used to correct abnormal electrical
Artificial Pacemakers activity in people who have had prob-
lems with their heart, such as a heart
attack. These devices may be tem-
In 1951 researchers at Toronto’s porary or permanent, depending on Image omitted due to
Banting Institute, W.G. Bigelow and the patient’s condition. A pacemaker copyright restrictions.
John C. Callaghan reported on ex- consists of three components: the
periments with the first electrical car- pulse generator, the pacing leads, and
diac pacemaker, which was designed the electrode tip. The pulse genera-
by John C. Hopps of the National tor contains the pacemaker’s power
Research Council. Since that time and source and circuits. The pacing leads
with the development of transistor- carry the electrical stimulus from the
ized circuitry, thousands of people pulse generator to the electrode tips.
have benefited from this technology. Depending on the type of pacemaker, FIGURE 10.17 A pacemaker consists of a
Over 7500 patients in Canada alone the electrode tips can be placed in the pulse generator, pacing leads, and an elec-
receive new pacemakers each year. atria, ventricles, or both. trode tip.
WEBLINK Blood Pressure and your diastolic pressure is called your

pulse pressure.
Research artificial pacemakers Blood pressure is the pressure exerted
The average normal systolic blood
on the Internet. Construct a on the walls of the arteries. It is gener-
pressure for adults is around 120 mm Hg
time-line of pacemaker devel- ated as your heart ejects blood into the
opment. Begin your research at while normal diastolic blood pressure is
aorta with every beat. The aorta and
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11. 80 mm Hg.
other arteries have muscular walls that
Blood pressure is highest in the aorta
allow them to expand and passively
and then falls gradually. Blood pressure
recoil as the ventricles contract and
and velocity both decline as blood enters
relax. During systole, the aorta expands
the arterioles (Figure 10.19). The pressure
to accept the blood from the heart and
drop results from the resistance to blood
a wave of pressure is generated through-
flow caused by friction between the blood
out all the arteries. During diastole, the
and the inner walls of the arterioles.
aorta recoils, propelling blood along the
arteries into the arterioles and capil-
laries. This elastic property of vessels
allows for continuous blood flow
throughout the circulatory system.
Investigation Arterial blood pressure is directly
Refer to page 345, related to the amount of blood pumped
Investigation 1 by the heart per minute and the resis-
tance to blood flow through the arteri-
oles. The systolic pressure is the
pressure that blood exerts on the wall of
the aorta during systole when blood
leaves the heart. The diastolic pressure
is the pressure that the blood exerts on
the wall of the aorta during diastole
when no blood leaves the heart. The dif- FIGURE 10.18 A sphygmomanometer is a
ference between your systolic pressure device to measure blood pressure.

Regulation of blood pressure is es-

sential. Low blood pressure reduces your Discovering Biology Pulse rate
capacity to transport blood. High blood
pressure also creates serious, but differ- One easy way to measure your heart rate is to take your pulse. Pulse
ent problems. High blood pressure can is generated when arteries stretch during systole. What you actu-
weaken the walls of an artery and this ally feel is an artery bulging during systole. Between heartbeats
(during diastole), the arteries recoil due to their elastic properties.
can cause the vessel to rupture.
Two areas where your pulse is easy to detect are the radial pulse
(at your wrist) and the carotid pulse (at the side of your neck).
The Sphygmomanometer The arterial
blood pressure is determined using a 1. Take your pulse at the radial pulse. To feel your pulse, place
sphygmomanometer. This device con- your index and middle fingers on an artery and feel it stretch
sists of an inflatable cuff connected by and relax as a volume of blood flows past it. Record your heart
rubber hoses to a hand pump and to a rate (beats/min).
pressure gauge graduated in millime-
tres of mercury. The cuff is wrapped 2. Take your pulse at the carotid pulse. Record your heart rate.
around the upper arm and inflated to Compare the strength of the two pulses. Explain your
a pressure that will temporarily stop the observations.
flow of blood through the brachial
artery. As the pressure in the cuff is
lowered slowly, the examiner listens for Investigation
the sounds of blood flow in the brachial Refer to page 346,
artery by placing the bell of a stetho- Investigation 2
scope in the elbow crease.
Comparison of
blood vessel size
120 systolic pressure

Pressure (mm Hg)
100
80
diastolic pressure
60
40
20
0
50
Velocity (cm/s)
40
30
20
10
0
venules
veins
venae cavae
aorta
arteries
arterioles
capillaries
FIGURE 10.19 Blood pressure and velocity in the blood vessels

Section 10.2 Review

Understanding Concepts a) Graph the data of vessel type ver-
sus total cross-sectional area.
1. How does deoxygenated blood enter b) What is the trend in cross-sectional
the heart? area?
2. Calculate the cardiac output if the c) Explain this trend.
stroke volume is 80 mL/beat and the d) How might the cross-sectional area
heart rate is 75 beats/min. Cardiac out- of a single vessel influence the ve-
put is the product of the stroke volume locity of blood flow?
and the heart rate. e) How might the total cross-sectional
3. Describe how structure and function area of vessels affect velocity of
are related in a capillary. flow and pressure in vessels?
4. Draw a diagram to show why the 8. Examine the following pie graph,
human heart is considered to be a which shows the distribution of blood
“double pump” system. in the various vessels.
5. The sinoatrial node is the heart’s pace-
maker. and has an intrinsic rate at
which it generates impulses. This rate
can be modified by many different fac-
tors. From the heart rates given below, arteries
Select the one that corresponds to each arterioles
of the following scenarios. capillaries
venules
Heart rates (beats/min):
veins
72 186 54
a) Someone sleeping
b) Someone playing squash
c) Someone, at rest, watching televi-
sion FIGURE 10.20
6. What is the most important determi-
nant of the overall blood pressure?
a) From the data, which vessels con-

Applying Inquiry/ tain the largest volume of blood?
Communication Skills b) Suggest why capillaries have such
7. The following table shows the total a low blood volume.
cross-sectional area of the different c) What percentage of the blood is
types of blood vessels at various points contained in the venous system?
along the circulatory tree.
Making Connections
Blood Vessel Total Cross-Sectional
Type Area (cm2) 9. High blood pressure, or hyperten-
sion, is a common problem in the gen-
aorta 2.5 eral population. It is a strong risk factor
small arteries 20 for the development of heart disease
arterioles 40 and stroke. Propose the economic and
social impacts of hypertension.
capillaries 2500
venules 250
veins 80
venae cavae 5

10.3 The Circulatory System

in Health and Disease
Key Understandings
relate fitness level to the efficiency of the cardiovascular system
describe common disorders that affect the cardiovascular system
provide examples of drug treatments to restore homeostasis
present scientific reasons for following an exercise program
explain how Canadians have contributed to the development of technology

for internal systems
Hypertension or “high blood pressure” Atherosclerosis WEBLINK

is a disease that affects many Canadians.
This condition occurs when fatty de-
Although a substantial number of Research the reasons that high
posits containing cholesterol and lipids blood pressure is often called
Canadians are diagnosed with this con-
accumulate in the lining of blood vessels. “the silent killer.” Create a
dition, many others do not realize they
The plaques (sticky regions) decrease pamphlet that outlines the pre-
have high blood pressure. Blood pressure vention and treatment of this
the diameter of the blood vessel and the
for a healthy adult varies anywhere from condition. Begin your research at
elasticity of the vessel wall. This process
100–140 mm Hg systolic and between www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
may occur in all arteries in the body, but
70–90 mm Hg diastolic. High blood pres-
the coronary arteries are especially sus-
sure is usually defined as a consistent
ceptible. Areas distal to the narrowing
blood pressure greater than 140/90.
of an artery can be deprived of blood
Prolonged high blood pressure can dam-
and nutrients. High-cholesterol diets M AT H L I N K
age the heart and other blood vessels. It
combined with other risk factors for
can be the cause of cardiovascular dis-
heart disease may result in abnormal Blood pressure is an example
orders, such as coronary heart disease of a value for which non-metric
blood circulation and eventual heart
and stroke. units continue to be used.
attack or stroke.
Hypertension can be treated by diet, Blood pressure is usually
exercise, weight control, and medication. reported as mmHg. Normal
This will decrease cardiac output,
Angina blood pressure for an adult is
120/80, systolic/diastolic. To
lowering pressure in the arterioles, Like all muscles in the human body, the report blood pressure in metric
and restore the person’s blood pressure heart requires a constant and steady units (kPa), use the conversion
to the norm. Most anti-hypertensive supply of nutrients. In a healthy heart 1mmHg = 0.13332 kPa.
medications lower blood pressure and this is supplied by the coronary circu- Therefore 120 mmHg
lation. Coronary artery disease means = (120 x 0.13332) kPa
restore homeostasis by decreasing the = 15.998 kPa
cardiac output. Medications acting as that there are parts of the heart that do
vasodilators decrease the resistance of not always receive enough oxygen. When
blood vessels. Diuretics are also the heart is deprived of oxygen, an in-
commonly used to help lower blood dividual may complain of chest pain or
pressure. Diuretics cause the body chest tightness called angina. Usually
excrete more urine. This reduces the this pain is felt behind the sternum,
volume of liquid in the body, and so but may also radiate to the jaw, back,
reduces the high pressure that excess and arms. It can occur during periods of
fluid can create. exertion, during exercising or eating, or
when under emotional stress. Angina
can usually be relieved by rest or by a
medication, such as nitroglycerine.

Heart Attack under the tongue. Nitroglycerine is read-

ily absorbed and acts to dilate coronary
A heart attack is a more severe form of
blood vessels almost instantly. This al-
angina. During a heart attack, a clot
lows more blood to reach areas of the
completely blocks a coronary artery and
heart that are being deprived of oxygen.
there is death of cardiac muscle cells.
The treatment acts to restore the blood
After the death of these cells, scar tissue
vessel diameter and oxygen availability
forms. After a heart attack, the damaged
to the heart. It mimics a normal homeo-
heart may be weakened and may not be
static response to oxygen deprivation.
able to pump blood as efficiently. Heart
Nitroglycerine is also available as a patch
attacks have many associated symptoms
that individuals can stick on their skin.
including fatigue, dizziness, and indi-
The medication slowly dissolves upon
gestion. The chances of a heart attack
contact, passes through the skin, and is
increase with age. Some other factors
absorbed into the bloodstream. In this
that influence the likelihood of having
form, the nitroglycerine will maintain
a heart attack include smoking, poor
homeostasis by providing a continuous
diet, obesity, lack of exercise, stress, a
stimulus to dilate the blood vessels.
family history of heart disease, and di-
abetes. Fortunately, many of these fac-
Nicotine is the active ingredient in to-
tors can be controlled. Frequent exercise
bacco. It is second only to caffeine as the
and healthy food choices can help to
most widely used stimulant, and sec-
prevent the occurrence of heart attacks.
ond only to alcohol as the most abused
drug. It is also highly addictive. Nicotine
Stroke is toxic, and in combination with the tars
A stroke occurs when a blood vessel and carbon monoxide found in cigarette
(usually one going to the brain) is dam- smoke, it is a serious risk factor for lung
aged. A clot forms within the blood ves- disease, various cancers, and heart dis-
sel, or the blood vessel bursts due to high ease. The effects of nicotine are complex
blood pressure or a weakness in the ves- and include a rise in both blood pressure
sel wall. Symptoms depend on the vessel and heart rate. Recently, a special chew-
involved and the part of the brain af- ing gum containing 2 mg of nicotine has
fected. Usually the patient experiences been shown to reduce nicotine with-
signs and symptoms on the opposite side drawal symptoms and help smokers stop
of the body to which the blood vessel is smoking. The blood concentration of
located. Thus a damaged blood vessel nicotine after chewing the gum is about
feeding oxygen to the right side of the one half of the level it would be after
brain would result in a patient having smoking. Therefore, chewing gum with
symptoms on the left side of the body. nicotine is one way that smokers can
Common symptoms of a stroke include try to quit smoking. Nicotine is also
weakness, speech slurring, and numb- available in patch form.
ness. Some of these symptoms are re-
versible with time while others may be
permanent.
Technology and the
Circulatory System
Drugs and Treatments
Exercise Stress Test An exercise stress
Relating to the Circulatory test is a useful and non-invasive way to
System check for the presence of coronary artery
Nitroglycerine is one drug used rou- disease. This test involves walking or
tinely to treat angina and works by di- running on a treadmill that moves at
lating the coronary arteries. Typically it an increasing speed and incline. The
is taken in a pill form or as a spray taken individual has continuous ECG and blood

performed a landmark procedure: a repaired. During this process Dr.

closed-chest bypass without the use Boyd relied on a videoimage of the
of a heart-lung machine. Research by moving heart to direct his work as he
Boyd and a colleague, cardiac anes- repaired the bleeding vessel in the
Bypass Surgery thesiologist John Murkin, had indi- confined space made by his incisions.
cated problems for patients after The advantages for the patient
being hooked up to the heart-lung are obvious: tiny incisions, ribs not
If the arteries that supply the heart machine. Strokes affect 3%, another damaged, and no need to stop and
with oxygen become narrowed, cer- 30% show significant loss of higher start the beating of the heart. The
tain parts of the heart may become result is a much shortened convales-
mental functions immediately after
deprived of oxygen and the cells may cence period. Dr. Murkin has demon-
the operation, and even after six
ultimately die. Coronary artery strated that these patients also show
months 20% still experience lapses
much less loss of memory and other
bypass surgery is one of the most that are cause for concern, such as
higher mental functions after sugery.
common types of surgeries performed difficulty doing a crossword puzzle or
in North America. Surgeons extract forgetting familiar names.
a vein from the patient’s leg and use Using a Zeus system
it to redirect blood flow around the with computer assistance
diseased artery in the heart. Think of as well as a robotic
a traffic jam. The new blood vessel endoscope and tools, Boyd
acts like a detour route allowing attempted the first
blood to get around the traffic or in closed-chest, beating-
this case, the blockage. More than heart surgery. Working Image omitted due to copyright
through incisions without restrictions.
one blockage in the coronary circu-
lation may be treated in the same op- opening the chest cavity,
eration: you may have heard of Boyd slowed down the
people having triple, quadruple or movement of the heart,
cut a slot in the blocked
even quintuple, bypass surgeries.
artery, and inserted a
In September 1999, cardiac sur-
shunt so that the blood
geon Douglas Boyd at the London, FIGURE 10.21 Drs. Douglas Boyd (right) and John
could flow even while the
Ontario Health Sciences Centre Murkin (left) with the robot used in bypass surgery.
blocked artery was
pressure measurements taken. The length the catheter into the bloodstream. The
of time the individual can perform on the dye enters the coronary arteries and
treadmill combined with ECG changes and X-rays are taken of the blood vessels.
the patient’s symptoms (for example, short- The angiogram can show the degree of
ness of breath, angina) help the physi- arterial blockage and how much blood
cian to determine whether coronary artery is actually flowing through the arteries.
disease is present. Depending on the degree of narrowing,
the health care team may recommend
Cardiac Catheterization Cardiac catheter- further intervention. In some cases,
ization is a method to detect the pres- individuals undergo bypass surgery or
ence of coronary artery disease. angioplasty. With this procedure, a
Individuals who have abnormal exercise small balloon is inserted through a
stress tests often go on to have cardiac catheter and inflated in order to re-
catheterization and an angiogram. A duce the narrowing in the artery. During
catheter is inserted into the femoral cardiac catheterization, blood samples
artery (located in the groin area) and may be withdrawn and pressures within
guided through the arterial system of the the heart can be measured to detect
body and into the heart and coronary valve problems and heart deformities.
arteries. A dye is then injected through

Nuclear Medicine Another method of di- heart rates to rise. A continuing

agnosis for patients who have an ab- exercise program increases the body’s
normal stress test involves radioactive capacity to use oxygen.
decay. The substance used is radioactive
thallium (thallium 201). This material is
The Benefits of Regular
injected while the person is undergo-
ing a stress test and the subsequent
Exercise
decay of radioactivity in the circulation Regular physical exercise is one of the
of the heart is recorded. Normal coro- best things that you can do for your
nary arteries will show a regular pattern body.
of radioactive disintegrations. Diseased Think back to how good you have
coronary arteries will show a different felt after finishing some sort of physical
pattern. exercise, for example, a bike ride, a long
walk, or a game of tennis. The benefits
of regular exercise are numerous and
How the Circulatory System in this small section we hope to convince
Responds to Exercise you that exercise is one of the best ways
The circulatory system adjusts in vari- to improve your health. Exercise im-
ous ways to changes in physiological proves the functioning of many body
conditions. For example, muscles that systems. Exercise is good for the heart—
are exercised produce more carbon diox- moderate exercise for 30 min, three to
ide and lactic acid than muscles at rest. four times per week, significantly
The blood then becomes more acidic reduces the risk of coronary heart
as it passes through the muscles. The in- disease. This is in part because exercise
crease in acidity makes the blood give improves the blood supply to the heart
up more of its oxygen and dilates the muscle. It also helps a person to main-
blood vessels. It also stimulates the ner- tain an ideal body weight and therefore
vous system to increase the secretion of reduces stress on the heart. The level of
adrenaline. This causes breathing and “good” high density lipoprotein (HDL)
used to indicate bone structure. 1951. Later in her career she devel-
Various forms of radiation are also oped the Dosimeter, a machine that
used in the treatment of cancer. The allows regulation of the dose of radi-
objective is either to kill the cancer ation received by the patient.
Dr. Sylvia Fedoruk, cells directly or to affect cell division
Pioneer in Nuclear in the cancerous tissue to slow the
growth of the cancer.
Medicine Dr. Sylvia Fedoruk was deeply in-
volved with the development of both
Nuclear medicine is an important as- aspects of nuclear medicine for the Image omitted due to
pect of diagnosis and treatment in in- treatment of cancer. She was Chief copyright restrictions.
ternal systems. The methods of Medical Physicist for Saskatchewan
diagnosis involve nuclear screening and developed the first nuclear scan-
devices to record radioactive decay ning machine for diagnosis. She was
within the tissue being studied. a member of a University of
Radioactive iodine is used to test thy- Saskatchewan team led by Harold
FIGURE 10.22 Dr. Sylvia Fedoruk, a pio-
roid function; radioactive thallium Elford Johns. This team developed neer in nuclear medicine, served as
is used to show cardiac artery func- the first non-commercial Cobalt-60 Leiutenant–Governor of Saskatchewan
tion; and radioactive phosphate is therapy unit for cancer treatment in from 1988–1994.



restrictions.
FIGURE 10.24 The normal angiogram on the left shows patent (open) left and
right coronary arteries. The abnormal angiogram on the right shows blockages in
diseased coronary arteries.
FIGURE 10.23 Exercise on a treadmill is a form Even though the benefits of exercise INFOBIT
of cardiovascular workout, but can also be used are proven, many people fail to exercise
for diagnosis of heart disease.
on a regular basis. Many people choose Cholesterol is transported in
to play the passive role of spectator. In the body bound to small lipid-
protein complexes called
many high schools there is little time lipoproteins. High-density
cholesterol is raised and the level of scheduled for sports activities. Also, lipoproteins (HDLs) transport
“bad” low density lipoprotein (LDL) many people lead such busy lives, it is cholesterol to the liver for
cholesterol is lowered. A high level difficult to find the time to exercise. breakdown. HDLs are often
referred to as “good”
of bad cholesterol is one important cholesterol in comparison to
risk factor in the development of low-density lipoproteins (LDLs)
atherosclerosis. that may release cholesterol
In addition to the benefits on the deposits into the walls of
heart, exercise helps to strengthen the arteries.
lungs, tone the muscles, and maintain
bone strength. If you have diabetes,
exercise is important to help keep blood WEBLINK
sugar in the normal range and maintain
Image omitted due to copyright Research the effects of
control of the disease. Finally, exercise microgravity on the circulatory
helps to improve self-esteem, concen- restrictions.
system. Write a supported
tration, and mechanisms for coping with paragraph. Begin your research at
stress. www.pearsoned.ca/biology 11.
In general the more exercise a per-
son is accustomed to, the higher his or
her ability to use oxygen during exercise
and the lower the oxygen debt built up
through accumulation of lactic acid. The
rate of oxygen used by most athletes
is 10% higher than that of a sedentary FIGURE 10.25 Aerobics can provide
person. cardiovascular workout.

Section 10.3 Review

Understanding Concepts 6. The respiratory and circulatory sys-
tems work closely together during ex-
1. Medications that decrease cardiac out- ercise. The table below gives the
put, vasodilators, and diuretics are all oxygen consumption (L/min) and the
used to treat hypertension. Explain the total ventilation (L/min) for three dif-
different ways these medications act to ferent athletes.
lower blood pressure.
2. What responses in a normal individual Oxygen Total ventilation
are mimicked through the use of ni- consumption (y-axis)
troglycerine by an angina patient? (x-axis)
3. What is the purpose of bypass surgery? Athlete A Athlete B Athlete C
4. What effect does nicotine have on the 0 0 0 0
heart? 1 23 17 7
2 41 31 18
Applying Inquiry/ 3 60.0 47.5 34.5
Communication Skills 4 78 63.2 46
5. A person has been taking an anti- a) Graph the data. Draw the line of
hypertensive medication for the past best fit for each of the three
six months. He has been monitoring athletes.
his blood pressure at home with a kit b) What happens to the oxygen con-
he bought from the drugstore. The sumption as the total ventilation in-
table shows his blood pressures over creases?
the past six months (mm Hg). c) From the data, which athlete
Graph the blood pressure to show how appears to be the most fit? What
it has changed over time. Analyze the physical activities are best known
data and recommend a course of ac- for their ability to increase
tion for the future. cardiovascular fitness?
Blood Pressure Jan Feb Mar Apr May June

Systolic 166 160 150 156 144 138
Diastolic 98 98 90 92 94 88

10.4 Circulatory Systems in Various

Organisms
Key Understandings
compare the anatomy of the circulatory systems in different organisms
explain the role of transport systems in different organisms
understand how the structures in transport systems are suited to their functions
Single-celled or very small organisms from the body sinus, making space avail-
rely on diffusion to supply oxygen from able for new blood to bathe the organs.
their surroundings. As multicellular or- This “bathing” and “draining” follows
ganisms become larger and more com- a continuous cycle. Open circulatory sys-
plex, an efficient transport system is tems are most common in insects. In
essential. contrast, a closed circulatory system
consists of vessels containing fluid and
a pumping mechanism to circulate the
Open and Closed Circulation
fluid.
In the animal kingdom, there are
two different types of circulatory sys-
tems: opened and closed. An open The Earthworm
circulatory system consists of a body The earthworm has a simple but highly
sinus that contains all the vital organs. efficient closed circulatory system.
This system is called open because blood Earthworms have blood that travels
is pumped through open-ended vessels through vessels. The two main blood
to flow out among the cells. In fact, blood vessels in the worm are the dorsal
is pumped into this body sinus and lit- vessel and the ventral vessel, while
erally bathes all the body organs. smaller vessels serve the cells in each
Imagine a bathtub being filled for a bath; individual segment. The earthworm does
this is similar to an open system. When not have a heart. Instead, it has five
the organs have been “bathed” in oxy- muscular “pseudohearts” that pump
genated blood, the blood is “drained” blood around its body. The primary
dorsal vessel
ventral vessel
5 pseudohearts
FIGURE 10.26 The earthworm’s blood system transports nutrients absorbed from
the worm’s small intestine.

function of blood in the earthworm is to The heart is tube-shaped and the pump-
deliver nutrients absorbed in the worm’s ing is facilitated by muscle contractions.
small intestine to all its body cells. Nutrients diffuse directly from the blood
Earthworms can exchange gases into the body cells. When the heart re-
through their moist skin so they do not laxes, blood returns to the heart through
need lungs and the transport of gases in several pores. Each pore has a valve that
the blood is of little importance. closes when the heart contracts, to pre-
vent backflow of the blood.
Grasshopper
In an insect, such as the grasshopper, The Fish
the heart is located toward the posterior. The cardiovascular system of a fish il-
lustrates the main features of a closed cir-
culatory system. The heart has two main
tubular chambers. The atrium receives blood
heart from the veins, and the ventricles pump
pores blood to the gills via large arteries.
In Figure 10.28, red represents oxy-
genated blood and blue represents
deoxygenated blood. After passing
through the gill capillaries, the oxygen-
rich blood flows into other large arter-
ies that carry it to all other parts of the
FIGURE 10.27 The pumping of the posterior body. The large arteries branch into
heart moves blood toward the insect’s head and arterioles, small vessels that give rise to
the rest of its body. Blood returns to the heart capillaries. Networks of capillaries infil-
through pores.
trate every organ and tissue in the body.
capillary beds
arteriole
artery
(O2-rich blood)
venule
vein
atrium
heart
ventricle
artery gill
(O2-poor blood) capillaries
FIGURE 10.28 In the fish, blood becomes oxygenated in the gill capillaries. It flows to all
parts of the body through arteries. Deoxygenated blood returns to the heart through veins.

right left
atrium atrium
pulmonary
vein
right left
atrium atrium
spiral
fold
ventricle
right left
ventricle ventricle
FIGURE 10.29 The frog’s three-chambered FIGURE 10.30 The four-chambered heart of
heart allows only partial separation of oxy- birds and mammals separates oxygenated and
genated and deoxygenated blood. deoxygenated blood.
The thin walls of the capillaries allow deoxygenated and oxygenated blood
chemical exchange between the blood completely separate in the pulmonary
and the interstitial fluid. The capillar- and systemic circulations.
ies converge into venules, which in turn
converge into veins that return blood
Plants
to the heart.
Plants have an internal transport system
with some similarities to the human sys-
The Frog tem. The human cardiovascular system
In amphibians, the heart has three cham- consists of a heart, blood vessels, and
bers, two atria and one ventricle. blood fluid. Plants also have vessels that
Oxygenated blood from the lungs enters allow them to transport fluids: in this case,
the left atrium through the pulmonary water and nutrients. Like the
vein. It mixes with oxygen-poor blood vessels in humans, plant vascular tissue
in the single ventricle. The mixed blood provides a continuous internal conduc-
is then pumped to the body tissues and tion system between the roots, stems, and
lungs. Mixing is not complete because leaves. Vascular bundles consist of xylem
of the spiral fold in the heart, so the brain and phloem tissue, and together, they
and upper limbs tend to receive blood branch out to form “veins.” You can ob-
that is higher in oxygen. However, some serve these veins in a plant’s leaves. The
deoxygenated blood is recirculated to the circulatory system in humans also trans-
body. This system is somewhat inefficient ports hormones, for example, insulin.
compared to the double-pump, four- Plants also have hormones and these are
chambered heart of birds and mammals. also transported through vascular tissue.
It is sufficient for the frog because frogs A notable difference is that plants
are generally in active and can absorb have separate systems for water and for
oxygen by diffusion into the blood as nutrient transport. Xylem tissue trans-
the blood circulates through the mouth ports water that flows from roots to
and skin. leaves while phloem tissue transports
The four-chambered mammalian nutrients. Nutrients flow from the leaves
heart is an efficient system that has al- to the roots or to other parts of the
lowed mammals to exploit opportunities plant that need them. Another impor-
for life on land. This system keeps tant difference is that plants lack a

“pump.” For this reason, processes such learned about atherosclerosis in humans
as osmosis and diffusion are critical. and how flow is diminished. In plants,
Flow is important to the function when vascular tissue is blocked by waste
of any circulatory system. You have products, flow of liquid is prevented.
Section 10.4 Review

Understanding Concepts hold their breath for prolonged periods
while they travel from one breathing
1. Distinguish between open circulatory hole to another?
systems and closed circulatory systems.
8. “The bends” are a pain that deep sea
2. Describe how blood circulates in an divers experience when they rise from
earthworm. ocean depths too quickly. Predict why
3. What are some unique features of the “the bends” occur, and suggest ways to
circulatory system in a fish? ensure that acute pain is not experi-
4. Describe the three-chambered heart enced by a diver after a dive.
found in amphibians.
5. Birds exhibit remarkable circulatory Making Connections
and respiratory systems.
9. Xenotransplantation is the new area of
a) Describe the structural features medicine that deals with the science of
birds have that allow them to trans- transplanting animal organs into hu-
port oxygen to their body cells while mans.
in flight.
b) Explain how the lungs of birds are a) Research this growing area of
adapted for flight. medicine—specifically research
what obstacles must be overcome
before these types of surgeries will
Applying Inquiry/ be successful.
Communication Skills b) What ethical considerations must
6. Research the differences between the also be considered with respect to
circulatory system of the shark, dolphin, xenotransplantation?
jellyfish, and eel. How have these dif- 10. Global warming is a serious environ-
ferent organisms developed specialized mental issue. Patterns of bird migra-
structures for circulation? tion are based on the season and the
7. What are some unique features about outdoor temperature. What effect does
mammals like seals that allow them global warming have on bird
to survive in ice-cold waters and also migration?

Inquiry Skills

Exercise and Pulse Rate Concluding and Communicating
You can measure how fast your heart is beating by tak-

ing your pulse. Each time your heart squeezes blood
out into the aortic artery, blood is forced along in a
pulse wave. One place that you can easily find your Analyzing and Interpreting
pulse is your wrist.
1. What criteria did you apply to developing your
procedure?
Problem 2. Describe which observations you felt provided ev-
What is the effect of exercise on pulse rate? idence that exercise affects pulse rate.
3. Graph your observational data: “How Exercise
CAUTION: If you have a medical concern that might prevent Affects Pulse Rate.”
you from performing exercise to gather data for this labora- 4. What is the dependent variable? What is the in-
tory, consult your teacher. dependent variable? Explain.
5. Account for any experimental errors that could have
affected your conclusion.
Experimental
LAL1 Design
1. Predict how your pulse rate will be affected by ex-
ercise.
6. Besides your wrist, what are other sites on the body
2. Write down the variables that you think would alter
where one can take a pulse?
your predictions about pulse rate while exercising.
7. Should the intensity of the pulse be the same at
3. Make a hypothesis for each variable concerning its
each different site? If not, explain why.
effect on pulse rate.
8. When one takes a pulse, is one feeling an artery or
4. Design a procedure to test how pulse rate is affected
a vein?
by exercise and how this effect can be properly
measured. 9. What special properties of blood vessels allow one
to feel a pulse?
5. Remember to include your materials, measuring
instruments and list any safety considerations. If
you have probe technology available for your use, Extending
you may want to use it to gather pulse data.
10. Consider the scenario where a sedentary person
6. Have a teacher check your procedure before you begins an exercise program. Hypothesize the effect
proceed with your lab. on the person’s pulse rate six months after begin-
7. Show the results of your investigation in a clear and ning the exercise program. What aspect of car-
well-organized manner. diac output would you expect to be most affected?
Explain your reasoning.

Inquiry Skills

Measuring Blood Pressure Concluding and Communicating
Blood pressure is an important measurable aspect of artery in a turbulent

the circulatory system. When the ventricles of the heart manner. This results
contract, pressure is increased throughout all the ar- in a loud tapping
teries. Arterial blood pressure is directly dependent on sound that increases
the amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute in intensity as the cuff
and the resistance to blood flow through the arterioles. is deflated. The pres-
Image omitted
The arterial blood pressure is determined using sure at which one can due to copyright
a device known as a sphygmomanometer. This device first hear sounds is restrictions.
consists of an inflatable cuff connected by rubber hoses termed the SYSTOLIC
to a hand pump and to a pressure gauge graduated blood pressure.
in millimetres of mercury (mmHg). The cuff is wrapped As the pressure
around the upper arm and initially inflated to a pres- in the cuff drops, a
sure that will shut off flow through the brachial artery. point is reached
The examiner listens for the sounds of blood flow in where the artery is
the brachial artery by placing the stethoscope on the silent again (no sounds
FIGURE 10.31 Measuring blood
inside of the elbow below the biceps (approximately can be heard)— this is
pressure
one inch above the elbow crease). termed the DIASTOLIC
At rest, the blood normally goes through the ar- pressure.
teries so that the blood in the central part of the artery
moves faster than the blood in the peripheral part. Materials
Under these conditions, the artery is silent when one sphygmomanometer prepared tables for
listens. stethoscope recording data
When the sphygmomanometer cuff is inflated to a student subject
pressure above the systolic pressure, the flow of blood
is stopped and the artery is silent again.
Steps to follow in measuring blood pressure.
As the pressure in the cuff gradually drops, the
a) cuff is inflated to a pressure greater than 120
blood is pushed through the compressed walls of the
mmHg, cutting off blood flow through the brachial
Arm is Pressure Pressure Pressure

relaxed. in cuff is in cuff drops. in cuff
120 or over. is 70.
120 120
70
Rubber cuff
is inflated
with air to Sounds stop
above systolic at diastolic
artery pressure. Sounds are pressure.
audible at
systolic pressure.
Artery is closed.
FIGURE 10.32 Steps in measuring blood pressure

(continued)
TABLE 10.2 Normal Blood Pressure for Men and Women at Different Ages
Systolic Pressure Diastolic Pressure
Age in Years Men Women Men Women
10 103 103 69 70
11 104 104 70 71
12 106 106 71 72
13 108 108 72 73
14 110 110 73 74
15 112 112 75 76
16 118 116 73 72
17 121 116 74 72
18 120 116 74 72
19 122 115 75 71
20-24 123 116 76 72
artery. This stops any audible sounds coming from 4. Close the valve of the bulb by turning it clockwise.
the artery since there is no blood flow. Pump air into the cuff until the pressure gauge goes
b) the pressure in the cuff is released until a loud con- past 180 mmHg.
tinuous tapping is heard – this occurs at the sys- 5. Turn the valve of the bulb counterclockwise and
tolic pressure. In the case shown in Figure 10.32, slowly release the air from the cuff. Listen for heart
the systolic pressure is 120 mmHg. sounds.
c) the pressure in the cuff is decreased slowly until
6. When you first hear the heart sounds, note the pres-
the tapping can no longer be heard and the artery
sure on the gauge. This is the systolic pressure.
is again silent. This represents the point where the
pressure in the cuff is equal to the diastolic pres- 7. Continue to slowly release air and listen until the
sure. In the case shown in Figure 10.32, the dias- clear thumping sound of the pulse becomes strong
tolic pressure is 70 mmHg. and then fades. When you last hear the full heart
beat, note the pressure. This is the diastolic
pressure.
Procedure
1. Work in pairs. Those who are to have their blood 8. Repeat the measurement one more time. Record
pressure measured should be seated quietly for at the average systolic and diastolic pressure, and
least one minute with both shirt sleeves rolled up. pulse in your notebook in Table 10.3.
Before attaching the sphygmomanometer, take the 9. Have your partner stand up for at least two min-
pulse of the person who is having his or her blood utes and then determine the systolic and diastolic
pressure measured. To measure the pulse, you place pressure, and pulse.
your index and middle finger on the radial pulse
and count the number of beats in one minute. 10. Have your partner lie down for at least two min-
utes and then determine the systolic and diastolic
2. Attach the cuff of the sphygmomanometer snugly pressure, and pulse.
around the upper arm.
3. Place the stethoscope directly below the cuff in
the bend of the elbow joint.

(continued)
Observation Table
TABLE 10.3 Blood Pressure
Systolic Pressure #1 Systolic Pressure #2 Average Systolic Pressure

Position (mm Hg) (mm Hg) (mm Hg)
Standing
Sitting
Lying down
Diastolic Pressure #1 Diastolic Pressure #2 Average Diastolic Pressure

Position (mm Hg) (mm Hg) (mm Hg)
Standing
Sitting
Lying down
Pulse Rate #1 Pulse Rate #2 Average Pulse Rate

Position (beats/min) (beats/min) (beats/min)
Standing
Sitting
Lying down
Complete Table 10.4 using the data from Table 10.3. For blood pressure, put the
systolic pressure over the diastolic pressure. (BP = SP/DP)
TABLE 10.4 Blood Pressure Summary Table
Average Systolic Average Diastolic Average Blood Average Pulse

Position Pressure (mm Hg) Pressure (mm Hg) Pressure (SP/DP) Rate (beats/min)
Standing
Sitting
Lying down
Concluding and Communicating Extending

1. Would you expect the blood pressure readings to 5. With reference to Table 10.2, why is there a vari-
be the same in all arteries? Explain. ation in systolic and diastolic pressure among mem-
2. In what position did you record the lowest sys- bers in different age groups and different genders?
tolic pressure? Why do you think this is so? 6. Consider the scenario where a sedentary person
3. How do the measurements compare to the expected begins an exercise program. Hypothesize the effect
average for the person’s sex and age? on the person’s blood pressure six months after be-
ginning the exercise program.
4. How would exercise affect systolic blood pressure?
Explain your answer.

Inquiry Skills
Investigation 3 (Section 8.2,

9.1, 10.2)

Fetal Pig Dissection Analyzing and Interpreting

Animals used for scientific research and dissection help Procedure

us to understand our own bodies and how they func-
tion in health and disease. The fetal pig will be used
Part 1 External Anatomy
as a representative mammal. As a fetus, the pig
1. The fetal pig has four main body segments: the
receives nutrients and oxygen from its mother through
head, neck, trunk, and tail. You will also be able to
the umbilical cord. Read the safety and dissection
identify four appendages and an umbilical cord.
directions carefully.
2. Use the string to measure your pig from the tip of
its snout to the base of its tail. Lay the pig flat on
Purpose the dissection tray and stretch the string between
To study the external and internal anatomy of the fetal the nose and the tail. Measure the section of string
pig to gain perspectives on the following: against a ruler and match your measurement in
the relative positions and sizes of organs Table 10.5 to determine the age of your pig.
the interrelations between organs and organ sys-
TABLE 10.5 Relationship of Fetal Pig Length to Age in Utero
tems
the scientific process of dissection and its applica-
LAL1 Length of String (cm) Age of Pig
tions for anatomy and physiology.
0–10 cm 20 days
10–20 cm 30–35 days
CAUTION: 20–30 cm 45–50 days
– read through the entire activity before you begin.
40–50 cm 55 days
– wear protective goggles for the entire dissection.
100 cm 70 days
– wear plastic gloves when dissecting; if your skin comes
in contact with the preservative, rinse your hand under 150 cm 80 days
cold running water. 200 cm 100 days
– know where to find the eye wash station and first aid 300 cm 120 days
kit; check that the eye wash station works and that the
trunk
first aid kit is stocked.
– work near an open window or in a well ventilated area.
– scrub your hands and fingernails using the antibacterial transverse plane
scrub. Wipe your counter clean with paper towels. Ensure
that no bits of dissected pig wash down the sink. neck
– properly clean the dissection tray and dissection tools; dorsal/superior
head
dispose of the fetal pig according to instructions.
tail
Materials cranial/
anterior
caudal/
posterior
safety goggles dissecting microscope
non-latex gloves magnifying hand lens
plastic lab apron blunt probe frontal plane
preserved fetal pig dissecting pins
dissecting tray antibacterial soap
ventral/inferior
string paper towel
scissors appendages
scalpel
FIGURE 10.33 Body segments and planes of section in a
ruler fetal pig.


(continued)
3. Place the fetal pig on its back (dorsal surface) and tions carefully and to only remove those organs that
locate the pairs of nipples along the ventral surface. you are specifically asked to remove. Proceed carefully.
Both male and female fetal pigs have these nipples. One simple technique to ensure that you do not make
Notice the umbilical cord. any wrong incisions is to make superficial incisions
a) What is the function of the umbilical cord? first and then to follow those with deeper incisions.
b) How many blood vessels do you see within the
umbilical cord? 7. Exposing the ventral surface: With the pig still on
its dorsal surface, attach one piece of string to each
4. Use the diagrams to determine the sex of your pig.
of the pig’s ankles and another to its opposite wrist.
In females, the urogenital opening is located slightly
Pull the strings from an opposing wrist and ankle
ventral to the anus. A small, spiked tissue often
under the dissecting pan and tie. Repeat the pro-
called the genital papilla projects from the uro-
cedure for the other wrist and pull again to explose
genital opening. See Figure 10.33 (a). In males, the
the ventral surface. (See Figure 10.34.)
scrotum containing the testes can be located just
ventral to the anus. The urogenital opening of the To effectively expose the inner organs of your
male is found immediately posterior to the umbil- fetal pig, make five incisions.
The first incision – cutting the ventral surface:
ical cord. See Figure 10.33 (b). What is the sex of
your pig? (Hint: because the pig may be rubbery from
being preserved, sharp dissecting scissors are
5. Examine the feet of the fetal pig. Indicate the po-
better than a scalpel for this incision.)
sition and the number of toes.
Make a 10–15 cm incision just in front of the
6. Examine the head of your fetal pig. The flaps of skin umbilical cord and cut towards the head.
surrounding the ear are called pinnae. The fetal pig Follow incision 1 in Figure 10.34. Sketch the
has a snout and nostrils. Examine the chin of incision first using a black marker on the
your fetal pig. Do you notice any hair? Does your surface of the fetal pig. This will ensure the
fetal pig have eyelashes? Does your fetal pig have accuracy of your incisions.
a tongue? The second incision – cutting toward the pos-
terior surface. Use a scalpel to make an incision
Part 2 Internal Anatomy toward the posterior of the pig. Follow
incision 2 in Figure 10.34.
The third incision – cutting toward the lateral
Abdominal Cavity and the Organs of Digestion surface. Use scissors to make lateral incisions
You will be directed to examine various organs as they following incision 3 in Figure 10.34.
become visible. It is important to follow the direc-
umbilical umbilical
cord cord urogenital
opening
tail tail
nipples anus nipples anus
genital scrotal sac

papilla
urogenital scrotal
papilla sac
ventral view posterior view ventral view posterior view

female female male male
a) b)
FIGURE 10.34 a) Female pig b) Male pig


(continued)
liver
3 3 (lifted
forward)
stomach
5 5
gallbladder
2 2 spleen
small intestine
large intestine
4 4
LAL1
urinary bladder
FIGURE 10.35 Incisions for dissection of a fetal pig FIGURE 10.36 Organs of the abdominal cavity
The fourth incision – cutting towards the pos- cavity. The gallbladder is located underneath the
terior portion of the abdominal cavity. Use a liver. Identify the gallbladder. Look carefully to
scalpel to make incisions following incision 4 see the thin duct that connects the gallbladder to
in Figure 10.34. the small intestine. The liver appears a dark red or
The fifth incision – cutting between the thoracic brown colour, because it is engorged with blood.
and abdominal cavities. Use scissors to make an The liver contains 20% of the total blood supply in
incision starting at the midline, and extend the the fetal pig’s body at any given time. Which por-
incision laterally on both sides of the pig. Follow tion of the small intestine does the gall bladder
incision 5 in Figure 10.34. This incision runs connect to?
parallel to the diaphragm and separates the 10. Locating the stomach: Beneath the liver, on the left
thoracic and abdominal cavities. side of the fetal pig, is the stomach, which is nor-
Hint: You may want to feel for the ribs while mally a hollow organ. The anterior portion of the
making this incision. stomach is joined to the esophagus. The posterior
junction is attached to the first part of the small
8. Exposing the abdominal cavity: The abdominal cav- intestine, called the duodenum. With your dissec-
ity is best exposed by pulling apart the flaps at in- tion tool, try to lift the small intestine. What do you
cision 5. Notice the layer of connective tissue called notice? A thin, transparent film covers the small
the peritoneum that holds the abdominal organs intestine. This is called the mesentery. This film or
in place. You may need to tease this layer away be- layer of connective tissue is around other organs.
fore starting your detailed examination of the in- What is the advantage of having such a
ternal organs. The posterior portion of the film? Observe the blood vessels running in the
abdominal cavity is best viewed when the flaps on mesentery.
incision 4 are pulled apart and secured by pins.
11. Locating the pancreas: The pancreas is located
Refer to Figure 10.35 for the digestive organs.
toward the back wall of the abdominal cavity. It is
9. Locating the liver and the gallbladder: The liver is a finger-shaped gland that is typically creamy white
easily seen in the anterior aspect of the abdominal in colour. It is best reached by lifting the junction


(continued)
between the stomach and the small intestine. As thoracic cavity. The thoracic cavity is the area
an accessory organ in digestion, what vital sub- between incisions 3 and 5. Refer to Figure 10.36
stances does the pancreas provide? for the heart and major blood vessels.
12. Locating the spleen: Look toward the left side of the 16. Locating the heart: The heart is found between the
fetal pig to see the spleen, found near the outer cur- two lungs and is protected by the rib cage. In the
vature of the stomach. What is its function? adult human, gaining access to the heart is very
13. Remove the stomach by cuts at the junctions with difficult, and involves the sawing of the sternum
the esophagus and the small intestine. Cut along and spreading of the ribs. In the fetal pig, one does
the midline of the stomach, rinse the stomach with not need much force to access the heart. In fact,
water, and examine it under the dissecting micro- simple scissors are enough for this task. Can you
scope. Observe the lining of the stomach. explain this?
14. Locating the small and large intestines: Carefully The heart is surrounded by a thin and transparent
use your scissors to snip away the mesentery tis- film called the pericardium, similar to the mesen-
sue. Unravel the small intestine. Locate the large tery of the small intestine. Remove the pericardial
intestine and compare its structure and length with membrane that encases the heart. Why might for-
those of the small intestine. How is the small in- ceps be the best tool to accomplish this?
testine different from the large intestine? How long 17. Locating each of the major vessels of the heart.
is your pig’s small intestine? inferior vena cava: runs from the liver and
lower part of the body to the right side of the
heart; empties into the right atrium.
Thoracic Cavity and the Organs of Respiration superior vena cava: runs from the upper body
of the pig to the right side of the heart; empties
and Circulation into the right atrium.
15. Exposing the thoracic cavity: Using dissecting pins, pulmonary trunk: starts at the right ventricle;
fold back and pin the flaps of skin that cover the transports deoxygenated blood to the lungs
aorta: the largest artery in the circulatory sys-
Ventral View of Heart and Major Blood Vessels
tem; starts at the left ventricle; branches to
transport blood to all major organs. Passes
through the thoracic and abdominal cavities.
aortic arch: the part of the aorta that arises
trachea left common from the left ventricle. Two major vessels come
carotid artery
from the aortic arch; the brachiocephalic trunk
splits to send vessels to the right forelimb and
the head, the left subclavian artery supplies
left the left forelimb.
brachiocephalic trunk subclavian
artery 18. Discovering the four chambers of the heart. Using
superior your blunt probe, locate the right atrium.
vena cava aortic arch Deoxygenated blood from the body enters the heart
pulmonary here. Separate the inferior and superior venae cavae
right atrium trunk from the right atrium using scissors.
Locate the left atrium and notice that several ves-
left atrium
right
sels enter it. These are the pulmonary veins from
ventricle the lungs. Separate the pulmonary veins from the
heart using scissors.
left Find the aorta coming off the left ventricle and sep-
inferior ventricle
vena cava arate it from the heart using scissors.
left lung Find the pulmonary trunk arising from the right
right lung ventricle and separate it from the heart using scis-
sors.
coronary vessels Review the flow of blood through the heart. The
pulmonary circulation begins at the right atrium;
FIGURE 10.37 Ventral view of heart and major blood vessels blood flows to the right ventricle, pulmonary trunk
in the fetal pig


(continued)
and pulmonary arteries and then to the lungs. The 21. Locate the spongy lungs on either side of the heart
blood returns to the left atrium by way of the pul- and the trachea leading into the lungs.
monary veins. The systemic circulation begins at Why do the lungs feel spongy?
the left atrium; blood flows to the left ventricle, aorta,
22. Place your index finger on the trachea and push
and to all systems of the body. Blood returns to the
downward. Describe what happens.
heart by way of the superior and inferior venae
cavae, which enter the heart at the right atrium. What function do the cartilaginous rings of the tra-
chea serve?
Remove the heart from the thoracic cavity. You may
need to tease away any connective tissue. Hold the
heart in your hand and orient it as it would appear Concluding and Communicating
in the fetal pig. Note the large vessel that traverses
1. Write a lab report on your dissection. Include the
the ventral surface of the heart. This is the coro-
following sections.
nary artery and it provides oxygenated blood to
the heart itself.
19. The dorsal surface of the heart. Turn the heart over Abdominal cavity
and observe the dorsal surface. Refer to Figure Draw and label the organs as seen on opening the
10.37 and observe the entry of the venae cavae and abdominal cavity.
pulmonary veins into the right and left atria. Describe the structure and function of each organ.
a) esophagus
b) stomach
c) liver
superior d) gallbladder
vena cava
e) small intallestine
left atrium f) large intestine
dorsal surface
of heart Thoracic cavity
left
ventricle Draw and label the organs as seen on opening the
thoracic cavity.
g) Describe the structure of the lungs.
aorta
inferior h) Describe the structure of the heart.
vena cava
i) State the functions of the diaphragm.
FIGURE 10.38 Dorsal view of the heart in the fetal pig 2. You have just learned more about various internal
systems through dissecting a fetal pig. There are
20. Dissection of the heart: Make an incision that sep- other methods of learning about systems. For ex-
arates the left side from the right side of the heart. ample, there are computer software packages
Note the inner walls of the heart and their texture. that allow students to conduct “virtual dissections.”
Look at the thickness of the left and right ventri- Using a T-chart, outline the pros and cons of dis-
cles. Compare the size of the wall of a ventricle and secting fetal pigs.
an atrium. What do you notice?
21. Locating the lungs: The lungs are closely associated Why Dissecting the Pig Is Why Dissecting the Pig Is
with the heart. They oxygenate the blood received Valuable Not Valuable
from the right ventricle via the pulmonary arteries,
and deliver oxygenated blood back to the left atrium 3. After the dissection, the specimens need to be
via the pulmonary veins. The lungs are relatively disposed of safely. This can be an environmental
large because the bronchial tree is contained within hazard, since fetal pigs are bathed in a preserva-
them. Do you notice any difference in the size of tive. Investigate what preservatives were used on
the two lungs? the fetal pigs you dissected. How might these harm
20. Make a lateral incision across the heart and explore the environment if the pigs are not disposed of
the heart chamber. Compare the size of the wall properly?
of a ventricle with that of an atrium. Why does
the left ventricle contain more muscle than the right
ventricle?

TABLE 10.6 Structures and Their Function in the Mammalian Heart
Structure Function
Superior and inferior venae cavae Bring deoxygenated blood from the systemic circulatory system to the heart
Right atrium Receives deoxygenated blood
Tricuspid valve Prevents deoxygenated blood from flowing back into the right atrium
Right ventricle Pumps deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary circulatory system
Pulmonary semilunar valve Prevents deoxygenated blood from flowing back into the right ventricle from the pulmonary trunk
Pulmonary artery Brings deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs
Pulmonary veins Bring oxygenated blood to the left atrium
Left atrium Receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary veins
Bicuspid or mitial value Prevents the back flow of oxygenated blood into the left atrium
Left ventricle Pumps oxygenated blood into the systemic circulation
Aortic semilunar valve Prevents oxygenated blood from flowing back into the left ventricle from the aorta
Aorta Largest artery in the body; accepts blood from the left ventricle during systole
PULMONARY
CIRCULATION
superior
vena cava aorta
lungs 7
pulmonary
3 arteries
pulmonary
The right side The left side of 4 veins
of the heart the heart pumps 5
pumps oxygenated right
atrium left
de-oxygenated blood to the
1 atrium
blood to the rest of the
lungs. body.
6 left
2 ventricle
SYSTEMIC inferior
CIRCULATION vena cava right
ventricle
FIGURE 10.39 A double circulation system. Use this figure and

the information in Table 10.6 to summarize what you have learned
in this chapter.

Key Terms
anemia diastole inferior vena cava sphygmomanometer

aorta dorsal vessel leucocytes superior vena cava
atherosclerosis electrocardiogram myocardium systemic circuit
atria erythrocytes plasma systole
bypass surgery exercise stress test platelets ventral vessel
cardiac catheterization fibrin pseudohearts ventricles
cardiac cycle gill capillaries pulmonary circuit
compensation hemoglobin septum
coronary circulation hypertension sinoatrial node
10.1 The Human Circulatory System and the Components of Arteries carry blood from the heart, and veins carry
Blood blood to the heart. Capillaries connect arteries
and veins.
The circulatory system consists of three main
Arteries and veins consist of three layers of tissue.
components: the heart, blood vessels, and blood.
Arteries are more muscular, veins are more elastic.
The circulatory system transports nutrients and oxy-
Veins have valves for unidirectional blood flow.
gen and also carbon dioxide and waste.
The circulatory system interacts with many other
body systems (for example, respiratory, digestive). 10.3 The Circulatory System in Health and Disease
Blood has two main components: the plasma por- Hypertension: high blood pressure; if prolonged, it
tion (55%) and the cellular portion (45%) composed can damage the heart and other blood vessels.
of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Angina: chest pains that occur when the heart is de-
Red blood cells transport oxygen; white blood cells prived of oxygen.
fight infection; platelets help in blood clotting. Heart attack: a more severe form of angina where
Genetic conditions affect the make up of hemoglobin some of the heart’s muscle cells die.
and the performance of red blood cells. Stroke: a blood vessel is damaged or has a blood clot
within it, preventing oxygen from reaching the brain.
10.2 The Structure and Function of the Human Heart and Nitroglycerine: a drug used to treat angina by
Blood Vessels dilating the coronary arteries.
The heart consists of four chambers: two atria and

10.4 Circulatory Systems in Various Organisms
two ventricles.
Coronary arteries supply the heart with oxygen and The earthworm has a closed circulatory system con-
nutrients so that it can function properly. sisting of the dorsal vessel and the ventral vessel,
The human heart is a double pump: the right side and five tiny arches called “pseudohearts.”
leads to the pulmonary circulation while the left side The fish has a closed circulatory system consisting
leads to the systemic circulation. of a two-chambered heart with one atrium and one
Pulmonary circulation carries blood between the ventricle; oxygen is obtained through the gill
heart and the lungs. Systemic circulation carries capillaries.
blood between the heart and the rest of the body. The amphibian has a closed circulatory system con-
The heart beats regularly and this cardiac cycle consisting of a three-chambered heart with two atria
sists of systole (a period of contraction) and diastole and one ventricle. Blood that enters the ventricle
(a period of relaxation). is mixed (oxygenated and deoxygenated).
1. Refer to the Checkpoint activity on page 317 and review 3. Create an analogy that can be used to explain the
the factors you listed that prevent heart disease. Revise relationship between the digestive, circulatory, and
your list based on what you learned in this chapter. respiratory systems you have studied.
2. Draw a concept map to describe how the circulatory 4. Reflect on your learning. Explain why analogies are used
system functions. in teaching and learning.

C H A P T E R 10 R E V I E W
Understanding Concepts b) prevent blood from flowing back into the left atrium
c) prevent blood from flowing back into the lungs
1. Which one of the following is not a component of a cir- d) prevent blood from flowing back into the right ven-
culatory system? tricle
a) artery
b) valve 10. A sphygmomanometer gives you a reading of 120/80.
c) vessels The number on top represents the:
d) tongue a) systolic pressure
b) cardiac pressure
2. The circulation involving the heart is called c) diastolic pressure
a) renal d) blood pressure
b) coronary
c) pulmonary 11. Why is your carotid (neck) pulse stronger than your ra-
d) systemic dial (wrist) pulse?
3. A site of exchange of materials between the circulatory 12. Define pulse and pulse pressure.
system and the body cells is the
a) artery 13. Describe the structure, function, and origin of platelets.
b) vein
c) arteriole 14. List some of the risk factors for coronary heart disease.
d) capillary Referring to your list, underline the ones that are pre-
ventable.
4. The backward flow of blood in the veins is prevented by
a) muscles 15. What is the effect of nicotine on the circulatory
b) valves system?
c) the heartbeat
d) epithelial tissue 16. What causes varicose veins?
5. Where is blood pressure the lowest?

a) arteries Applying Inquiry/
b) arterioles Communication Skills
c) capillaries
d) veins
17. You are conducting a taste test to gather data on how
caffeine and decaffeinated beverages affect the heart rate.
6. The liquid portion of blood is called
You have just concocted three new spritzer drinks. You
a) blood
collect the following data about the effect of the con-
b) lymph
sumption of 355 mL of your product on consumers’ heart
c) plasma
rate. You surveyed 100 people who taste-tested your
d) serum
products. The average effects on heart rate are sum-
marized below.
7. What is found at the core of each chain of a hemoglobin
molecule?
a) Oxygen Beverage Before Immediately 20 minutes
b) Iron consuming the after later
c) Carbon dioxide beverage
d) Water spritzer A 70 bpm 75 bpm 85 bpm
spritzer B 70 bpm 70 bpm 70 bpm
8. This heart chamber receives oxygen-poor blood.
a) right atrium spritzer C 70 bpm 70 bpm 78 bpm
b) left atrium
c) right ventricle
a) Which drink do you think is decaffeinated?
d) left ventricle
b) Explain why it is important to take the heart rate
before and after a trial.
9. The function of the pulmonary semilunar valve is to
c) From the data, suggest reasons why spritzer C only
a) prevent blood from flowing back into the right
elicited an increased heart rate sometime after
atrium
consumption.

18. The concentration of red blood cells and white blood cells 23. The human heart pumps blood at an average rate of
is given below: 92 mL/s. How much blood is pumped in one day?
Red blood cells: 4.6 x 106 per mL Express your answer in L/day.
White blood cells: 6.0 x 103 per mL
In one litre of blood, what is the ratio of white blood cells
to red blood cells?
Making Connections
19. Why do you think athletes are recommended to elevate
24. In recent years, there have been many reports of blood
a wounded area and apply direct pressure to the injury
tainted with infections being transfused into individuals.
with a cold compress?
Biotechnology companies are now looking into fabricat-
ing a synthetic blood product.
20. The heart is the hardest working muscle in your body.
a) Research new developments in the pursuit of a syn-
The heart masses of three different humans are given
thetic blood product.
below.
b) What impacts might such a product have on
Description of Human Newborn Adult Athlete society?
c) What are some ethical considerations that must be
Heart Mass 20 g 300 g 500 g
investigated before such a product could be used for
human transfusion?
a) Calculate how many times greater the heart mass
of an adult is when compared to that of a newborn.
25. A high percentage of the Canadian population fall vic-
b) You are born with all the muscle cells that you will
tim to strokes each year.
have in your entire life. Account for the difference
a) Research the frequency of strokes in the Canadian
between the heart mass of an adult versus an
population.
athlete.
b) Which sector of the population is most likely to be
at risk of having a stroke? Explain.
21. A stress test is a technology that can help detect coro-
c) What impacts do people with strokes have on the
nary artery disease. This involves having an individual
health care system?
walk and/or run on a treadmill while attached to elec-
d) What medical professionals contribute to the care
trodes that monitor the heart rate and rhythm. Below
and maintenance of stroke patients?
are the stress test results of two individuals:
Age Heart Maximum Heart Symptoms 26. Many areas in health care require the handling of blood
rate heart rate and blood products that may harbour serious infections.
before rate 30 min a) What are three common infections that can be found
test during after in the blood?
test test b) What precautions can be taken to properly handle
and dispose of blood and blood products?
Person 48 68 192 82 Slight pain in c) What safety training programs and symbols can help
A the knees in dealing with blood products?
during the test
27. Aspirin is a drug therapy that is now the cornerstone
Person 62 80 118 110 Feeling of chest
of treatment for individuals with many types of heart dis-
B tightness five
ease. For heart patients, there is a saying: “An aspirin
minutes into the
test a day keeps the doctor away.” This statement is based
on the fact that aspirin is an effective blood thinner.
a) Research the mechanism by which aspirin thins the
a) Based on the above information, which person prob-
blood.
ably has heart disease?
b) From the digestive system, recall where aspirin is
b) What other questions would you like to ask this in-
absorbed.
dividual to determine his or her other risk factors?
c) What are the important complications of aspirin
c) How does one’s level of fitness relate to one’s heart
therapy?
rate 30 min after completing exercise?
22. Using your knowledge of the structure of arteries and

veins, what would you expect a serious arterial bleed
to look like? How would a serious venous bleed appear?

EXPLORING CAREERS
Preparing for a Career in Biology
As you’ve seen, biology is a fast-grow- What they have in common is that al-
ing and changing area in which to work; most all require at least an undergrad-
it is full of opportunities. Within biology, uate degree from a university. But how
there is a wide range of topics, or fields, do you choose the university you wish
to match with your interests as you to attend? While there are many factors,
explore career options. Keep in mind the most important is to find out which
that within all of these, there will be peo- universities offer the undergraduate
ple working as technicians, researchers, degree you need in the field that inter-
teachers, administrators, and so on—in ests you.
fact, there will be an array of choices.
Understanding University
Term Meaning Jargon
Every area of human endeavour has
Bachelor of Science This is the degree in science granted by a university.
its own specialized terms. Just think of
(B.Sc.) It is called an undergraduate degree because you need
the music industry, sports, or even your
a B.Sc. before you can apply for graduate degree
programs or to professional schools, such as medicine.
biology class. You’ll encounter a lot of
It is similar to a high school diploma, since you need terms as you start considering a uni-
a certain number of credits to complete your B.Sc. and versity education, some familiar, some
some of these are required courses. new. Whenever you are unsure of what
a term means, ask. A few of the more
Many universities offer a variety of three- or four- year common ones are shown to the left.
B.Sc. programs, but all start with a common first year
in which students take introductory courses in the three
sciences plus calculus. Each year after that,
students choose courses to specialize in a particular
field or take a variety of science and other courses to
gain more general knowledge.
Master of Science These are graduate degrees taken by a person who

(M.Sc.) wishes to become an expert in a particular field. Usually,
Doctor of Philosophy a student takes a B.Sc., then an M.Sc., then the Ph.D.
(Science) (Ph.D.) Most graduate students receive funding to cover the
cost of their studies by working in their fields as
research or teaching assistants at the university. Image omitted due to copyright restrictions.
Faculty and Department These are major divisions within a university. A faculty
of science, for example, would include several
departments, such as biology, chemistry, and physics.
These departments may be split into more specialized
ones, such as the department of zoology or microbi-
ology. (Note: A large or very distinct faculty within a
university may be called a college or a school. For
example, the University of Guelph contains a College FIGURE 1 University “calendars” are like
of Biological Science. McMaster University contains catalogues. They list all of the courses available
to undergraduate students as well as information
a School of Medicine.)
about the university and degree programs.

Comparing B.Sc. Programs For example, if you are interested

in human biology or medicine, you could
1. Obtain at least two university
take a B.Sc. in biology at any university,
calendars from your guidance
but some universities offer a B.Sc.
department, university students you
(Medical) program. Such a program will
know, or by contacting the univer-
let you specialize further by adding a
sities directly. On-line? Universities
“major,” such as genetics, physics,
maintain Web sites with information
gerontology, biochemistry, microbiology,
from their calendars. They are easy
and so on. (A “major” is when most
to search and provide specific
courses focus on a particular area.)
contacts to email with questions. (An
excellent list of university links is at
2. Using the information from the cal-
www.uwaterloo.ca/canu/index.html.)
endars, answer this question: Which
Locate and compare the following
university offers B.Sc. programs that
information:
most closely match my field of
a list of faculties
interest?
the faculty of science (Hint: How
many professors are listed
compared with other faculties Looking Outward
in the university?) Do you enjoy biology, but you aren’t sure
the department of biology (Hint: which field interests you the most?
This could be called a college or University calendars can help!
school, or could be broken
further into fields within biology.) 3. Read through the course descrip-
the section on “degree pro- tions. Write down the titles of any
grams” listing B.Sc. options that really grab your attention. Don’t
(Hint: You will find several. worry about what they are or
Remember, first year is essen- whether your list makes “sense.”
tially the same for all, so there’s Make a separate list for each
time to find out more about university you are considering.
these options and talk to Look at your lists for any
undergraduate advisors on patterns or trends. They could
campus. Many students make be a good indicator of what
changes as they go through you’d enjoy doing.
their degree program.) Which lists had the greatest
the section describing the courses number of “grabbers”? This
offered by this department may mean you should consider
those universities. Keep your
While all Canadian universities offer lists handy as you continue
an excellent B.Sc. degree, each one has preparing for your future.
its particular emphasis. For example, a
university with a School of Medicine will
likely offer a wide choice of human
biology–related B.Sc. degrees. Use this
emphasis to help you decide which
universities might best suit your needs.
At this point, don’t think of a specific
career, but rather of a field that
interests you.

ACHIEVEMENT TASK
View Rubric
Dissection in Science Education
Traditionally students in secondary school biology classrooms have dis-
sected frogs, fetal pigs, and other vertebrates and invertebrates to learn
about and compare the different internal systems. Dissection has been gen-
erally accepted as a standard way to learn science, but today there are dif-
fering opinions on whether or not dissection in the classroom is acceptable.
Technology now makes it possible to approach dissection in alternate
ways. Virtual dissection on computer allows students to see, on the com-
puter screen, the same results they would see when performing the
dissection in their school lab. Some teachers believe that the first-hand
experience with the dissection procedure is the best way to learn.
SCENARIO
You are a member of a School Board in Ontario. Your committee is review-

ing a proposal to discontinue dissection in biology courses. You will write
a letter to the School Board Trustees expressing your opinion on the issue.

Part A: Selection of Specimen Part C: Perspectives

1. Explain why vertebrates, such as the fetal 5. Brainstorm and then research the cultural,
pig are used for classroom dissection. ethical/moral, social, economic, political,
and environmental perspectives on dis-
2. Research the internal systems of other ver-
section at different levels of education (i.e.,
tebrates, such as a bird, frog, or fish.
high school, college/university). Display your
Compare and contrast them with the in-
research using a visual graphic organizer.
ternal systems of a pig.
6. Brainstorm and then research alterna-
tives to using dissection in education
(e.g., computer simulation).
Part B: Technical Skills of
7. Prepare two cost-benefit analyses for (a)
Dissection using fetal pigs for dissection in the class-
3. Describe the technical skills that a biology room and (b) using alternative methods of
student learns from performing a dissec- dissection.
tion, and why those skills are important. 8. Write a letter outlining your position on
4. Fetal pigs, as well as other animals used for whether or not dissection should be dis-
dissection, are preserved in formaldehyde. continued in biology courses. In your letter
Research this chemical and describe the you should consider the varied cultural
safety procedures that should be followed background of students, the costs involved,
during the dissection and when the dissec- and any relevant safety or environmental
tion is completed. issues.
UNIT 3 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts 9. Which of the following is not an accessory organ of the
digestive system?
1. All of the following are examples of structures that in- a) stomach
crease surface area, except b) liver
a) villi d) pancreas
b) alveoli d) gallbladder
c) capillaries
d) valves 10. All of the following are components of the small intes-
tine except the:
2. Venules are to veins as the are to bronchi. a) ileum
a) trachea b) colon
b) bronchioles c) duodenum
c) alveoli d) jejunum
d) cilia
11. What key feature do the alveoli in the lungs share with
3. After the right ventricle, blood flows to the the villi in the small intestines?
a) pulmonary artery
b) right atrium 12. What are the dietary recommendations regarding foods
c) pulmonary vein high in fats? How does eating fatty foods affect cardio-
d) vena cava vascular health?
4. Red blood cells are responsible for which one of the 13. How are the structures of arteries and arterioles in the
following: circulatory system similar to bronchi and bronchioles in
a) carrying oxygen throughout the body the respiratory system?
b) carrying hormones throughout the body
c) fighting infection throughout the body 14. Some infants are born with a small hole in their heart.
d) getting rid of unwanted wastes This hole can be either between the atria or between the
ventricles. Explain how this situation will affect the in-
5. The correct sequence of structures in the respiratory sys- fant. How do you think this problem could be corrected?
tem from outside to inside is:
a) nostrils, larynx, trachea, pharynx, bronchioles 15. The air that patients who are breathing on a respirator
b) nostrils, bronchi, bronchioles, trachea, alveoli receive must be filtered and humidified externally. A res-
c) nostrils, larynx, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli pirator is a tube that provides air directly into the tra-
d) nostrils, bronchi, larynx, bronchioles, alveoli chea. Explain why this is so.
6. The esophagus is to the digestive system what 16. Hypoxia is a condition caused by a shortage of oxygen
the is to the respiratory system. in the body tissues. Explain why the bone marrow in
a) epiglottis such a patient would produce more red blood cells.
b) lung
c) cilia 17. The heart and lungs are very close to each other. Suggest
d) trachea reasons why this is beneficial.
7. Consider the three systems that we studied in this unit. 18. A stroke occurs when a blood vessel travelling to the
The following structures are common to the digestive brain is damaged. Often, patients who have had a stroke
and respiratory systems, except the: lose the ability to swallow properly and lose control over
a) pharynx some muscles that control the epiglottis. How might this
b) epiglottis affect their airway?
c) oral cavity
d) nasal cavity 19. You have just had a peanut butter and jam sandwich for
lunch. Identify the various macronutrients in the sand-
8. Which of the following vessels is narrower than an wich and outline where they would be digested.
arteriole?
a) aortic artery 20. Often in the winter the air is more dry, making it diffi-
b) capillary cult to breathe. Also, when exercising, individuals
c) artery increase their ventilations per minute. What recom-
d) vein mendations would you make to an athlete who has
asthma but would like to exercise in the winter months?

21. A doctor was examining fluids from different parts of the 27. What volume of air would an individual at rest breathe
digestive tract. Based on your knowledge of pH and the in during one minute if he has a tidal volume of 500 mL
different organs in the digestive system, match up the and takes a breath every 5 s? Express your answer in
pH of the fluid with an answer in column 2. Explain litres per minute.
your reasoning.
28. Jay and Lea are exercising. After 20 min of rigorous
pH Organ exercise, they both decide to take their pulse. They both
take their carotid pulse (at their neck). In a 10-s
2.0 Saliva
period, Jay’s pulse is 27 and Lea’s pulse is 33. Assuming
9.0 Stomach that these pulse rates remained constant during the
20-min exercise period, how many more times is Lea’s
7.2 Duodenum heart beating than Jay’s?
22. Orthostatic hypotentsion is a condition whereby you feel 29. You have been placed on a carbohydrate-reduced diet
dizzy if you go from a lying-down to a standing posi- and you are only allowed to consume 260 Cal at
tion too quickly, for example, when you get out of bed in lunchtime. Assuming that you will only have crackers
the morning. Using your knowledge of blood vessels and for lunch, and each cracker is 50 kJ, how many can you
the structural differences between arteries and veins, have? (Hint: 1 Cal = 4.18 kJ).
account for dizziness. Why might this be more prob- Round your answer to the nearest cracker!!!
lematic in the elderly?
30. The heart rate for an average-sized healthy adult is 72
23. The first-aid for a severe bleed is to apply direct pres- beats per minute. The heart pumps an average of 80 mL
sure to the wound. You notice that a child has fallen off of blood during systole. How much blood does the heart
a swing and has started to bleed. You also notice that pump in one minute, in litres?
the blood is spurting from the child’s arm. Take safety
into account. 31. Examine the following data:
a) What type of vessel do you think the child has
injured? Activity Pulse Rate (bpm)
b) What safety precautions should you take before help- sleeping 56
ing the child?
c) Why is it standard first-aid practice to apply direct eating 80
pressure to a bleed?
running for the bus 150
Applying Inquiry/
a) How many times would a person’s heart beat if he
Communication Skills or she slept for 2 h?
b) How much time would a person have to spend “run-
24. Vomiting can be caused by numerous factors, including ning” in order for his or her heart beat to be equal
motion sickness, food poisoning, and unpleasant smells. to 30 min of sleeping?
a) Vomiting is a mechanism that begins in the brain.
Research how this mechanism works to induce vom- 32. Mountain climbing places an enormous demand on the
iting from the stomach. cardiovascular and respiratory systems. Below you can
b) Often, vomiting can lead to severe dehydration. find the respiratory rate and the heart rate for an indi-
Brainstorm the effects of dehydration on the circu- vidual who is embarking upon a strenuous climb.
latory system.
Day Altitude (m) Respiratory Heart Rate
25. Mrs. Smith is a 45-year-old lady who comes to you be- Rate (beats/min)
cause she has decided to make exercise a new part of (breaths/min)
her daily regimen. When you speak to her, she tells you 2 0 13 52
that she has a history of asthma, diabetes, and angina. 4 1000 14 55
You also note that her BMI is 32 kg/m 2 . From your 6 1500 17 68
knowledge of the digestion, respiration, and circulatory 8 2500 24 92
systems, design an exercise regimen for Mrs. Smith, 10 3000 28 108
taking into account her current illnesses. 12 3500 30 112
14 4000 34 116
26. What is the mass of an individual who is 6 feet tall and
has a BMI of 28.5 kg/m2? [1 cm = 0.39 inches]
Unit Review 363

a) Construct two graphs: one that plots Respiratory 36. Individuals who are selected for space travel must
Rate against Altitude, and the other that plots Heart have a high level of cardiovascular fitness. Some hy-
Rate against Altitude. pothesize that the microgravity environment found in
b) What is the trend between heart rate and respira- space places a large physiological stress on the cardio-
tory rate as altitude increases? vascular system.
c) What do you suspect would happen to the heart rate a) Research the phenomenon of microgravity and de-
and the respiratory rate if the individual stayed at scribe its effects on the circulatory system.
the same altitude for several days? b) Do you think it would be possible for humans to live
d) How many more times does the climber’s heart have in a microgravity environment for an extended pe-
to beat in one minute at 4000 m than at sea level? riod of time? Write a position paper to justify your
views.
c) With the increase in global population, construct a
PMI chart as to whether space habitation is a viable
Making Connections
alternative.
33. Osteoporosis is a systemic disease that affects the mass
37. Improvements in fleets of airplanes have enabled indi-
and density of bone. Generally, from the age of approx-
viduals to travel for long periods of time in comfort.
imately 30 to the time of menopause, a woman’s bone
However, some passengers still complain of leg cramp-
density is relatively constant. It begins to decrease
ing and indigestion. Based on your knowledge of the
once the woman becomes menopausal and decreases
blood vessels in the venous system, how do you think
rapidly in the first five to ten years after menopause.
that sitting for long periods of times affects blood in this
a) What technology is used to make the diagnosis of
system?
osteoporosis?
a) Airline companies are designing their meals to be
b) What risk factors place older women at a higher risk
more nutritious. Contact a local airline and ask about
for developing this disease?
the nutrition options available for passengers.
c) There are several dietary and lifestyle changes that
b) What are some special dietary considerations that
can affect bone mineral density. Research the role
airplanes provide for? Why is this consideration im-
of calcium, vitamin D, alcohol, and caffeine on bone
portant to patrons?
density.
d) Design a nutrition and exercise regimen that you
38. Allergies to bee stings and certain foods, especially
would recommend to a woman who already has
peanuts, are fairly common in the general population.
osteoporosis.
Many individuals with such allergies carry around an
Epi-pen, which contains epinephrine.
34. When someone is undergoing surgery, he or she is
a) Research the role of epinephrine in anaphylactic
usually given an anesthetic. However, during surgery it
shock. Why might it be important for a daycare
is very important to monitor a patient’s blood pressure,
worker to be skilled in using an Epi-pen?
heart rate, and temperature.
b) Rescue breathing is something that might have to
a) Research the effects of anesthetics on the cardio-
occur if the airway becomes completely obstructed.
vascular system.
Consult your local Red Cross society to learn more
b) Are there any individuals that may not be able to
about when rescue breathing should be performed.
benefit from this type of treatment?
c) What does the term “Do Not Resuscitate” mean?
c) Many individuals are part of the health care team
Contact your local hospital to learn when this is ob-
during a surgery. Brainstorm the role of five of these
served in patient care.
individuals, and summarize in a chart some of the
educational qualifications that these individuals
39. Eating disorders in the general population are common,
require.
especially in adolescent girls. Some say that the popu-
lar media is partly to blame for promoting an unhealthy
35. Pregnancy is associated with many changes in nutrition
body image. A local teen magazine has approached you
and health.
to write an article on what constitutes a healthy body
a) According to the Canada Food Guide to Healthy
image.
Eating, how do the nutritional requirements during
a) Brainstorm what you think a healthy body image
pregnancy differ from those of someone who is
entails.
not pregnant?
b) How has body image changed through time? It might
b) Hypothesize why pregnant women need more iron
be helpful if you look at the views of women through
than non-pregnant women.
the ages (Medieval, Elizabethan, Victorian,
c) Describe the prenatal care that is important to en-
Contemporary).
sure that both the mother and the fetus are healthy
c) There are dolls available on toy store shelves whose
during pregnancy.
body frames are more realistic representations of

Canadian women. Do you think that these dolls are 43. The cardiac output is the amount of blood that is pumped
effective in promoting healthy body images among out by the heart per minute. It is the product of the stroke
pre-teen girls who play with them? volume and the heart rate. Refer to the table below
d) What are some ways in which a healthy body image that describes changes in stroke volume and heart rate
can be promoted to adolescent girls? during exercise.
40. Your uncle has recently been experiencing chest pain Stroke volume Heart rate
while going for his morning walk. He also smokes and (mL) (beats per minute)
has high blood pressure. After consulting with his fam-
At rest 75 80
ily doctor, he tells you that he is going for an exercise
stress test at the hospital. He is not really aware of what During maximum exercise 110 195
this test involves. Being an expert biologist, you decide
to help him out. a) What is the cardiac output at rest?
a) Phone a local community agency, such as the Heart b) What is the cardiac output during maximum exer-
and Stroke Foundation, and find out more about cise?
this test. c) If a person desired a cardiac output of 10.8L, and
b) Design a pamphlet that would educate people like had a heart rate of 120 beats per minute, what
your uncle about undergoing such a test. would the stroke volume have to be?
c) What strain do patients with heart disease place on
Ontario’s health care system? 44. Stress is one of the leading contributors to heart disease.
d) Account for why heart disease is so prevalent in Our society, though more efficient, seems to be more
North American society as compared to fish-eating stressed out!
communities. a) Design a survey to assess the stress level of your
classmates. Ask them specifically to report what fac-
41. Susan has not been feeling well for almost two months tors make them feel stressed.
now. She goes to the doctor and complains of aches and b) Analyze the results of the survey and rank which
pains, a cough, and difficulty breathing. Although the doc- items cause people the most stress.
tor thinks that this sounds like a simple cold, he orders c) As a society, what can be implemented in the work-
blood work to rule out any other problems. Later that place to help people maintain healthy stress levels?
same day, the lab urgently phones the doctor, and reads d) Why might a company want to invest money in
the results to him over the phone. They are as follows: educating its employees about stress management?
Hemoglobin 127 (g.L–1) (Normal female: 45. Major surgery can often be associated with significant
120 160 g.L–1) blood loss requiring transfusion. Sometimes when pa-
tients know that they are scheduled for a major opera-
Platelets 340 000/mL (Normal: tion, they opt to bank their blood prior to surgery. Then,
150 000 400 000 /mL if required, they receive their own blood back during the
operation.
White Blood Cell Count 58 103/mL (Normal:
a) Where is blood banking currently being done?
4.8 10.8 103/mL)
b) How much does it cost to bank your own blood?
c) What are some ways that blood is preserved at a
a) What is the apparent abnormality in the blood from blood bank?
Susan’s blood test? d) What are the societal and ethical implications of
b) Based on this information, what important condi- banking your own blood?
tion must the doctor now consider?
46. Each year, thousands of Canadians learn cardiopul-
42. The following is a list of different blood pressures monary resuscitation (CPR) through a first aid course.
taken at various points along the circulatory tree of the a) What are some agencies in your local community
same individual. that offer such a course?
Vessel 1: 70/40 mm Hg b) How might knowing CPR help improve the health
Vessel 2: 90/60 mm Hg of the population?
Vessel 3: 150/105 mm Hg c) Survey your class to determine the number of peo-
Which point likely represents the blood pressure at the ple who are certified in CPR.
aorta? Based on what you have learned in this chapter, d) How is CPR different when helping an infant, a
how does blood pressure change as one moves further young child, or an adult?
away from the heart?
Unit Review 365

UNIT
Diversity of
4
OVERALL
EXPECTATIONS
I
Living Things
n ecosystems across the planet, from the lush tropical rain forest to the
park in your own community, the vast diversity of living things is
astounding.
By the end of this unit, To manage, comprehend, and record biodiversity, biologists collect
you will be able to: organisms and study their similarities and differences. Some organisms
are radically different: plants are very different from animals. But some-
the diversity of living organisms times, the differences between organisms are small. The scarab beetles
through applying the concepts of pictured here are just a few of the beetle species found in a remote re-
phylogeny and taxonomy to the gion of Costa Rica. They look very similar in many ways, but they are each
kingdoms of life (including
Eubacteria and Archaebacteria)
and viruses
use techniques of sampling and
classification to illustrate
the fundamental principles of
taxonomy
relate the role of common
characteristics and diversity within
the kingdoms of life (including
Eubacteria and Archaebacteria)
to the importance of maintaining
biodiversity within natural
ecosystems, and explain the
use of micro-organisms in
biotechnology
A small sample of the scarab beetles found in Costa Rica. They are similar to one another in
some ways, but different in others.
366
subtly different from one another. The vibrant coloration of these beetles
represents only one characteristic that varies among their species. No two
members of a species are identical, and this diversity within a species is
important to the species’ survival.
For centuries, humans have depended on Earth’s biodiversity for food
and other useful products. Today, scientists are producing new genetically
modified organisms. These modifications would be impossible without bac-
teria and viruses to produce the DNA needed for genetic engineering.
In this unit, you will investigate the diversity of living things from each
of the life kingdoms, comparing their cells, anatomy, physiology, and life cy-
cles. You will also use a key to classify organisms from each of the kingdoms.
You will investigate the importance of sexual reproduction in creating vari-
ability within a population and the importance of variability in species sur-
vival. Finally, you will discover the role that viruses and bacteria play in the
field of biotechnology.
BIOLOGY HEADLINES
Bacteria reawaken after 25 million years Scientists create first genetically modified monkey
Researchers at California Polytechnic State U.S. researchers announced they have created
University reported reviving bacteria spores from ANDi, the first genetically modified rhesus mon-
the gut of a bee stuck in amber. The bee was esti- key. The researchers say this monkey could help
mated to be 25 to 30 million years old. accelerate research into human diseases such as
Alzheimer’s. Others wonder if scientists have gone
Vaccine could reduce E. coli outbreaks too far, manipulating the genes of a primate, one
of humankind’s closest relatives.
Canadian scientists have developed a cattle vac-
cine that could reduce the spread of E. coli 157—
Scientists engineer a killer virus—by mistake
the deadly bacteria that contaminated the water
supply in Walkerton, Ontario in 2000. An Australian research team accidentally created
a virus that wipes out part of the immune system
Transgenic salmon pose threat to wild stocks of every one of its victims. To try to control mice
infestations, researchers were attempting to mod-
According to the environmental group Greenpeace,
ify a mousepox virus so that it would make infected
transgenic salmon pose a threat to North America’s
mice sterile. However, the researchers’ modifica-
remaining stocks of wild salmon. They are much
tions made the virus deadly, raising fears that sim-
bigger and faster growing than their wild coun-
ilar alterations could be made to human viruses to
terparts and, if they escape into the wild, wild
make them just as deadly.
salmon might not be able to compete against them.
Wild salmon may ultimately face extinction.
PREVIEW
ACHIEVEMENT TASK
Canadian superbugs on the wane
At the end of the unit, you will demonstrate your learn-
Efforts to convince doctors to prescribe fewer an- ing by writing a position paper on the role of repro-
tibiotics in recent years have significantly reduced ductive technologies in saving endangered species.
the spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria across See page 486.
Canada.
367
C H A P T E R 11
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS Classification
define the fundamental principles
of taxonomy and phylogeny (11.1,
11.2)
explain the importance of sexual
reproduction to variability within a
population (11.2)
demonstrate, through applying
classification techniques and
terminology, the usefulness of
the system of scientific
nomenclature in the field of
taxonomy (11.1, Investigation 1)
demonstrate an understanding
of the connection between
biodiversity and species survival
(11.2)
FIGURE 11.1 A sample of butterflies found in Peru.
368
O rganisms have diversified over evolutionary time into every part of Earth’s
biosphere. The diverse shapes, sizes, and structural and functional char-
acteristics of the life forms that populate natural ecosystems could be over-
whelming. To organize and catalogue this diversity, biologists apply the
fundamental principles of taxonomy and phylogeny to the kingdoms of life.
Biologists use a common system of classification and terminology to iden-
tify, name, and group organisms into meaningful categories. The modern sys-
tem of classification groups organisms according to their cell structure,
structural characteristics, method of obtaining nutrients, and, more recently,
the degree of genetic similarity. Most biologists today recognize six life king-
doms: Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia.
Biologists use dichotomous classification keys to classify organisms into the
appropriate group. Phylogeny is the evolutionary grouping of organisms based
CHECKPOINT
on their degree of relatedness. Organisms share common ancestry if they
show similar stages of embryological development and similar anatomical
These animals have been
structures.
classified as mammals by
Sexual reproduction (including the reshuffling of genetic material during biologists. In your notebook,
meiosis) maintains genetic variability. Genetic variability among individuals make a chart listing the
provides a greater diversity of genotypes that can survive environmental reasons why you agree or
changes. Biologists apply the concepts of taxonomy and phylogeny to the king- disagree with this classifi-
doms of life to organize and understand the connection between biodiversity, cation.
genetic variability, and species’ survival.
Agree Disagree
Discovering Biology
Observing the Variety of Life
Carefully observe the cats in
Figure 11.2 and select two cats
to compare.
Record the similarities and dif-
ferences you observe in a Venn
diagram.
Why do you think these closely
related organisms have de-
veloped differing characteris-
tics?
FIGURE 11.3 Mammals

FIGURE 11.2 Five purebred cats
CHAPTER 11 Classification 369

11.1 Taxonomy:
Organizing the Diversity of Life
Key Understandings
define the fundamental principles of taxonomy
explain how the system of scientific nomenclature is useful to the field of taxonomy
The Biosphere: The biosphere, with all its living

The Envelope of Life organisms, makes up only about one
part in 10 billion of Earth’s mass. The
Look out the window or take a walk in
biosphere is distributed through a layer
a park. There may be hills or open fields,
of soil, water, and air. This layer is esti-
rocks, soil or pavement under your feet.
mated to be 16 kilometres thick around
Wherever you are, you are in the
the outside of the Earth, stretching over
biosphere. The biosphere is that part of
one-half billion square kilometres
the Earth inhabited by living organisms.
Image omitted due to of Earth’s surface. Yet, as many as
It is found wherever there is life: under
copyright restrictions. 10 million different kinds of living
the surface of the Earth, on its surface,
organisms exist in this thin layer
or in the atmosphere above it. It is like
enveloping the planet (Figure 11.5).
an envelope that encircles the core of
Earth (Figure 11.4).
FIGURE 11.4 This photo of

the planet was taken about
68 000 nautical miles from
Earth.
Image omitted Image omitted due to copyright

due to copyright restrictions.
restrictions.
Coral fungus
Image omitted
due to copyright
restrictions. Paramecium

restrictions.
Trillium
Muskox
FIGURE 11.5 There is an amazing variety of organisms on Earth.
370 UNIT 4 Diversity of Living Things

A Catalogue of Life organisms were discovered. As the num-

ber of known organisms increased, the
The numbers of different kinds of organ-
need for a more effective classification sys-
isms in Earth’s biosphere are unknown.
tem was required.
The first listing of all the known living
things was made in Greece by Aristotle
Naming Organisms In the middle of the
2300 years ago. He identified about 1000
17th century, a member of the English
different kinds of organisms. Today, biol-
clergy, John Ray, set out to systemati-
ogists estimate 30 million to 100 million
cally catalogue all the organisms in the
kinds of organisms exist in the biosphere.
world. He was the first to use the word
Of the many kinds of organisms, biologists
species to describe a kind of organism.
have described only 1.75 million, just a
A species, according to Ray, was made
tiny fraction. Many of these organisms look
up of organisms that were similar in
so similar that it may be difficult to de-
shape and structure, and that repro-
termine whether certain populations be-
duced with one another (Figure 11.6).
long to the same species, or to two closely
The offspring, in turn, have to be able
related species.
to reproduce. By the time Ray had com-
If each of the estimated 30 million
pleted his life’s study, his list had grown
kinds of organisms was described on
to include 19 000 species of birds, fishes,
its own page in the Encyclopedia of
and four-footed animals.
Life, and if each volume was 500 pages,
this reference work would have 60 000
volumes.
Early Attempts at Classification To under-

stand the diversity of life, a system of bi-
ological classification that names and
groups organisms into meaningful FIGURE 11.6 Two separate species. These two owls look
categories is needed. When Aristotle very similar, but the northern spotted owl a) cannot breed with
the barred owl b), so they are two different species.
conducted his study of animals in the
fourth century B . C . , he grouped them
a) b)
according to habitat. There were land-
dwellers, water-dwellers, and air-dwellers.
St. Augustine, in the third century A.D.,
classified animals as useful, harmful, or
superfluous. In the Middle Ages, herbal-
ists classified plants according to what they
produced: fruit, vegetables, or wood. These
systems of classification worked well for
people of the time. Limited numbers of or-
ganisms were known and people often
spent time observing locally found species.
However, in the 1400s and 1500s,
European explorers set off on voyages
around the world and returned with ex-
tensive collections of plants and animals
never seen before on the European conti-
nent. In 1665, with the discovery of the
microscope, many varieties of micro-

FIGURE 11.7 The Linnean

system of classification.
Kingdoms contain many KINGDOM
different types of organisms. (Animalia)
Each taxon contains progres-
sively fewer types of
organisms. The taxon
“species” is the narrowest PHYLUM
category, containing only (Chordata)
one type of organism.
CLASS
(Mammalia)
ORDER
(Carnivora)
FAMILY
(Felidae)
GENUS
(Felis)
SPECIES
(sylvestris)
The Linnean System of organisms in Latin, which was the lan-

Classification guage of scholars in Europe at the time.
The first part of the name referred to
A species may be known by several
the genus (plural: genera) of the organ-
different names. For example, the North
ism, which is a relatively small group of
American cougar is also known as the
related species to which the species
panther or the m ountain lion.
belongs. All the varieties of species in the
INFOBIT The system of naming and classify-
same genus have many common charac-
ing organisms was simplified by the 18th-
Linnaeus was actually called
teristics. The second part of the name is
century Swedish naturalist Carolus
Carl von Linné. Carolus the species name and usually describes
Linnaeus. Linnaeus is often considered
Linnaeus is the Latinized form an important characteristic of the
of his name. to be the father of modern taxonomy be-
organism. For example, Felis sylvestris
cause his system, known as binomial
is the scientific name for the domestic cat.
nomenclature, is still in use today. He
Felis is the genus to which the species
grouped organisms according to their
belongs, and sylvestris identifies the
structural similarities.
species.
Using this system, scientists through-
Canis familiaris is the scientific
out the world refer to the same organisms
name for dog. Quercus rubra is the name
by the same names. Linnaeus named the

for the red oak tree. The generic name The taxon “species” is the smallest
is always capitalized and the species group, and it contains only a single
name is not. Rather than repeating a species. The organisms in a species
generic name when it is used several are the most like one another. As men-
times in a discussion, biologists often tioned earlier, organisms within a
spell it out only once and use only the species can interbreed. The species in
initial letter thereafter. For example, the taxon “genus,” the next grouping,
E. coli is the abbreviated form for are related. All the species are quite sim-
Escherichia coli. ilar to one another (Figure 11.7).
Broadening the classification further,
similar genera (the plural of genus) are
Classifying Living Things
grouped into a family. (The names of
All biological classification systems are animal families end in the suffix –idae,
designed to express relationships among plant families end in -aceae. Thus,
organisms. Even in recent times, many Formicidae is the family that contains
systems of classification have been used. all ant genera.) The family Hominidae
In India, plants and animals used to be contains humans, chimpanzees, and
classified according to their taste, ease gorillas. Family names are based on the
of capture, and the type of edible parts name of a member in the genus.
each organism possessed. Formicidae is based on the genus
The groups to which Linnaeus Formica, and Hominidae is based on the
assigned organisms are called taxa genus Homo. Similar families, in turn, WORDORIGIN
(singular: taxon) and the science of nam- are grouped into an order, similar
ing organisms and assigning them to orders into a class, similar classes into Taxonomy from the Greek word
these groups is called taxonomy. tasso, to arrange and nomos,
a phylum, and similar phyla (plural of law or art.
phylum) into a kingdom (Figure 11.8).
Kingdom
Phylum/Division Phylum/Division Phylum/Division
Class Class Class
Order Order Order Order FIGURE 11.8 Taxonomic

levels. The modern classifica-
tion system is like a large box,
which contains smaller boxes,
Family Family Family which in turn contain even
smaller boxes, and so on.
A kingdom contains phyla,
which contain classes, which
Genus Genus Genus Genus in turn contain orders, which
contain families, which con-
tain genera, which contain
1 2 3 1 2 3 species. In the plant and fungi
kingdoms, phyla are known
Species Species as divisions.

WEBLINK How Many Kingdoms? It was not until the gene mapping of
representative prokaryotes in 1996 that
Linnaeus created his taxa in the 18th
Another taxon called a domain it became apparent that these bacteria
is becoming widely used. century based on the accumulated
vary genetically from the bacteria of the
Research why scientists have knowledge of his time. His system sep-
kingom Eubacteria.
created domains, and what arated living things into two kingdoms:
these domains are. Draw a dia- plant and animal. However, as the dis-
gram relating domains to the
covery of more types of living things Kingdom Eubacteria Biologists estimate
six kingdoms. Begin your re- that up to 4 000 000 Eubacteria species
search at grew and microscopes became common
tools to observe even smaller organisms, may exist. As of 1998, only 4000 species
his two-kingdom system proved inade- have been discovered and classified.
quate. By the mid-1800s, a third king- Eubacteria species have been found
dom, called Protista, was added. All everywhere in the world and in the
one-celled organisms that were clearly strangest of habitats. The task of dis-
neither plants nor animals were placed covering and classifying them has only
in this category. Moulds and yeasts were begun. These organisms are often
originally included in the plant kingdom, called “true bacteria” and, like the
but are now considered very different Archaebacteria, they are also
from plants. Unlike plants that produce prokaryotes. Due to their diverse genetic
their own food, moulds depend on other make up and metabolism, members of
organisms for their food. Moulds and the Eubacteria do not fit well into a clear
yeasts are placed in the kingdom called phylogenetic pattern.
Fungi.
WORD ORIGIN Further study of single-celled Kingdom Protista Members of the king-
organisms showed that bacteria were dom Protista are mostly single-celled and
Protista from the Greek word also distinct enough to have their own are eukaryotes. They have a nucleus
protista meaning the very first. kingdom. This kingdom was called and other organelles surrounded by
Monera. Until recently, the five-kingdom membranes. Some protists also have
system was widely accepted. However, chloroplasts. It is believed that all pro-
as scientists studied bacteria further, tists evolved from prokaryotic bacteria.
they found that one group of bacteria Like the kingdoms Eubacteria and
was genetically very different from other Archaebacteria, the kingdom Protista
bacteria. This has led to the splitting of contains very diverse species. Protists
the kingdom Monera into two new king- include all the eukaryotes that are not
doms: Archaebacteria and Eubacteria. plants, fungi, or animals.
The six-kingdom system of classifying
organisms is now widely used, but sci- Kingdom Fungi Fungi are eukaryotes and
entists continue to debate whether this build cell walls similar to plants.
six-kingdom classification system is the However, unlike plant cells, these walls
most accurate. are not made of cellulose. Fungi are also
unable to carry out photosynthesis.
Kingdom Archaebacteria Archaebacteria Examples of fungi include moulds,
consist of a group of ancient bacteria yeasts, and mushrooms.
that live in harsh habitats of extreme
saltiness, low oxygen concentration, high Kingdom Plantae Members of the king-
temperature, or extreme acidity. They dom Plantae are multicellular. They
are often found inside the vents of vol- have cell walls containing cellulose, and
canoes and are believed to be among the also have chloroplasts. Examples of
first life forms on Earth. They are plants include mosses, ferns, and seed
prokaryotes, meaning they do not have plants.
cell nuclei and other organelles sur-
rounded by membranes.

Kingdom Animalia Members of the king-

dom Animalia are multicellular, het-
Image Image Image
erotrophic, and have cell membranes
omitted due omitted due omitted due
without cell walls. Their cells are often to copyright to copyright to copyright
organized into tissues, organs, and organ restrictions. restrictions. restrictions.
systems. Animals are divided into in-
vertebrates and vertebrates. Vertebrates
are animals with an internal backbone, Archaebacterium Eubacteria Protist
whereas invertebrates lack an internal
skeletal structure.
Image Image Image

Dichotomous omitted due omitted due omitted due
Classification Keys to copyright to copyright to copyright
Dichotomous classification keys are restrictions. restrictions. restrictions.
used to help place organisms into the
appropriate classification group.
Fungi Plant Animal
Classification keys include two choices
for each characteristic. No two keys for FIGURE 11.9 Representative species of the six kingdoms.
the same set of items will necessarily be
the same.
Figure 11.10 provides a structure Investigation
for developing a classification system to Refer to page 384,
sort a group of organisms. Investigation 1
Specimen
Does your specimen have... ?
Yes No
(subgroup #1) (subgroup #2)
Does your specimen have... ? Does your specimen have... ?
Yes No Yes No FIGURE 11.10 How a di-

(subgroup #3) (subgroup #4) (subgroup #5) (subgroup #6) chotomous classification key
works.

Discovering Biology What’s the Difference?
Housefly Robin Mosquito Mallard
Flying fish Flying squirrel Bat Dragonfly
FIGURE 11.11
All the organisms in Figure 11.11 can fly. However, when they are studied more care-
fully, they have many different characteristics that allow them to be classified into
groups. Your task is to classify these animals. One grouping may include three
organisms, another only two, and so on.
Once you have developed your key, compare it with those of your classmates.
Section 11.1 Review

Understanding Concepts family. What does this information tell
you about the two groups?
1. List, in order, from the most inclusive
to the least, the seven groups into 8. Suppose every living organism on
which organisms are classified. Earth is known and classified. Do you
think the study of taxonomy will end?
2. Define the following and give examples: Explain.
a) binomial nomenclature 9. An organism has one common name
b) taxon in Canada and a different common
c) species name in the United States. How might
3. Explain why Linnaeus’ system of bi- these different names lead to confu-
nomial nomenclature is still used today. sion? How has the modern system of
4. Outline at least two classification sys- classification overcome this problem?
tems used in the past. Explain why the
thinking on how to sort organisms has Applying Inquiry/
changed over time.
5. A single-celled organism could be
placed in the kingdoms Eubacteria, 10. You are told that species A and B be-
Archaebacteria, or Protista. What char- long to the same kingdom but to dif-
acteristic would be the most important ferent phyla; and species C and D
for determining in which kingdom this belong to the same phylum but to dif-
organism should be placed? ferent classes. What conclusions can
you make about species A, B, C, and
6. Trillium grandiflorum is the scientific
D? Explain your answer in terms of
name for Ontario’s provincial flower.
common characteristics shared be-
Explain what each part of the name
tween the groups.
represents.
7. Two groups of organisms are in dif-
ferent genera but are of the same

11.2 Phylogeny, Taxonomy, and

Natural Selection
Key Understandings
define the fundamental principles of phylogeny
explain the importance of sexual reproduction to variability within a population
demonstrate an understanding of the connection between biodiversity and species

survival
The Principles of Phylogeny

The evolutionary history of a species is re-
ferred to as its phylogeny. Phylogeny looks
at the ancestor-descendant relationships
among organisms, and phylogenies are
determined on the basis of developmen-
tal, structural, and molecular traits.
First, organisms likely share com- a) b) c) d) e)
mon ancestry if they show similar stages
of embryological development. It has FIGURE 11.12 Different embryos, same gill slits. The blue patches mark the gill
been observed that the early stages of slits on each of the embryos of five different animals: a) a sea lamprey, b) a turtle,
embryo development are similar in c) a chicken, d) a domestic cat, e) a human.
closely related species (Figure 11.12).
For example, all vertebrate embryos go
through a stage in which they have gills
similar to those of fish. This provides in-
direct evidence that vertebrates, such as
frogs and snakes, may have had a fish-
like common ancestor.
Second, organisms likely share
common ancestry if they have similar
anatomical structures, regardless of
function. Structures of different organ-
isms that are similar in form are
homologous (Figure 11.13). For exam-
ple, the wing of a bat and a whale’s flip-
per are both homologous structures whale cat bat gorilla
because their skeletal structures are
similar. It does not matter that they look
FIGURE 11.13 Homologous structures. These animals all descended from a com-
different in the fully developed adult mon ancestor. As a result, even though each animal uses its forelimbs for different
animal, or that they are used for differ- functions, the bone structures of each are similar. The homologous bones are
ent purposes. colour-coded for comparison.
Third, organisms likely share com-
mon ancestry if they are genetically sim-
ilar. Like the sizes and shapes of their tures of proteins that often function as
body parts, the molecules of organisms enzymes regulating chemical reactions
are inherited characteristics that also in cells. Protein structures are in turn
demonstrate evolutionary changes over controlled by the genetic make up of
time. The molecular characteristics of cells. As genes change, so too do the
organisms are controlled by the struc- molecules of cells.

Groups of organisms based on the

principles of phylogeny can be repre-
sea sented by a phylogenetic tree.
Present
dogs raccoons bears lions seals walrus weasels The phylogenetic trees in Figure
11.14 illustrate the evolutionary rela-
tionships among major groups of or-
ganisms. The branch points on each of
10
the trees represent common ancestors.
Each time a branch divides into a
smaller branch, it shows the emergence
20 of a new group of organisms.
Millions of years ago
30
Kingdom Kingdom Kingdom

40
Plantae Fungi Animalia
Kingdom
vertebrates Protista
50 flowering
plants
amoebas
evergreens
60 vertebrates
ancestral Kingdom
carnivores Archaebacteria
b) mushrooms
Kingdom ferns
Eubacteria
flagellates
gram-
positive
methane-
producers mosses
salt-lovers sponges
yeast dinoflagellates
hot acid-lovers choanoflagellates

cyanobacteria diatoms
FIGURE 11.14 Phylogenetic

trees. These trees show the
evolutionary relationships
between kingdoms a) and
certain families of carnivores b).
a)
universal
ancestor

Biodiversity and Natural Discovering Biology

Selection
Almost all the species that ever lived over Diversity and the Beaks of Birds
life’s 3.9 billion years of existence are Observe the bill of each bird in Figure 11.15. Discuss how the struc-
extinct and yet it is believed that any- ture of each beak is adapted to each bird’s way of life.
where from three million to 10 million
exist today. Why do some species die off
and new species appear? Charles
Darwin was aware that not all animals
of one kind were identical. He knew that
animal breeders selected animals with
certain characteristics and bred those
animals to create offspring with those
same characteristics. This process is
known as artificial selection. Darwin
also observed finches, turtles, and other Spoonbill Crossbill
reptiles while living on the Galapagos
Islands. This led Darwin to propose a
new theory to explain why some species
die out and others appear. In Darwin’s
theory of natural selection, he proposed
that organisms that reproduce are se-
lected not by the breeder, but by the en- Eagle
vironment. In the process of natural
selection, organisms with characteris-
tics unsuited to the environment would
either die or be unsuccessful finding
mates to reproduce. Individuals with
characteristics well suited in some way
to environmental conditions would sur-
vive longer, have better chances of find-
ing mates, and produce more offspring
Pelican Robin
likely to have similarly well-suited fea-
tures. It is believed that the many species FIGURE 11.15
existing today are descended from just
a few ancestral species. As these ances-
tors adapted to different environments,
the number of offspring that will sur-
this great diversity of species resulted.
vive to adulthood.
Individual organisms adapt to changing
3. Some offspring, because of their in-
conditions, resulting in the evolution of
dividual differences, are better able
the species over time.
to adapt to the conditions of the en-
The theory of natural selection
vironment than others.
proposed by Darwin includes four
4. The better-adapted organisms pass
assumptions.
on their characteristics to their off-
1. All members of a species display a spring and, as a result, the popula-
variety of characteristics in their tion changes.
appearance and behaviour, and
many are inherited. If none of the individuals in a species
2. The number of offspring produced can adapt to changing conditions, even-
by individuals in a species exceeds tually, the species becomes extinct.

Reproduction, Genetic the offspring are identical to the parent.

Diversity, and Species There is no genetic variation, except for
possible chromosome mutations. Sexual
Survival
reproduction, on the other hand, pro-
Asexual reproduction allows individuals vides for a great deal of variation in
to reproduce without the need for a the offspring because two parents are
mate. Why then have some organisms involved. Each parent produces gametes
developed the alternative method of sex- (either eggs or sperm) through meiosis.
ual reproduction? In asexual repro- Meiosis creates genetic diversity in
duction, which involves only one parent, two ways. In the early phase of meiosis,
homologous chromosomes link to form
CROSSING OVER
tetrads. When they link, they exchange
parts of chromosomes. So parts of ma-
Exchange of parts of non-sister chromatids. ternal chromosomes become parts of pa-
duplicated ternal chromosomes. This process can
duplicated paternal also be reversed. This exchange is called
maternal chromosome
chromosome crossing over (Figure 11.16). The
reshuffling of genes on chromosomes
adds to genetic diversity.
The second way of producing
tetrad
genetic diversity is through random
assortment of homologous chromo-
somes. One member of each chromosome
pair is inherited from the father, and
the other from the mother. But all the ma-
ternal chromosomes do not stay together.
sister The chromosomes align randomly at the
chromatids metaphase plate. Therefore a gamete
non-sister could have either a maternal or pater-
chromatids nal member of any given chromosome
(Figure 11.17). Most gametes have a
FIGURE 11.16 Crossing
over. Genetic material gets
exchanged between homolo-
RANDOM ASSORTMENT
gous chromosomes. This
exchange is the first source
Random alignment of METAPHASE I METAPHASE II TELOPHASE II
of genetic variation. maternal/paternal
chromosomes at the
metaphase plate.
Homologous chromosomes
lined up this way in this
meiosis ...
FIGURE 11.17 Random

assortment. Whether a ga-
mete gets a maternal or pa-
ternal chromosome depends ... but they could have
on how the homologous lined up this way, yielding
chromosomes line up at the a different outcome.
metaphase plate.

mixture of maternal and paternal chro- of these pests have always been resistant
mosomes. This random assortment to poison. These individuals survive and
explains how traits from a mother and pass on their poison resistance to their
father can appear in the offspring. offspring. As the poison-resistant indi-
The number of combinations of ma- viduals multiply, the poison soon becomes
ternal and paternal chromosomes de- ineffective on that population as a whole.
pends on the number of chromosome
pairs a species has. In a species with
only three chromosome pairs, the num-
ber of possible combinations is 23 or 8.
Humans have 23 chromosome pairs and Discovering Biology One Species or Many?
so the number of genetic combinations
In this activity, you will look at variability as it relates to species.
is 223 or 8 388 608. When random as- In the 1830s, Charles Darwin visited the Galapagos Islands, a
sortment and crossing over are com- small group of islands off the coast of South America. He noticed
bined, the odds of having two humans that there were a large number of finches on the islands. They looked
with the same genetic make up is about very similar, but their beaks varied in size. Are these birds mem-
1 in 14 trillion. bers of the same species or are they several different species?
Each individual produces gametes. For any given trait, there is a considerable amount of variation
In sexual reproduction, gametes from between individuals in a species. This variation normally produces
two separate individuals fuse to form a a bell-shaped curve when graphed. In 1939, biologist David Lack
new, genetically different, offspring. measured the beak widths of the ground finches on the Galapagos.
Some of his data are plotted in Figure 11.18. Analyze the data in
Figure 11.18. What does the graph tell you about the variability in
The Importance of the beak width? What can you conclude about the finches?
Genetic Variation
Genetic variation among individuals is
important in an unstable environment.
For example, under one set of conditions Number of birds
with particular
a certain genetic combination, or geno- beak widths
type, may be favoured while
another meets with limited success. As
conditions change, however, the second
genotype may be favoured while the first 50
cannot survive. As a result, with a
genetically variable population, the normal expected
40 bell curve
interaction of genotype and environment
results in a greater chance for survival
for at least some members. 30
The greater the amount of variation A
B
among individuals of a population, the 20
greater the chance that some individu- C
als will survive if the environment
changes. 10
Environmental changes aren’t just
changes in the climate. They can be, for
example, toxins in the environment,
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
changes in food supply, changes in preda-
Beak width (mm)
tors, new diseases, or new predators.
Variability can help species survive. For
example, rats and mice are common
FIGURE 11.18
pests. Rat and mice poisons are often
used to exterminate them. However, some

Defining the Issue
Case Study
Biodiversity and Justifying the Course of Action
Aquaculture
Fish farms mainly in New Brunswick’s Bay of Fundy But is the advance of fish farming practices com-
and off the B.C. coast produce more than 72 000 ing at the expense of stocks of wild salmon? Why is
tonnes of salmon a year. The federal government the wild species still facing extinction? What impact
is a strong supporter of fish farming and recently does the farming have on wild populations?
made available $75 million for research and de- Tests are under way to selectively breed for big-
velopment. Government estimates suggest that by ger and faster growing salmon as well as to genet-
the year 2025, the world will need 55 million tonnes ically modify the fish against common parasitic
more seafood than wild stocks can provide. To meet diseases. Researchers in the federal department of
that demand, fish farming as an industry will have fisheries have now developed 20 new transgenic
to grow by 350 percent. breeds of salmon that grow seven times faster than
wild salmon.
FIGURE 11.19 These pens contain hundreds of farmed salmon.
Analyzing the Issue

1. Research the positive and negative impacts that fish 4. In groups, have a round table discussion about fish farm-
farming may have on wild populations. ing. Comment on (a) the world’s need for adequate
2. What other factors may be affecting the survival of the seafood supply; (b) the imprtance of sustainability of wild
wild salmon population? salmon stocks; and (c) preservation of wild fish habitats.
3. What are the costs and benefits of fish farming and com-
mercial fishing to meet the short- and long-term food
needs of society?
382 CH
U N AI TP T4E R Diversity
1 The Periodic
of LivingTable
Things
The peppered moth (Biston bitu-

laria) provides a very well known ex-
ample of how genetic variability helps a
species survive. In England, some in-
dividual moths are lighter coloured than
others. Normally, the lighter-coloured
moths are more common because they
are camouflaged against lichen-covered
tree trunks. The darker forms of the Image omitted due to copyright
moth are more easily spotted by preda- restrictions.
tors and eaten. During the Industrial
Revolution, pollution increased, and the
lighter form of the moth became more
visible against sooty, polluted environ-
ments (Figure 11.20). The lighter form
was less well adapted to its environ-
ment, and was more heavily preyed
upon. Thus the darker form of the moth
became more common. If all the moths
had been light coloured, it would have FIGURE 11.20 Light and dark forms of the
been harder for the species to have sur- peppered moth, Biston bitularia. Notice how one
form is camouflaged and one stands out. If
vived the changing conditions. Many
conditions change, however, the other form may
more moths would have been eaten, stand out more and be more vulnerable to
increasing the chances of extinction. predators.
Section 11.2 Review

Understanding Concepts coloured toothpicks over a five-metre-
square patch of grass. There are equal
1. Define the following terms: numbers of yellow, red, green, and blue
phylogeny toothpicks. You are given 30 s to pick up
natural selection as many of the toothpicks as possible.
species Predict which colour of toothpick you
2. How is a phylogenetic tree constructed? would pick up most of and propose how
Illustrate with an example. this information might help to explain
3. Explain how the theory of natural se- the process of natural selection.
lection allows for the development of 8. Why is natural selection considered to
new species from the existing species be a theory and not a law of science?
over time.
4. Do you think that a butterfly’s wing and Making Connections
a bat’s wing are homologous struc-
tures? Explain your reasoning. 9. In many species of birds, populations
5. Sexually reproducing organisms are living in high latitudes lay more eggs
more likely to adapt to changing envi- per clutch than populations living
ronments than asexually reproducing closer to the equator. Explain why you
organisms. Explain. think this is so.
6. Describe the relationship between bio- 10. Disasters such as earthquakes, floods,
diversity and species survival. and fires may reduce the size of a pop-
ulation drastically, killing off weak and
vulnerable individuals. Often, the re-
Applying Inquiry/ sult is that the surviving population has
Communication Skills a genetic make up that differs from the
original population. Explain.
7. Your teacher has scattered 600

Inquiry Skills

Using a Dichotomous Key Concluding and Communicating
Problem head under the shell by bending its neck sideways,

could you classify the turtle using the key? Explain.
In this activity, you will use a dichotomous key to
classify turtles commonly found in Canada into their 8. Suggest a change to the dichotomous key so that
correct families. it can accommodate the classification of this addi-
tional example from the side-necked family.
9. What does this tell you about the usefulness of di-
Materials chotomous classification keys?
pencil and paper
Procedure
1. Create a table like the one shown below.
Turtle diagram # Turtle family
#1
#1 #2
2. Carefully study one of the turtle diagrams in Figure
11.21. LAL1
3. Read the first set of choices in the dichotomous key
(1a and 1b) and decide which characteristic the tur-
tle has.
#3 #4
4. Following the numbered items in the key, name the
family to which the turtle belongs.

1. What characteristics do all the turtles have in com-
mon? In what ways are they different? #5 FIGURE 11.21 Selected turtles
2. What kinds of characteristics are used in this di-
chotomous key to classify turtles? Would be-
Dichotomous Key to Turtle Selected Families
havioural traits of turtles be an acceptable
alternative? Explain. 1a. Shell has distinct ridges Leatherback turtles
along the length of the (Family Dermochelyidae)
3. Make a hypothesis about the adaptive value of each
shell
of the characteristics for turtles referred to in this
dichotomous key. 1b. Shell has no longitudinal Go to 2
ridges
2a. Shell has no distinct Mud turtles
Concluding and Communicating colour markings (Family Kinosternidae)
4. Explain how the dichotomous key is organized. 2b. Shell has distinct colour Go to 3
markings
5. To what family does each turtle belong?
3a. Beak is hooked Snapping turtles
6. Why is classification of organisms a useful skill in (Family Chelidridae)
the study of living things?
3b. Beak not strongly hooked Go to 4
Extending 4a. Forelimbs like paddles Sea turtles

7. All of these turtles protect themselves from preda- (Family Cheloniidae)
tors by retracting their heads straight back under 4b. Forelimbs with claws Box, pond, and marsh
the shell. If you were shown a turtle with no dis- turtles
tinct markings on its shell but which retracted its (Family Emydidae)

Key Terms
Animalia Eubacteria natural selection Protista

Archaebacteria eukaryotes order random assortment
artificial selection family phylogenetic tree sexual reproduction
binomial nomenclature Fungi phylogeny species
class genus phylum taxonomy
classification key homologous structures Plantae
crossing over kingdom prokaryotes
11.1 Taxonomy: Organizing the Diversity of Life 11.2 Phylogeny, Taxonomy, and Natural Selection
Binomial nomenclature is a naming system that as- The theory of evolution is the basis of the modern
signs every known organism a Latin name con- system of taxonomy.
sisting of two parts: a genus name and a species The theory of natural selection explains why new
name. species evolve from old ones over time.
Taxonomy is the science of classifying organisms. Phylogeny is the evolutionary history of a species or
All living things are classified according to an es- group of species. It explains the similarities and dif-
tablished classification system developed by ferences among different taxonomic groups.
Linneaus. His system groups organisms by struc- Genetic diversity in a species is produced by sexual
tural characteristics. reproduction. The process of meiosis produces ge-
Each species belongs to one genus, family, order, netic diversity through random assortment and
class, phylum, and kingdom. Related species are crossing over.
grouped in a genus, related genera in a family, The survival of a species depends on the genetic di-
and so on. versity of its individuals. Because all individuals are
The broadest taxon is the kingdom. The number slightly different, some may have traits that allow
of kingdoms has increased as more organisms have them to survive when the environment changes.
been discovered and similarities and differences be-
tween organisms have been more closely studied.
A dichotomous key is a tool used to identify and
classify organisms.
1. Refer to the Checkpoint activity on page 369 and review 4. Construct a concept map outlining the evolution of
the Agree/Disagree chart. Revise your chart based on classification. Include the following terms: classify,
what you learned in this chapter. taxonomists, two-kingdom system, three-kingdom sys-
2. Create a concept map that includes the following terms: tem, five-kingdom system, and six-kingdom system. Use
taxonomy, phylogeny, classification, taxa. Add more terms additional terms as you require them.
as necessary. 5. Reflect on your learning. At the end of the Unit you will
3. Revisit the Discovering Biology activity on page 369. be completing an Achievement Task. As you study the
Create a dichotomous key to classify these cat breeds. Unit content, note the skills and knowledge you are ac-
quiring that will be useful to you in completing this task.

Understanding Concepts 12. How are fungi different from plants?
1. Homologous structures are 13. Agree or disagree with the following statements and de-
a) similar in function fend your point of view for each:
b) similar in structure a) In a dry habitat, organisms with a scaly skin will
c) similar in function, but developed from different an- survive and tend to leave more offspring.
cestral structures b) According to the theory of evolution, the giraffe
d) developed from a common ancestral structure, developed a long neck because it needed one, and
whether or not they have the same function today such a neck was passed on to its offspring.
c) Early horses had to run fast to escape predators,
2. Any group of organisms treated as a unit in a classifi- thus they developed larger muscles and longer legs.
cation system is a
a) species
b) genus Applying Inquiry/
c) taxon Communication Skills
d) phylum
14. Use a field guide and a microscope to identify protists
3. Before a biologist can classify a newly discovered or-
found in a pond or fish tank. Prepare a presentation to
ganism, he or she must make a careful study of its
the class on your findings.
a) behaviour
b) size
15. Collect a variety of leaves, insects, or fungi. Use a field
c) structure
guide to identify them. Prepare a Bristol board display
d) adaptability
of your collection, including the classification key that
you used to sort the specimens.
4. Which category contains the greatest number of differ-
ent kinds of organisms?
16. a) Suppose that you are given a beaker containing a
a) Genus
collection of several hundred various organisms and
b) Family
you are given a class period at school to sort them.
c) Phylum
Describe the steps you would use to begin to sort
d) Class
them into groups. Imagine after examining 10 spec-
imens randomly chosen from the beaker that you
5. Which of these categories of classification contains or-
discovered they all belonged to the class Insecta.
ganisms that are most closely related?
What might you conclude from this about the con-
a) Family
tents of the entire jar? Explain your answer.
b) Class
b) What could make this conclusion invalid? What
c) Order
further steps would you take to test the validity of
d) Genus
your conclusion?
6. Explain why the biosphere is often referred to as the “en-
17. Survey others in your class as to the name of their
velope of life” around the world.
favourite singer or group. Develop a classification sys-
tem to create musical subgroups based on your list.
7. Describe two examples of classification systems other
than the six-kingdom model.
18. Along with others in your class, assemble a collection of
assorted nuts and bolts from home. Develop a classifi-
8. What did Carolus Linnaeus use to classify organisms?
cation system that sorts them into groups.
Explain why.
19. Suppose someone presented you with a completely
9. Explain what is meant by binomial nomenclature.
unfamiliar organism and asked you what kingdom it
belonged to. Create a dichotomous key that would allow
10. What is the cause-and-effect relationship between
you to place the organism into the correct kingdom.
the extinction of a species and the process of natural
selection?
20. Use the dichotomous key in Figure 11.23 to identify each
of the insects in Figure 11.22. Write the name of each of
11. How are homologous structures between organisms of
the insects A–H in your notebook.
different species often used as an indication of species
relatedness?

A B C Making Connections
21. You are a professor of taxonomy at a local university.

Your research is not considered a high priority and your
research funding has been threatened. You are alarmed
because it is estimated that only about 10% of the species
currently living today have been named. Write a letter
to the governing body of the university arguing why your
funding should be maintained.
D E
wing covers 22. Explain why the following statement would have an
impact on the long-term survival of a species: “An adap-
tation of a species to an environmental condition is
significant because certain members of the species will
find an environment where such an adaptation is not
harmful.”
F G H
23. Agree or disagree with the following statement and write
an essay to defend your point of view: “Insecticides are
no longer as successful in killing off houseflies as they
were in the past because flies susceptible to the insecti-
cides have been killed off.”
FIGURE 11.22 Common insects
I N S E C T S
With wings Without wings
With one pair of With two pairs Tip of abdomen Tip of abdomen
wings or with a of equally sized with 2 or 3 with no
second pair wings appendages appendages
greatly reduced directed
backward
End of Abdomen Forewings as Forewings Abdomen Abdomen Legs have Legs slender
abdomen with without hard covers not hard, appendages appendages large hooks with no hooks
2 or 3 projecting meeting in membranous thick and rigid delicate and (louse) (water strider)
projecting filaments straight line with wing veins in the form of flexible
filaments (housefly) down centre of evident pincers (silverfish)
(mayfly) back (stonefly) (earwig)
(beetle)
FIGURE 11.23 Dichotomous key for selected insects

CHAPTER 12
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS Archaebacteria,
describe selected anatomical and
Eubacteria, and Viruses
physiological characteristics of
representative organisms from
each life kingdom and a represen-
tative virus (12.1, 12.2)
compare and contrast the life
cycles of representative organisms
from each life kingdom and a
representative virus (12.1, 12.2)
classify representative organisms
in the kingdom Archaebacteria and
kingdom Eubacteria (12.1,
Investigation 1)
the connection between
biodiversity and species survival
(12.1)
explain the relevance of current
studies of viruses and bacteria to
the field of biotechnology (12.3)
FIGURE 12.1 Electron micrograph of the HIV viruses as they attack a human
white blood cell.
388
I n this chapter you will explore the vast world of micro-organisms. Bacteria
are the oldest and most abundant living organisms on Earth, and differ lit-
tle from their fossil ancestors. All bacteria share basic structures but they
show incredible diversity in cell shape and nutritional patterns. Archaebacteria
are the most ancient bacteria, and thrive in extreme environments. Bacteria
affect humans in various ways: they cause disease, spoil foods, and can be
resistant to antibiotics. They also fix nitrogen for plants, decompose organic
matter, manage hazardous waste, aid animal digestion, and help create the
dairy products we consume.
Viruses are non-cellular. They grow and develop in the cells of their
hosts and depend on these cells for their life functions. For example, AIDS
(acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) is a disease that claims thousands of
lives worldwide each year. It is caused by the HIV, or human immunodefi-
ciency virus. The HIV virus attaches to specific cells in the immune system
of the host (Figure 12.1), hijacks the cells, kills them, multiplies, and destroys
the host’s ability to battle infection. An HIV infection averages 10 years be-
fore the person develops AIDS. During most of this time, the infected per-
son exhibits moderate symptoms of the illness, such as swollen lymph nodes
and fever, but eventually the virus can cripple the immune system and kill
the person with the disease. Can we disrupt the reproductive cycle of the HIV
virus? Clinical trials of the drug AZT suggest researchers may have discov-
ered a way to counteract the effects of the virus on body cells.
Every day, breakthroughs in biotechnology advance the genetic engineer-
ing of bacteria and viruses to produce drugs for the biopharmaceutical in-
dustry, create organisms that manage oil spills, destroy pathogens, and correct
genetic disorders.
Discovering Biology CHECKPOINT
Many bacteria have an im-

Predicting the Growth of Bacteria portant impact on other liv-
ing things. Pair up with
Imagine a flask containing nutrients and a single bacterium is placed by a
another student in your
warm window. Within about 20 minutes, the bacterium divides. After another
class and construct a con-
20 minutes, both offspring cells divide. The bacterial cells continue to divide
cept map to show the roles
in number every 20 minutes.
of bacteria in the living
world.
Predict how many cells there would be at the end of one hour, three hours,
Roles of
seven hours. How many bacteria would there be at the end of a full day? bacteria
Hypothesize why we never find such large masses of bacteria in real life.
Positive Negative
Effects Effects
CHAPTER 12 Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, and Viruses 389

12.1 The Prokaryotes: Archaebacteria and

Eubacteria
Key Understandings
describe anatomical and physiological characteristics of organisms from the kingdoms
Archaebacteria and Eubacteria
classify organisms from each of the kingdoms
explain the importance of sexual reproduction to organisms in these kindgoms
explain how genetic variation affects the survival of bacterial populations
The Beginnings of Life came about proved to be quite a mys-

tery to biologists.
If you could travel back in time about
Recent discoveries of deep-sea vents
3.9 billion years to walk along the shore
on the floor of the Atlantic Ocean have
of an ancient ocean searching for life,
supported the idea that primitive cells
you would find nothing alive. At that
may have evolved in the ancient seas in
time all that existed in the world was an
conditions similar to those found around
“organic soup” of simple molecules that
these vents. These vents spew out hot
often stuck together as droplets, some of
water containing methane and other or-
which might have been visible to your
ganic molecules. Many of the organisms
naked eye much like bubbles of oil in
that live near the vents thrive at tem-
salad dressing. Over millions of years,
peratures above boiling and resemble
the oceans, which covered the surface
the simple structures thought to inhabit
of Earth, eventually teemed with these
Earth in its primitive state. These
clusters of molecules that formed, ex-
organisms are microscopic and they
panded in size, and divided in a cycle
belong to two distinct groups of micro-
that very closely resembled reproduction
scopic organisms: eubacteria and
in living things.
archaebacteria.
Characteristics such as an ability
to multiply gave tremendous advantages
to some molecular clusters over others.
Until recently, just how these abilities
Characteristics of Bacteria
Bacteria are the oldest organisms living
on Earth and they are by far the most
abundant. For example, 10 mL of soil
can contain 1 × 1010 bacteria. As a group
they are very diverse, but they all share
certain characteristics.
restrictions. 1. All bacteria are single-celled.
2. All bacteria are prokaryotes. Their
DNA is not surrounded by a
membrane.
3. Cell organelles in bacteria are not
surrounded by membranes.
4. The DNA of bacteria is made of a
FIGURE 12.2 Material pours forth from a hot-
water vent on the floor of the Atlantic Ocean.
single chromosome.
The fluid pouring from the vent is rich enough in 5. All bacteria reproduce asexually by
nutrients to support the survival of microbes. binary fission.

Prokaryotes have no nucleus and no or- As a group, bacteria are the small- INFOBIT
ganelles surrounded by membranes. For est organisms. They are usually 1–10 µm.
the first two billion years of the existence A typical eukaryotic cell is about 10 times The world’s largest bacterium
of life on Earth, it is thought that all larger. The structure of a bacterium is is called Epulopiscium
fishelsoni and is 0.5 mm long.
organisms were prokaryotic. As you will quite simple (Figure 12.3). It has a cell It is found in the gut of
see, prokaryotes are extremely diverse wall that provides support and protec- surgeonfish, and is so large
and live almost everywhere in the bio- tion for the contents of the cell. Beneath it can be seen with the naked
sphere. Because of this, they are now the cell wall lies the cell membrane that eye.
placed in one of two kingdoms: controls the passage of materials into and
Archaebacteria and Eubacteria. But be- out of the cell. The cytoplasm contains
fore discussing these different kingdoms, ribosomes, responsible for the formation
we will look at the characteristics that of proteins, and DNA, the genetic infor- Investigation
both of them share. The term bacteria mation of the cell. The DNA forms a Refer to page 413,
is used to describe the organisms in both single chromosome. There is roughly Investigation 1
kingdoms. 1/1000th the amount of DNA than in a
typical eukaryotic cell. Instead of form-
ing a strand, the DNA forms a ring.
Structure of Bacteria
Some bacteria have whiplike flag-
ella (singular: flagellum) that stem from
the cell wall and cell membrane. They
act like propellors moving in reverse,
genetic material drawing the organism forward.
However, beyond these basic struc-
tures, bacteria show incredible diversity.
Bacteria are not usually grouped by phy- FIGURE 12.4 Shapes of
cytoplasm
logenetic relationships. They are usually bacteria
classified by their shape,
reaction to being stained,
nutrition, and respiration.
cell wall
Cell Shape copyright restrictions.
cell membrane
Bacteria can be classified
by shape (Figure 12.4). A
flagellum spherical cell is called a
a) cocci
coccus (pural: cocci), a rod-
shaped cell is called a
bacillus (plural: bacilli), and
a spiral-shaped cell is called
a spirillum (plural: spirilli).
Cocci that live as separate
cells are called monococci. If
cocci live in pairs they are
called diplococci. If cocci live b) bacilli
restrictions. in linear chains they are
called streptococci. If they
live in grapelike clusters, they
are called staphlococci. Image omitted due to
Bacilli also exist as single copyright restrictions.
cells, pairs (diplobacilli), or
chains (streptobacilli). Spiral
FIGURE 12.3 The structure of a typical bac- bacteria exist only as single
terium. Note the flagella. cells. c) spirilli

Gram Stain
Bacteria are also classified by their reac-
tion to a dye made of crystal violet and io-
dine called gram stain (Figure 12.5). Cells
that retain the crystal violet appear pur-
ple (gram-positive), and cells that don’t
appear light pink (gram-negative). Gram-
restrictions.
positive bacteria have a different cell wall
structure than gram-negative bacteria and
the stain shows this difference. Gram-
positive bacteria are very common and
are generally not as pathogenic as gram-
negative bacteria, such as the bacteria
Investigation that cause typhoid, gonorrhea, meningi-
Refer to page 414,
Investigation 2 tis, and pneumonia. Proteobacteria are a FIGURE 12.5 Gram-negative and gram-positive
. large group of gram-negative bacteria. bacteria
Nutrition get the carbon needed to make other

Nutrition means obtaining energy and a molecules from organic molecules as well.
source of carbon to produce the organic Some eubacteria are autotrophs and can
compounds needed for cellular synthesize their own organic compounds,
metabolism. There is a large variety of such as glucose, from carbon dioxide.
WORD ORIGIN nutritional patterns among bacteria. Table There are two types of autotrophic
12.1 outlines the four types. Most eubacteria: photoautotrophs use sunlight
Heterotroph from the Greek bacteria are heterotrophs and obtain as their energy source, while
words heteros meaning their energy by breaking down organic chemoautotrophs use energy obtained
“other” and trophe meaning molecules from their environment. They from chemical reactions.
“nourishment.”
TABLE 12.1 Nutritional Patterns of Bacteria
Mode of nutrition Energy source Carbon source
photoautotroph light CO2
chemoautotroph inorganic chemicals CO2
photoheterotroph light organic compounds
chemoheterotroph organic compounds organic compounds
technique used in microbiology. At did not lose the colour.

the time, Gram was using two stains, Further experimentation with
crystal violet and iodine, to show de- bacterial cells demonstrated that cer-
tails of human tissue more clearly. tain bacteria retain the crystal violet
Dr. Gram’s Discovery The mixture of the two stains was so stain and appear purple. These bac-
thick that he had to rinse the slide teria are now called gram-positive
with alcohol to clear it for viewing bacteria. Other bacteria do not retain
under the microscope. To his surprise, the stain and appear light pink under
In 1884, the Dutch doctor Hans the human tissue lost the crystal the microscope and are now called
Christian Gram accidentally devel- violet colour, but some of the bacterial gram-negative bacteria.
oped the most important staining cells that were present on the slide

One important group of photoau-

totrophs is the cyanobacteria, also
known as blue-green bacteria. These or-
ganisms are photosynthetic, which
means that, like plants, they can use
sunlight and carbon dioxide to make
their own food. Unlike plants, however,
cyanobacteria lack true chloroplasts and Image omitted due to copyright restrictions.
their photosynthetic pigments are in a
series of folded membranes found
throughout the cytoplasm. Cyanobacteria
contain two photosynthetic pigments:
chlorophyll a, which appears green, and
phycocyanin, which appears blue. Their
blue-green colour is due to these two
pigments.
Cyanobacteria are common in fresh- FIGURE 12.6 A bloom of cyanobacteria in a
water lakes and ponds. When their lake is often an indicator of pollution.
population increases rapidly, it is known
as a bloom (Figure 12.6). Cyanobacterial
blooms often mean that the water is
polluted. If water becomes contaminated membrane so that gases can pass into
with nitrates and phosphates from and out of the cell easily. For example,
agricultural runoff, these compounds act in aerobic bacteria, cellular respiration
as fertilizers and allow the cyanobacte- occurs on the inner folds of the cell
ria in lakes to multiply rapidly. membrane. In bacteria that carry out
Cyanobacteria can also be found in photosynthesis, membranes containing
salt water, in soil, in snow, in volcanoes, the photosynthetic pigments are found
and on rocks. They can live as single throughout the cytoplasm of the cell.
cells or cluster together in colonies to All living things must carry out cel-
form mats or plates. A few species live lular respiration to receive a supply of
symbiotically with fungi, forming mixed energy for life’s functions. Bacteria differ
organisms called lichens. in whether or not they require oxygen.
Heterotrophic bacteria live every- If cellular respiration involves oxygen to
where: in soil, air, food, and water. Most produce energy from food that is broken
bacteria are chemoheterotrophs. Some down, bacteria are termed aerobes. If
are parasites, absorbing nutrients from oxygen is absolutely necessary for their
living organisms, and others are survival, they are called obligate aerobes.
saprobes, decomposing dead organic Those bacteria that can carry out cellular
matter. respiration in an oxygen-free environ-
ment are termed anaerobes. If the
presence of oxygen kills these organisms,
Respiration they are called obligate anaerobes. An
Recall that all bacteria differ from eu- example of an obligate anaerobe is the
karyotic organisms in that they lack soil bacterium Clostridium botulinum,
membrane-surrounded organelles, such which produces toxins that can cause an
as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticula, extreme form of food poisoning called
nuclei, and chloroplasts. However, most botulism. A third group of bacteria can
of the chemical reactions that take place survive with or without oxygen and they
in the organelles of eukaryotic cells also are called facultative anaerobes.
occur in bacteria. Many of these reactions Heterotrophs can be either aerobic or
take place on the inner surface of the cell anaerobic.

temperature, and space are seldom ideal;

Discovering Biology Testing Milk for Bacteria the numbers of bacteria are quite limited
and normally exist in a balance with other
Milk is an excellent growth medium for bacteria and so milk can
become contaminated with bacteria very easily. In this exercise, organisms in the biosphere.
you will examine different milk samples from different sources This fast reproduction rate has an
and determine their quality in terms of bacterial presence. effect on the mutation rate of bacteria.
In a typical E. coli, the chance of a mu-
1. Obtain four samples of milk of various ages or from different tation happening is about 1 10–7 per
sources (for example, from a fresh, unopened milk carton; from cell division. However, since 2 1010
milk cartons opened and refrigerated one, two, three, or more bacteria can be reproduced daily under
days days ago; powdered milk; canned milk). ideal conditions, 2000 mutants could be
2. Fill separate test tubes one-third full with each of the milk produced each day (2 1010 / 1 10–7).
samples.
So, even though individual mutations are
3. Add 1 mL of methylene blue solution to each test tube.
rare, they can have a great effect on the
4. Keep the tubes in a warm place.
genetic diversity of a bacterial popula-
When aerobic bacteria are actively growing in milk, they consume tion because bacteria can reproduce so
oxygen. Methylene blue turns colourless in the absence of quickly. This diversity affects the evolu-
oxygen. tion of the bacterial population. If a
Observe each test tube over four days and record your ob- mutation helps an individual bacterium
servations each day. survive in its environment, that muta-
tion will spread quickly through future
Determine the relationship between the methylene blue and
generations.
the presence of bacteria.
In addition to the chromosome, a
Decide which milk sample has the most bacteria. bacterium has another, smaller ring of
What do you conclude about the source of milk and the de- DNA called a plasmid. Plasmids contain
gree of bacterial contamination? far fewer genes than bacterial chromo-
somes, anywhere from a few to several
dozen. Plasmids are not necessary to the
survival of the cell under normal con-
ditions. They are usually replicated along
Reproduction in Bacteria with the chromosomal DNA during bi-
All bacteria reproduce asexually and di- nary fission.
vide by the process of binary fission
(Figure 12.7). In binary fission, the par- Conjugation As long as the conditions
ent cell divides into two offspring cells for survival are ideal, most bacteria re-
that are completely identical. Because produce through binary fission. When
division takes place in each individual conditions begin to fail, either through
cell, there is no exchange of genetic ma- decrease of food or space, or cooler tem-
terial and so the process is asexual. Due peratures, some bacteria take part in a
to their rather simple method of repro- type of sexual reproduction called
WORD ORIGIN duction, most bacteria can divide every conjugation. During conjugation, two
15 to 20 minutes as long as there is suf- bacterial cells connect to each other by
Conjugation from the Latin ficient food, warmth, and space. For ex- long protein bridges (Figure 12.8). The
words iugum meaning “yoke” ample, under the right conditions, a plasmid of one cell is transferred to the
and con-, a prefix meaning
“together.”
single E.coli bacterium can produce other cell. When the process is com-
between 10 and 100 million bacteria in pleted, the bacterium that received the
12 hours. If conditions had always been genetic material from the other cell now
ideal for bacterial survival, and their num- has a different genetic makeup. Having
bers left unchecked, the surface of Earth an altered gene structure increases the
would have been overtaken by a mas- chance that a bacterium might possess
sive mat of bacteria over one kilometre a gene combination that enables the
thick. Needless to say, conditions of food, organism to adapt to worsening

BINARY FISSION IN BACTERIA
cell wall
two
daughter
chromosome
cells
cell membrane
parent
bacterial
cell
Bacterial cell starts The chromosome The cell pinches in The cell wall and
with a singular, replicates and the between the membrane join
circular chromosome daughter chromosomes attachment points together in the
attached to its plasma attach to different of the two middle, resulting in
membrane. sites on the plasma chromosomes. two new cells.
membrane.
FIGURE 12.7 Asexual reproduction in a bacterium
environmental conditions. So some in- some bacteria. In Shigella, a bacterium

dividuals might survive these changing that causes intestinal dysentery, antibi-
conditions. As a result, the species has a otics no longer killed cerain strains.
greater chance of avoiding extinction. These strains had become resistant to
An example of conjugation conferring the antibiotic. However, antibiotics still
an advantage is in providing antibiotic killed other strains of the bacteria. Years
resistance. In the 1950s, doctors noticed later, scientists discovered that specific
that antibiotics were not working on genes are responsible for antibiotic re-
sistance. These genes are not on the bac-
terial chromosome, but on certain types
of plasmids called R plasmids. These
plasmids code for the production of en-
zymes that destroy specific types of an-
tibiotics such as ampicillin or tetracyline.
When a population of bacteria is ex-
Image omitted due to copyright posed to one of these antibiotics, the
restrictions. antibiotic will kill all the bacteria that do
not have the R plasmid, leaving only
those bacteria that have the R plasmid
to resist the antibiotic. These bacteria
survive and reproduce in such large
numbers that an antibiotic-resistant
population of bacteria are produced.
FIGURE 12.8 Conjugation is a one-way These bacteria can also pass on the R
process. One cell donates a plasmid, another plasmid to other non-resistant bacteria
receives it. through conjugation.

INFOBIT This creates a constant competition

between the pathogenic bacteria and the
Bacteria found in the digestive developers of antibiotics. As antibiotic
tract are still referred to as resistance spreads through the bacterial
“intestinal flora.” This labelling
population, antibiotic developers have
of bacteria as plants is a
holdover from when bacteria to create a new antibiotic for which the
were grouped under the plant bacteria have no resistance.
kingdom. Image omitted due to copyright
Endospore Formation When growth con- restrictions.
ditions become extremely unfavourable,
many gram-positive bacteria form struc-
tures called spores. One type of spore,
called an endospore, is formed when a
bacterium produces a thick wall that sur-
rounds its DNA and cytoplasm (Figure
12.9). The endospore can remain dor-
mant for months until favourable growth
conditions return. Members of the FIGURE 12.9 Endospore formation. Once
endospore-forming group include the bacteria have formed endospores, they can
many species of Bacillus and Clostridium. remain dormant for long periods.
(The toxins produced by Clostridium
botulinum are among the most poisonous A typical archaebacterium has a cell
ever discovered.) wall, and a cell membrane that offers
further protection to the cell’s organelles.
The Kingdoms However, both the cell wall and cell
membrane are chemically different from
Archaebacteria and those of eubacteria. Also, when biolo-
Eubacteria gists mapped the genetic blueprint of
So far, bacteria have been discussed as archaebacteria, more than half of their
a single group. But there are two distinct 1700 genes were different from those of
groups of bacteria, and their differences eubacteria. Because the genotypes of
are great enough for them to be classi- archaebacteria and eubacteria are so dif-
fied as two separate kingdoms: the king- ferent, they have been separated into a
dom Archaebacteria and the kingdom different kingdom.
Eubacteria. Archaebacteria are divided into
several phyla based on their habitats.
Kingdom Archaebacteria Archaebacteria The members of one phylum live in
are considered to be the oldest group of oxygen-free places such as the gut of
organisms on Earth. Scientists hypothe- animals and produce methane gas. They
size that all life kingdoms are descended are called anaerobic methanogens.
from the ancestors of this group. They Methanogens release all of the methane
are known for the extremely diverse gas found in the Earth’s atmosphere,
WEBLINK environments in which they live, often including flatulence by humans and other
places inhospitable to other organisms. mammals. Approximately one-third of
Research more about the Many of these environments are quite total methane production comes from
structural characteristics of
hot, very acidic, extremely salty, and methanogens in the guts of herbivores
Archaebacteria. Create a chart
that shows which of these resemble conditions thought to exist such as cows. Much of the rest of the
characteristics are different billions of years ago on Earth. Not sur- methane gas comes from methanogens
from Eubacteria and which prisingly then, these bacterialike found at the bottom of marshes and
are the same. Begin your organisms closely resemble the primi- swamps. One methanogen lives on the
research at
tive clusters of molecules thought to be ocean bottom near deep-sea vents and
found in the ancient seas. thrives in temperatures above boiling.

atmospheric nitrogen (N 2 )

restrictions. denitrifying
bacteria
plants
nitrogen-fixing
bacteria in root nitrates
nodules of legumes (NO3-)
decomposers (aerobic
and anaerobic
FIGURE 12.10 Masses of heat-loving archaebacteria and fungi)
bacteria, shown here around the edge of a hot nitrifying
nitrogen-fixing bacteria
spring, are tolerant of hot and highly acidic bacteria in the soil ammonification nitrification
environments.
ammonium (NH4+) nitrites
(NO2- )
A second group, the halophiles, are nitrifying bacteria

“salt-loving” organisms that inhabit salt FIGURE 12.11 Bacteria play a pivotal role in the nitrogen cycle, releasing various
lakes such as the Dead Sea. The third nitrogen compounds into the soil.
group, the thermophiles, inhabit hot,
acidic environments such as hot springs
(Figure 12.10).
Nitrogen must be converted to or “fixed”
Kingdom Eubacteria This kingdom is far into a useful form (Figure 12.11).
more successful than the archaebacte- The greatest amount of nitrogen
ria, accounting for most of the pro- fixation is caused by nitrogen-fixing bac-
karyotes on Earth. Comparisons of the teria that are either free living in the soil
mRNA of different Eubacteria species or inhabit the roots of legumes, such as
have allowed scientists to separate them alfalfa, soybeans, peas, and clover.
into six phylogenetic groups: Bacteria in the roots of these plants
Spirochaetes, Chlamydias, gram-positive remove free nitrogen from the air and
bacteria, Cyanobacteria, and convert it to nitrates, which are stored in
Proteobacteria. Each group contains a small growths called nodules for use by
wide variety of species with different nu- the plant to form amino acids and pro-
tritional patterns, gas-exchange mecha- teins. A common symbiotic nitrogen fixer
nisms, and reactions to gram stain. is Rhizobium. Some species of nitrogen-
fixing bacteria live freely in the soil. These
bacteria add nitrates to soil that plants
Bacteria in Ecosystems absorb. Animals that feed on plants
Nitrogen Fixation Ecosystems are com- consume these plant proteins and
munities of organisms living together in metabolize them to obtain nitrogen and
a given area. The survival of organisms amino acids.
living in these ecosystems depends, in
part, on the availability of nitrogen. Carbon/Oxygen Cycle Prokaryotes play
Nitrogen is essential for the manufacture an important role in recycling. Suppose
of proteins and nucleic acids. Nitrogen dead organisms and the wastes of living
makes up 78 percent of Earth’s atmo- organisms accumulated without decay
sphere; however, very little of nitrogen in over an extended period of time. Before
its atmospheric form can be used. too long, the living organisms would be

INFOBIT overwhelmed by the dead, and the nec- are released when certain gram-nega-
essary cycling of elements would cease. tive bacteria split. Endotoxins are
Just one gram of the exotoxin Fortunately, dead organisms and the seldom fatal and normally cause fever,
that causes botulism could kill wastes of living organisms become food vomiting, and diarrhea. Species of bac-
a million people.
for decomposing bacteria. These bacte- teria that produce endotoxins include
ria break down organic matter into Salmonella and Echerichia.
forms suitable for growth and repro- Exotoxins are released by living,
duction. The bacteria release carbon multiplying bacteria that travel through-
dioxide back into the atmosphere. out the host’s body. They are highly toxic
and often fatal, but do not produce fever.
Many pathogenic bacteria produce
WORD ORIGIN Bacteria and Disease
exotoxins. Some examples of exotoxin-
Only a small percentage of prokaryotes induced diseases are tetanus from
Pathogenic from the Greek are pathogenic, or disease causing. Clostridium tetani, and botulism from
words pathos meaning Pathogenic bacteria produce deadly sub-
“suffering” and geno meaning Clostridium botulinum.
stances (toxins) in the human body that
“begetting.”
cause disease symptoms. For example,
toxins released by the bacterium Putting Bacteria to Work
Streptococcus pneumoniae may result Waste Management Canada has over
in the symptoms of pneumonia. Rats 5000 hazardous waste sites that contain
harboured fleas that contained highly in- used oil, battery acid, PCBs, heavy met-
fectious bacteria that caused the plague als, detergents, pesticides, old paint,
or Black Death, which ravaged Asia and plastics, radioactive wastes, and more.
Europe in the 14th century. Tuberculosis A goal of long-term waste management
and leprosy are also caused by bacteria. is to remove these substances as po-
Some bacteria produce toxins that tential threats to the environment. While
enter the bloodstream and attack the they are deadly to many organisms,
nervous system. One of these causes some are food to bacteria. Many species
tetanus, and another causes botulism, a of bacteria can eliminate or neutralize a
deadly form of food poisoning. These variety of toxic compounds in the envi-
bacteria are anaerobic and survive as ronment and are even used to clean dan-
spores until they are introduced into a gerous chemical spills.
favourable environment such as a host
organism. Sewage Treatment Every day, the world
For the host, the consequences of an population produces over five billion
infection depend on the invasiveness and kilograms of solid organic waste.
toxigenicity of the pathogen. Invasiveness Fortunately, bacteria decompose the
relates to the ability of the pathogen to waste and recycle the organic matter.
multiply within the body of the host. Some human populations are so dense
Toxigenicity is the ability of the pathogen that organic wastes begin to accumulate
to produce toxins harmful to the tissues because bacteria can only work at a cer-
of the host. Corynebacterium diphtheriae, tain pace to recycle wastes. In response
the pathogen that causes diphtheria, has to this situation, humans have developed
low invasiveness and multiplies only in technology to improve how efficiently
the throat; but its toxigenicity is so great bacteria digest wastes. Now most human
that the entire body is affected. By con- fecal matter is processed in one of
trast, Bacillus anthracis, which causes several ways: in sewage sludge reactors
anthrax, has low toxigenicity but high (Figure 12.12), in septic tanks, or spread
invasiveness because it multiplies in the on soil as fertilizer.
bloodstream. Many homes in rural areas have
There are two types of toxins: septic tanks. A septic tank is usually an
endotoxins and exotoxins. Endotoxins underground tank that contains billions

of anaerobic bacteria, which degrade

sewage slowly. Aerobic waste treatment
facilities break down sewage more
rapidly because they rely on aerobic bac-
teria. By supplying plenty of oxygen,
these bacteria are encouraged to carry
out their chemical reactions as quickly
restrictions.
as possible.
Dairy Foods Over the last 30 years, ef-

forts by food scientists to identify and in-
vestigate lactic acid bacteria, Bacterium
lactis, have revealed their many uses in
the production of dairy foods. These uses
FIGURE 12.12 A sewage treatment plant
include acid production, texture devel-
opment, flavour generation, preserva-
tion, and the synthesis of B-vitamins. For
human beings, lactic acid bacteria pro-
vide resistance to intestinal pathogens, Genetically engineered lactic acid bac-
stimulate the immune system, and help teria are now being studied to develop
to maintain a healthy balance of micro- highly effective digestive enzymes and
organisms in the digestive system. vaccines.
Section 12.1 Review

1. Define the following terms: prokaryote,
anaerobe, toxin, heterotroph. 6. You have been asked to classify an un-
2. List several ways bacteria can be clas- known bacterium according to its
sified and provide examples. method of cellular respiration. Create
a dichotomous key that will allow you
3. Explain the relationship between the
to classify this organism.
terms prokaryote, bacteria, eubacte-
ria, and archaebacteria.
4. If you were given two organisms and Making Connections
told one was a eubacterium and one
7. Explain ways in which bacteria are im-
was an archaebacterium, outline the
portant to the environment.
relevant information you would need
to know about each organism in order 8. Suppose bacteria lost the ability to fix
to classify them. nitrogen. Explain how would this af-
fect the environment and the economy.
5. Describe how bacteria change their
genetic properties and how these
changes spread so quickly through the
population.

12.2 Viruses
Key Understandings
describe anatomical and physiological characteristics of a virus
compare and contrast the reproduction of prokaryotes and viruses
Classifying Viruses
Sizes Shapes
Viruses are often presented in classifi-
cation systems as being closely related
to prokaryotes since, like prokaryotes,
viral genetic material is not surrounded
cowpox and smallpox
by a membrane. However, many biolo- viruses
gists do not classify viruses as belong- 250 nm
ing to any kingdom because they are not
cells, the basic units of life. Some biolo-
gists question whether viruses are alive
influenza virus
at all because they do not metabolize
100 nm
energy or perform cellular respiration.
In fact, viruses must live as parasites
within the cells of a host organism.
Viruses grow and develop in the cells of bacteriophage
specific hosts and depend on these cells 65 x 95 nm
for respiration, nutrition, and all other
functions of life to enable them to re-
tobacco mosaic
produce. When viruses enter the host’s virus
cells, they “take over” by altering the 300 x 15 nm
WORD ORIGIN host cells’ genetic make up. A virus is
classified as a non-cellular particle made
Virus from the Latin word virus yellow fever virus
up of protein-covered genetic material 22 nm
meaning a poisonous slime of
that can invade living cells (Figure
plant or animal origin.
12.13).
poliomyelitis virus
20 nm
protein coat
of head
viral DNA foot-and-mouth
virus
10 nm
tail
Escherichia coli
2000 – 2500 nm
tail fibres
ran e
mb
FIGURE 12.13 A T4 phage a me
sm
on the surface of a cell. pla
Phages are viruses that infect viral DNA being FIGURE 12.14 The protein coat of a virus gives
only bacteria. They are also injected into it a characteristic shape. Notice how small
known as bacteriophages. bacterium viruses are as compared to an E. coli bacterium.

Scientists studied viruses long before To verify his hypothesis, Ivanovsky

they could see viruses. In 1892, a poured an extract of infected leaves
Russian botanist, Dimitri Ivanovsky, through a fine filter. At the time, this
tried to find out what was killing his filtration procedure was a standard
The Discovery of tobacco plants. Ivanovsky noticed his way to isolate bacteria. To
tobacco plants were losing their tex- Ivanovsky’s surprise, the filter was
Viruses
ture (Figure 12.15 left) and thought free of any bacteria and the filtered
that the cause was due to bacteria. extract still caused the deadly tobacco
mosaic disease in his plants.
Therefore, the cause of the disease
was not bacterial. Clearly, the dis-
ease-causing agent was smaller than
a bacterium.
The disease-causing agent was
later named a virus. This virus was
Image omitted due to identified in 1935 as the tobacco mo-
copyright restrictions. saic virus. Because viruses are so
much smaller than prokaryotic cells,
they weren’t actually seen. Viruses
have become well understood only
within the last 50 years, largely
through the development of the elec-
tron microscope, which had a large
enough magnification to allow viruses
FIGURE 12.15 Tobacco leaves (left) infected with the tobacco mosaic virus (right). to be seen (Figure 12.15 right).
Viruses have characteristic shapes cell is directed by DNA-coded instructions.

(Figure 12.14) but they all have two As long as the program remains intact,
components: genetic material and a pro- the computer will function without error.
tein covering called a capsid. They Similarly, as long as the DNA code of a
cannot invade all cell types, only specific cell remains unaltered, the activities of a
ones. For example, plant viruses only at- cell function normally.
tack plant cells, and animal viruses only Suppose a new program is loaded
attack animal cells. Some viruses will into the computer that instructs the
only invade the cells of a certain species computer to stop what it is doing and
of organism. A virus’s genetic material make copies of the new program instead.
can either be DNA or RNA, depending This new program cannot make copies
on the type of virus. of itself if it is in a CD lying on the desk
outside the computer. The new program
must be installed in the computer before
The Reproductive Cycle it can function. A virus acts in a similar
of Viruses way. As mentioned previously, viruses
A cell’s DNA can be compared to a must invade a living host cell to repro-
computer program, and the cell to a com- duce. There are two ways that viruses
puter. A computer performs tasks by a can reproduce, depending on the type of
coded set of instructions in a program; a virus.

The Lytic Cycle The bacteriophage T4 1. Initially, the bacteriophage attaches

that invades E. coli (Figure 12.16) uses itself to the cell wall surface of the
the lytic cycle to reproduce. It is called E. coli bacterium. Proteins in the tail
the lytic cycle because it always ends of the virus fit the structure of the
with the lysis (breaking open) of the host bacterium wall and this results in
cell. The lytic cycle involves the follow- specific virus-host cell infections.
ing steps. 2. The bacteriophage tail releases an
enzyme that dissolves the wall of the
bacterium. Once an opening in the
wall is created, the virus tail con-
tracts, and the viral DNA is injected
into the cell.
1. Virus attacks 3. Inside the host cell, the viral DNA
bacterium and
injects its DNA takes over the cell’s activity and
into the host. the host cell’s DNA is destroyed. The
host cell is now under the control of
the viral DNA, which instructs the
cell to make copies of the viral DNA
and capsid.
4. Copies of the viral DNA and capsid
2. Viral DNA uses are assembled into new viruses.
host’s enzymes
to make more The cytoplasm in the host cell re-
viral DNA (by leases a digestive enzyme that
replication) and breaks down the outer shell of the
more coat
proteins (by bacterium, and the cell breaks open
transcription). releasing hundreds of new viruses.
This last step is called cell lysis.
5. After lysis, the new viruses infect
other cells.
3. The new viral You might think that if all viruses re-
components produced by the lytic cycle, they would
are assembled
into 100 or so end up killing all the cells of the host or
clones of the an entire bacterial colony. Bacteria are
original invader. not defenceless against phage infections.
Some bacteria have enzymes called
restriction enzymes that recognize “for-
eign” DNA. When a phage injects its
DNA into the bacterium, the restriction
4. Viruses produce
enzymes recognize that it is foreign DNA.
lytic enzyme The restriction enzymes act like scissors,
that causes host cutting up the phage’s DNA, making it
cell to lyse,
releasing the
useless. There are many different kinds
viruses. of restriction enzymes. But, like the
competition between bacteria and
WEBLINK developers of antibiotics, there is a com-
petition between bacteria and phages.
Bacteria with effective restriction
enzymes survive and reproduce. But any
To explore the lytic and phages that develop resistance to the
lysogenic cycles further, go to
FIGURE 12.16 The lytic cycle of a T4 bacterio- restriction enzymes also have a
phage. reproductive advantage.

The Lysogenic Cycle Not all viruses cause

rapid destruction of the host cell. Some lysogenic phage DNA
viruses enter a host cell but do not take phage
bacterial DNA
over the host’s activity by destroying the
host DNA. Instead, the viral DNA com-
bines with and becomes part of the host
DNA in a way that does not interfere
with the host cell activity (Figure 12.17).
When the host cell copies its own DNA, Phage injects its
DNA into bacterium.
the viral DNA is copied as well. The viral
DNA can be copied in this manner
through several generations of host cell
reproduction. The introduction of viral
DNA into the host genetic structure in
Lysogenic
this way is called lysogeny. Once the Phage’s DNA Cycle
DNA is incorporated, the viral DNA be- incorporated into
comes inactive. At some time in the life bacterium’s DNA. Phage’s DNA may replicate
along with the bacterial DNA
of the host cell, perhaps by way of an for many generations.
environmental stimulus, the viral DNA
in an infected host cell may become ac-
tive. The viral DNA then instructs the
host cell to manufacture new viruses
using the lytic cycle.
TABLE 12.2 Comparison of Lytic and Lysogenic

Cycles
Lytic cycle Lysogenic

cycle
Fate of host Takes over Becomes part
DNA after host DNA of host DNA
infection of
the virus
Changing conditions phage
Incubation Release of Release of cause phage to enter protein
time in host new viruses new viruses lytic cycle.
cell after one after several
generation of generations of
host activity host activity
Onset of Immediate Delayed
viral disease
symptoms Many copies of phage’s
protein coat and genetic
material are produced.
RNA Viruses
Many viruses, such as the tobacco mo-
saic virus, have RNA rather than DNA
as their genetic material. In normal Phages are assembled
cell processes, molecules of DNA direct and are released when the
all cell activities. They do this by di- bacterium’s cell wall lyses.
recting the process of protein synthesis.
Some proteins function as enzymes
to control chemical reactions, other FIGURE 12.17 The lysogenic phage Lambda in-
proteins provide structural characteristics fecting a bacterium.

to a particular cell (for example, skin, that use reverse transcriptase are retro-
muscle, bone). The genetic information viruses.
coded in DNA is read by the messenger
RNA (mRNA). The mRNA moves to the
Viral Diseases
ribosomes and directs the synthesis of
proteins. RNA viruses contain RNA, Like their hosts, viruses show tremen-
which can act as mRNA once in the cell, dous diversity and do not always
or can provide instructions to manufac- replicate in either a lytic or lysogenic
ture its own mRNA. The mRNA can cycle. For example, the human influenza
manufacture viral proteins and so by- virus does not lyse its host cell, but
pass the host DNA. All RNA viruses are leaves the cell by pushing out through
lytic since there is no way for the viral the cell membrane. As a result, the in-
RNA to become part of the host’s DNA fluenza virus is covered with a section
structure. of the cell membrane from the host
human cell. Now disguised as a normal
human cell, the influenza virus can
INFOBIT Retroviruses spread through the body undetected and
Retroviruses also contain RNA as their infect other cells. When a person is
Facts about the influenza virus:
• The influenza virus changes genetic material. When a virus infects a infected with the influenza virus, the
every year. cell, it produces a copy of viral DNA from infected person very rapidly develops
• These changes cause the viral RNA code. As mentioned above, influenza (flu) symptoms and becomes
seasonal flu epidemics. normal genetic information transfer is ill.
• These changes mean that the
from DNA to RNA. Because these viruses Influenza is spread via respiratory
flu vaccine must be altered
every year. reverse the direction of genetic infor- secretions (coughing and sneezing). The
mation transfer, they are called incubation period is from one to four
retroviruses (“retro-” means backward). days, and infected persons are conta-
The human immunodeficiency virus gious for about one week.
(HIV) causes acquired immuno- Most viruses cause some kind of dis-
deficiency syndrome (AIDS) in humans. ease in their hosts. Some common ani-
The virus enters a human white blood mal diseases caused by viruses are
cell and subsequently directs the cell to chickenpox/shingles, hepatitis (A, B, and
make DNA from the viral RNA. The new C), measles, warts, distemper, mumps,
DNA becomes part of the hereditary ap- yellow fever, infectious mononucleosis,
paratus of the infected human cell. The equine encephalitis, and rabies.
host cell does not burst, but it changes
permanently in shape, metabolism, and
growth. Because the host cell does not
burst, the cycle of infection is lysogenic.
The first animal retrovirus was iso-
lated in 1910 and was shown to cause
muscle tumours in chickens. In the late
WEBLINK
1960s, Howard Temin at the University
of Wisconsin discovered that the Kaposi Image omitted due to copyright
Recently, the Ebola virus has
emerged as a highly infectious sarcoma virus carries an enzyme for the restrictions.
virus that is almost always fatal manufacture of DNA, using viral RNA as
to humans. Find out what type the genetic template. Shortly thereafter,
of virus the Ebola virus is, and
Temin and David Baltimore indepen-
what kind of life cycle it has.
Research where the Ebola dently isolated the enzyme, which was
virus first emerged, what its named “reverse transcriptase” because
symptoms are, and what is it transcribes DNA from RNA rather than
being done to prevent its RNA from DNA. The DNA copy of the
spread. Begin your research at
viral RNA can then use cellular struc- FIGURE 12.18 Fruit and leaves from a peach
tures to make more viral RNA. Viruses tree infected with a calico virus.

Most plant viruses tend to be RNA the virus. Some examples of plant viral
viruses. Plant viruses can stunt plant diseases are strawberry ringspot, bean
growth and cause low crop yields. leaf roll, tobacco mosaic, clover yellow
Viruses can be spread from plant to vein, potato mottle, apple chlorotic, to-
plant by insects carrying the virus, or by bacco ringspot, alfalfa mosaic, onion yel-
farmers and gardeners using tools such low dwarf, wheat mosaic, and turnip
as pruning shears that are infected with mosaic, and peach calico (Figure 12.18).
Section 12.2 Review

1. Explain why it is difficult to classify
viruses. 6. Describe the early evidence that sug-
2. Draw diagrams to compare the lytic gested viruses were much smaller
and lysogenic cycles of a bacteriophage. than bacteria.
3. Compare the life cycle of a eubacterium 7. Scientists believe that viruses could not
with the reproductive cycle of a virus. have existed prior to other organisms
appearing on Earth. What evidence
4. Make a chart to compare how RNA
supports this hypothesis? Explain.
viruses are similar to and different
from DNA viruses. 8. Use appropriate library resources and
Internet sites to research the cause,
5. Make a chart to compare and contrast
symptoms, and treatment of measles
RNA viruses and retroviruses with re-
and mumps.
spect to:
a) viral genetic material
b) fate of host genetic material after Making Connections
viral infection 9. Scientists create new vaccines every
c) incubation time in host cell year to combat new strains of flu.
d) onset of viral disease symptoms. Create a PMI chart to show the eco-
nomic and societal effects of develop-
ing new flu vaccines.
12.3 Bacteria, Viruses, and Biotechnology

Key Understandings
explain the relevance of current studies of viruses and bacteria to the field of
biotechnology
Foundations of beginning of recorded history. We use

Biotechnology yeast to make bread rise and bacteria to
make some cheeses. We have bred farm
Biotechnology can be defined as ma- animals to produce more milk and meat,
nipulating living organisms or their com- and have bred crop plants to produce
ponents to provide products or to serve higher yields. This breeding takes time,
useful purposes. As such, biotechnology often years.
has been used by society since the

In the past three decades a set of Thus a narrower and more specific
laboratory techniques has increased the definition of biotechnology is any com-
pace of biotechnology. Now the DNA of mercial application of living organisms
plants, animals, and other organisms or their products that involves the direct
can be manipulated in the laboratory. manipulation of their DNA molecules.
animal cell containing gene bacterium

of interest
1. Plasmid DNA and

DNA containing gene
of interest are isolated.
2. Gene is inserted into

plasmid. plasmid bacterial
chromosome
gene of
interest
DNA of
chromosome recombinant DNA
(plasmid)
3. Plasmid is inserted
into bacterium.
recombinant
bacterium
4. Large amounts of the gene

of interest are created
through cloning. Copies of gene
are isolated and
Product created transferred to
by gene is isolated. other organisms.
Human growth 5. various applications Gene for pest

hormone treats resistance is
growth problems. inserted
into plants.
FIGURE 12.19 An overview of genetic engineering. Bacteria play a central role in biotechnology.

Genetic Engineering mal cell. Scientists use restriction en-

zymes to do this. These enzymes act as
Biologists can now alter the DNA of an
chemical scissors. There are many types
organism directly. The techniques they
of restriction enzymes and each type rec-
use to make these alterations are col-
ognizes a specific nucleotide sequence
lectively known as genetic engineering.
in DNA. Once an enzyme recognizes its
Suppose you wanted to take a gene from
sequence, it cuts the DNA at that point
one organism and insert it into another
(Figure 12.20). Some well-known re-
organism. In order to do this, you need
striction enzymes are EcoR1, BAM1, and
certain tools and techniques to do the
HaeIII.
following steps.
Bacteria contain plasmids. These
1. Cut out a section of DNA from the
plasmids are particularly useful in
first organism.
biotechnology because they provide a
2. Combine this DNA with the DNA
site for genetic recombination. Plasmids
from another organism.
are removed from the bacteria and cut
3. Insert the combined DNA into an-
with the same restriction enzyme used
other organism.
to cut the DNA from the animal cell. The
Bacteria and viruses are often used action of the restriction enzyme creates
to perform these steps. Figure 12.19 “sticky ends” at the cut ends (Figure
gives an overview of the steps in genetic 12.20). These ends are complemen-
engineering. Bacteria are considered the tary, so the animal DNA “fits” into the
workhorses of biotechnology, and with- plasmid. (The process of inserting one
out them, genetic engineering would be set of genetic material into another is
extremely difficult. called gene splicing.) The plasmid is
now considered to be recombinant DNA
because it has DNA from two organisms.
Bacteria and This plasmid is also known as a cloning
Recombinant DNA vector.
The process of genetic engineering starts The production of the cloning
with cutting out a section of DNA from vector happens in-vitro; in other words,
the cell of an organism such as an ani- outside of the cell. But to be useful, the
Eco Rl restriction enzyme Eco Rl 2. Sticky ends are created. 3. Complementary ends join together
to form recombinant DNA.
bacterial chromosome
DNA containing gene of interest
1. Both sets of DNA 4. Recombinant

cut with the plasmid
same restriction sticky ends inserted into
enzyme. Eco Rl DNA bacterium.
recombination
plasmid
5. Cloning
begins.
FIGURE 12.20 Recombination of genes. This process happens in-vitro, outside the cell. Restriction
enzymes cut both the plasmid DNA and the DNA to be inserted in the same nucleotide sequence on
their DNA.

recombinant DNA has to be put back is the production of human growth hor-
into a cell. To do this, the recombinant mone. The growth-hormone gene is in-
plasmids are placed in a solution con- serted into the bacterial plasmid and
taining bacteria. Some of the bacteria reintroduced into other bacteria.
take up the plasmids. Those bacteria that Because they now have the gene, the
take up the recombinant plasmids are bacteria produce the hormone. So the
then isolated and placed in a growing bacteria act as bioreactors, producing
medium. These bacteria keep dividing large amounts of the hormone, which
and the plasmids are reproduced along can then be extracted and purified for
with the bacteria. In essence, these medical use. Insulin is also made this
bacteria are all clones. So genetic engi- way. These types of drugs are known as
neering takes advantage of bacteria’s biopharmaceuticals. Table 12.3 shows
ability to multiply rapidly to get large medicines currently made by genetically-
amounts of the recombinant DNA. engineered bacteria.
Genetic engineering requires rela- Another application is to take the
tively large amounts of recombinant large amounts of recombinant DNA pro-
DNA, and genetic cloning via bacterial duced by genetic cloning and isolate the
reproduction is a way of producing large recombinant DNA. This DNA can then
amounts. be inserted into cells of other organisms
growing in culture. If the DNA is incor-
porated into the cells of a different
Applications of
species, the organism that receives the
Genetic Cloning DNA is a transgenic organism. These
Once you have large amounts of recom- foreign genes produce new traits in the
binant DNA through genetic cloning, this transgenic organism. For example, bac-
recombinant DNA can be used in differ- teria can be genetically engineered to eat
ent ways. It can be used to do basic oil and used to clean up oil spills.
research on the DNA itself. It can also Scientists have now produced transgenic
be used to create products. For example, plants and animals (Figure 12.21).
one application of the recombinant DNA
TABLE 12.3 Selected Approved Biopharmaceuticals.
Biopharmaceutical Approved (year) Used for
Trastuzumab 1998 one type of breast cancer
Recombinant interferon beta 1-B 1993 management of one type of multiple sclerosis
DNase 1993 one type of cystic fibrosis
Proleukin, IL-2 1992 kidney cancer
Recombinant antihaemopheliac factor 1992 Hemophaelia A
Adenosine deaminase 1990 immunodeficiency in children
recombivax HB 1986 Hepatitis B prevention vaccine
Somatrem 1985 human growth hormone deficiency
recombinant human insulin 1982 diabetes

Discovering Biology
Modelling Gene Splicing
Imagine that your group has recently been hired by a local televi-
sion to edit a film to show several scenes of “students helping other
students” at lockers outside your home room. Many students go
to their lockers, get their books, and walk straight into class. Other
students take the time to talk with others, offer assistance in some
way to help them along, and then enter their class. You would like
Image omitted due to copyright to put together a short tape of students helping students, one right
restrictions. after the other.
Materials
several lengths of 35-mm camera film
scissors
tape
1. Take a long piece of film and tape it into a loop.
2. Take another length of film and cut a “scene” from it.
3. Cut open the loop and, using tape, splice the new scene into it.
Compare and contrast the process of splicing scenes together

using film and tape with the process of splicing a new gene
sequence into an existing plasmid or chromosome, using re-
FIGURE 12.21 A transgenic plant. This plant striction enzymes.
was grown from cells that had a firefly gene in-
Identify what materials you used to correspond to which parts
serted into them. Most of the plant’s cells have
the firefly gene. When the gene is activated, the of the gene-splicing sequence.
plant glows.
silk. Unfortunately, milking the spi- been trademarked as BioSteel. The

ders themselves is out of the question company is now designing an artifi-
because they are carnivores. Spiders cial spinneret, to spin BioSteel into
will eat each other if kept in groups. long threads.
Biotechnology at Countless attempts to produce artifi- Scientists hope a litre of milk will
Work cial spider silk in a lab have also produce two to fifteen grams of
failed. spider silk. The company wants to
Now a biotechnology company in produce as much as five tonnes of silk
Montreal has genetically engineered per year.
Spider silk is one of the strongest ma- transgenic goats. The goats’ cells con- When commercial production does
terials in the world. It can absorb large tain the silk-producing gene from the begin, BioSteel could be used to
amounts of energy without breaking orb-weaver spider, so that the milk manufacture artificial ligaments, fish-
or losing its shape. The nearly crys- of female goats will contain the ing line, bulletproof vests, artificial
talline proteins make spider silk spider-silk protein. After the goats body parts, and surgical sutures. One
stronger and more elastic than high- mature in special high-security farms, day it may even be used to repair
tensile steel or Kevlar, the high-tech the company’s staff will milk the fe- bones, cover domed stadiums, and
plastic used in bulletproof vests. males. Back at the lab, the milk will shield spacecraft from meteorites.
For many years, scientists have be purified and the silk protein ex-
sought a way to mass-produce spider tracted. This new silk product has

Viruses and Genetic normal allele

Engineering of a gene
Bacterial plasmids aren’t the only cloning 1. Allele spliced into
vectors. Viruses can also be used as viral DNA.
cloning vectors in much the same way.
Viruses tend to be used instead of recombinant
plasmids if the DNA strand to be DNA
manipulated is quite long. Using a virus
as a cloning vector takes advantage of a
virus’s reproductive cycle. The end re-
sult of the lytic cycle is many more copies
of the virus’s DNA, which is the goal of
any cloning vector.
The most common virus used is the
virus
lambda phage, which infects E. coli. To
clone a section of DNA, it is spliced
into the phage’s DNA and the recombi- 2. Virus infects human stem
nant DNA is inserted back into the cell and recombinant DNA is
phage’s protein coat. The phage is then inserted into a chromosome.
placed in a test tube of E. coli bacteria. chromosomes
The phage infects the bacteria and,
through the lytic cycle, replicates its
recombinant DNA many times over.
Another possible use of viruses in
biotechnology is in gene therapy to
correct genetic disorders. If a genetic dis-
order is caused by a single gene, it might
be possible to replace the defective gene
with a normal allele of that gene. For the
allele to be incorporated permanently
stem cell nucleus
into the patient, the gene would have to
be inserted into cells that multiply
throughout the patient’s life so that the 3. Stem cells are injected
back into bone
new allele will be permanently expressed.
marrow of
(Stem cells in bone marrow are ideal
patient.
cells.) Viruses would provide a way of de-
livering the normal allele to the cell.
But to do this, the virus would have to
be “disarmed” so that it did not have any
disease-causing properties of its own.
The process is outlined in Figure 12.22.
Currently, this process is mostly in the
research stage, though there has been bone
some success treating patients with a dis- marrow
ease called adenosine deaminase (ADA).
FIGURE 12.22 Genetically engineered viruses

can be used to insert a normal allele into a
human chromosome.

Section 12.3 Review

Understanding Concepts plasmid. When she mixes the two
pieces of DNA together, will she obtain
1. Can the term biotechnology be defined recombinant DNA? Explain.
in more than one way? Explain.
2. Explain what is meant by the term ge-
netic engineering. Making Connections
3. Give reasons why bacteria are impor- 6. List three applications of genetic en-
tant to biotechnology. gineering.
4. Explain, with the use of a diagram, 7. In a paragraph, describe the advan-
how genetic recombination occurs. tages and disadvantages of using
5. A scientist uses the restriction enzyme generic engineering in industry. Also,
ecoR1 to isolate a section of DNA from describe several possible drawbacks of
a plant cell. She then extracts a genetic engineering to society and to
plasmid from a bacterium and uses the environment.
the restriction enzyme bam1 on the

Defining the Issue
Case Study
Viruses: Research versus Risk Justifying the Course of Action
Medical research relating to viruses is something weaker than the original virus. The goals of research
we think about in relation to finding cures for can- will likely be scrutinized even more closely as the
cer and other diseases. However, research can technology continues to evolve.
also have unexpected results. Scientists in Australia,
for example, accidently created a deadly virus while
researching a vaccine to make mice infertile. They
inserted a gene into a mousepox virus that creates
large amounts of interleukin-4. Interleukin-4 is one
of a group of proteins that play a role in activating
the immune system. The addition of the interleukin
gene to the virus’s DNA was intended to stimulate
production of antibodies against mouse eggs. The
role of the virus was to transport the gene into the
mice. However, instead of boosting antibody pro- Image omitted due to copyright
duction, the altered virus suppressed “cell mediated restrictions.m
response,” wiping out the part of the immune sys-
tem that combats viral infection.
Although this new modified mousepox virus
does not affect humans, it is related to the smallpox
virus. There could be the potential for using this
same technology to create another modified virus
that could be harmful to society. Although some peo-
ple believe that continuation of this research does
pose a threat, others cite evidence that in the vast FIGURE 12.23 Researchers working on human viruses in a
majority of cases modified viruses are actually high-containment laboratory.
Analyzing the Issue

1. Identify the issue described in this case study. 5. Create a concept map to summarize your research.
2. Research the role of the following in marshalling the im- 6. Propose two controls you would recommend to regulate
mune response: a) antigen, b) antibodies, c) the roles this research.
of the following cells: macrophages, T-cells (helper and 7. Plan a debate to address the risk of experimentation with
killer), and memory cells. viruses such as the mousepox virus. Do you feel the risk
3. List the stakeholders who are affected by the results of of experimentation with viruses is justified?
this research.
4. Research the ethical, political, social, and environmen-
tal impacts that face researchers in virology.

Inquiry Skills

Observing Bacteria Concluding and Communicating
Problem on the bacteria. Describe what you observe. Make

a drawing of what you see.
How are examples of bacteria similar to and different 5. Repeat Steps 1–4 for the next two slides.
from one another?
Part B: Live Samples
Materials Here is the simplest way to investigate non-pathogenic
bacteria. Prepare a wet mount microscope slide in
prepared microscope slides of bacteria
which samples thought to contain bacteria are placed
compound light microscope
in a drop of water on a microscope slide.
microscope slides
1. Transfer a small drop of yogurt to the centre of your
cover slips
slide. Add a drop of water.
lens paper
eye dropper 2. Examine the slide under high power. Draw a dia-
yogurt gram of what you observe.
decaying beans 3. Examine the slide under oil immersion. Draw a di-
immersion oil agram of what you observe.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 after preparing a wet mount
CAUTION: slide from water containing decaying beans.
– It is possible that pathogenic bacteria can be introduced
from the atmosphere. Conduct all activities involving
bacteria on the assumption that pathogens are present.
Rinse all microscope slides in a solution of dilute bleach. 1. Describe how your observations of the prepared
slides under low power differ from your observa-
– Some microscope immersion oils contain synthetic tions under high power.
epoxy resins, polychlorinated biphenyls, or chlorinated
2. Explain what greater detail is now visible.
paraffin compounds. Allergic reactions may result from
skin contact with immersion oil. Rinse skin well with soap 3. Compare your observations under high power with
and water if contact occurs. your observations under oil immersion.
– Be sure to wash your hands thoroughly with soapy water

when you have finished. Concluding and Communicating
4. Is there a relationship between the characteristics
of bacteria observed in each of the samples (i.e.,
Procedure yogurt solution and decaying beans)? Explain.
Part A: Prepared Slides 5. Speculate on the role of bacteria found in each
1. Place a prepared slide on the microscope stage. sample.
2. Use the low-power objective to focus on the bac-
teria. Describe what you see. Extending
3. Switch the lens to the high-power objective. What 6. Design a simple dichotomous key to classify the
greater detail is now visible? different types of bacteria observed in Parts A
4. Swing the high-power objective out of place. Put a and B.
drop of immersion oil directly onto the microscope 7. Prepare a concept map to illustrate the similarities
slide. Swing the oil immersion objective lens into and differences in appearance of the different kinds
the drop of oil. Focus the oil immersion objective of bacteria.

Inquiry Skills

Preparing and Observing Stained Bacteria Concluding and Communicating
Problem Part C: Staining the Bacteria

6. Cover the film of yogurt with a drop of methylene
In this activity, you will prepare a sample of stained blue stain.
bacteria. 7. Leave the stain on the slide for 2 min.
8. Gently rinse the excess stain in a beaker of water.
Materials 9. Place a cover slip over the slide.
compound light microscope
microscope slides
cover slips Part D: Observing the Bacteria
lens paper 10. Use the low-power objective to focus on the stained
eye dropper bacteria.
yogurt
methylene blue 11. Swing the high-power objective into place. If nec-
immersion oil essary, refocus with the fine adjustment.
12. Swing the high power objective out of place. Put
CAUTION: LAL1 one drop of immersion oil directly onto the stained
bacteria. Swing the oil immersion lens into posi-
– It is possible that pathogenic bacteria can be introduced tion into the drop of oil.
from the atmosphere. Conduct all activities involving
bacteria on the assumption that pathogens are present. 13. Draw and describe what you see.
Rinse all microscope slides in a solution of dilute bleach. 14. Compare these findings using oil immersion with
your findings under high-power magnification.
– Some microscope immersion oils contain synthetic
epoxy resins, polychlorinated biphenyls, or chlorinated
paraffin compounds. Allergic reactions may result from Analyzing and Interpreting
skin contact with immersion oil. Rinse skin well with soap 1. Compare your results with the unstained yogurt
and water if contact occurs. cells you observed in the previous investigation.
Based on your observations, describe what you saw
Procedure under low-power magnification. What greater de-
tail is seen with high-power magnification?
Part A: Preparing Stained Bacteria 2. Estimate the size of these cells.
1. Heat a clean microscope slide gently by passing it
several times above the flame of a Bunsen burner.
2. When the slide is cool, place a small drop of di-
3. Different colours of dyes bring out the details of dif-
lute yogurt solution on the slide. Spread it thinly
ferent parts of a cell. What part of the bacterial cell
over an area the size of a dime.
does methylene blue stain?
3. Dry the slide in the air to form a thin film.
4. Design an experiment using certain dyes to stain
different parts of a bacterial cell.
Part B: Fixing the Bacteria
4. Quickly pass the slide three or four times through Extending
the Bunsen burner flame with the film side up to 5. Why do scientists stain bacteria?
“fix” the bacteria. This will make the bacteria stick 6. How does a gram stain differ from a simple stain?
to the microscope slide.
5. Let the slide cool to room temperature.

Key Terms
aerobe cloning vector gram stain plasmid spirilli

anaerobe cocci halophile prokaryote thermophile
autotroph conjugation heterotroph recombinant DNA transgenic
bacilli DNA lysis restriction enxymes virus
bacteria endospore lysogeny retrovirus
binary fission facultative methanogen RNA
biotechnology genetic engineering obligate saprobe
12.1 The Prokaryotes: Archaebacteria and Eubacteria All viruses are parasitic and require a host cell’s ge-
Archaebacteria and eubacteria are prokaryotic netic material to generate new virus particles.
organisms. They are generally much smaller and Viruses replicate either through the lytic cycle or the
simpler in cell structure than eukaryotic organsims. lysogenic cycle.
The classification of prokaryotes depends on such Viruses contain either DNA or RNA. Retroviruses
factors as cell shape, nutrition, respiration, and re- are RNA viruses that incorporate their genetic in-
action to gram stain. formation into the host’s DNA.
Prokaryotes can be heterotrophic or autotrophic.
Most are heterotrophic. 12.3 Bacteria, Viruses, and Biotechnology
Bacteria usually reproduce asexually through binary Recombinant DNA is created by splicing DNA
fission. Bacteria can increase their genetic variability from an organism into either the DNA of a bacte-
by undergoing conjugation. rial plasmid or into the DNA of a virus. This gene
Bacteria affect humans in a variety of ways. Some splicing happens in vitro.
cause disease. Many bacteria have important roles. Recombinant DNA is replicated by one of two meth-
Some bacteria maintain soil fertility by decompos- ods. A recombinant plasmid can be inserted into a
ing organic waste. Certain species fix nitrogen. bacterium, which then clones itself through binary
Bacteria are separated into the kingdoms fission. Recombinant DNA can also be inserted into
Archaebacteria and Eubacteria on the basis of a phage, which then replicates its DNA in a bac-
genetic and chemical differences rather than visi- terium through the lytic cycle.
ble structural differences. Scientists can use the large amounts of recombinant
Archaebacteria are found in harsh habitats, which DNA to conduct research into the DNA itself or to
are highly acidic, extremely salty, or extremely hot. engineer transgenic organisms.
Eubacteria are found in diverse habitats. They are Bacteria can act as bioreactors to produce products
more widespread than archaebacteria. coded for by recombinant DNA in their plasmids.
Viruses play a role in gene therapy by providing a
12.2 Viruses means of introducing healthy genes into the DNA.
Viruses are not classified under the kingdoms of life.
They are non-cellular particles that consist of
genetic material inside a protein coat.
1. Refer to the Checkpoint activity on page 389 and review 3. Develop a flow chart to show the sequence of procedures
the concept map you constructed on the roles of bacte- in genetic engineering.
ria. Review your web based on what you learned in this 4. In the Case Study debate, what criteria did your class
chapter. apply to carrying out the debate? If you were to plan
2. Construct a concept map describing prokaryotes. Include another debate, what additional or different criteria
the following terms in your map: bacilli, binary fission, might you choose?
aerobes heterotroph autotroph, cocci, conjugation, aer-
obe, anaerobe, gram stain, spirilli. Add additional terms
as you need them.

CHAPTER 12 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts 11. Develop a concept map to illustrate the different meth-
ods of gas exchange in bacteria.
1. Endospores
a) are produced by viruses 12. Draw diagrams of the three most common shapes of bac-
b) are reproductive structures teria. Label each diagram.
c) are very delicate and can easily be killed
d) are resting structures 13. What are the methods of reproduction in bacteria. What
factors affect the bacteria’s use of one or the other?
2. A virus particle is active only in direct association with
a) organic material 14. Explain the advantages to bacteria of having the ability
b) a living cell to form endospores.
c) inorganic material
d) other viruses 15. Create a chart that names the groups found in the
kingdom Archaebacteria and the habitat in which each
3. In the relationship between bacteriophages and bacte- lives.
ria, the bacterium
a) destroys the bacteriophage 16. Describe the role of bacteria in ecosystems. You may
b) uses the bacteriophage DNA to reproduce itself wish to draw diagrams to help your explanation.
c) is killed upon entrance of the bacteriophage
d) provides a host for the bacteriophage 17. Suppose that all the bacteria that act as decomposers dis-
appeared from Earth. What would the consequences be?
4. An obligate anaerobe would
a) grow equally well with or without free oxygen 18. What characteristics do all viruses have in common?
b) grow well with free oxygen but better without it
c) die without oxygen 19. List the ways that viruses differ from one another.
d) grow only in the absence of free oxygen
20. Draw and label a diagram of a virus.
5. A bacteriophage that invades a bacterium and remains
inactive through several generations of the cell is called 21. Why would it be incorrect to say that viruses represent
a) a lytic bacteriophage the most primitive form of life in the biosphere?
b) a temperate bacteriophage
c) a lysogenic bacteriophage 22. Describe what happens to the host cell’s DNA during the
d) a bacterium lytic cycle of a bacteriophage and during the lysogenic
cycle of a bacteriophage.
6. Explain the difference between the following terms
a) prokaryote, eukaryote 23. Explain how reverse transcriptase enzyme works in a cell.
b) photoautotroph, photoheterotroph
c) chemoautotroph, chemopheterotroph 24. Create a Venn diagram to show the similarities and dif-
d) gram-positive, gram-negative ferences between plant and animal viruses.
e) virus, retrovirus
25. Develop a flow chart to show the sequence of procedures
7. What evolutionary advantage to you think might result in genetic engineering.
from eukaryotes having organelles surrounded by mem-
branes? 26. In your own words define the term recombinant DNA.
8. Why are archaebacteria considered the oldest organisms 27. Summarize how viruses are used in genetic engineering.
on Earth?
9. Analyze the different nutritional patterns in bacteria. Applying Inquiry/

How are cyanobacteria both similar to and different from Communication Skills
plants.
28. This is the general photosynthetic equation
10. Which method of nutrition that is most common in
light
bacteria?
2 H2X + CO2 → H2O +CH2O + 2X

How do anaerobic bacteria convert CO 2 in the air to 33. Pasteurization in a method of eliminating bacteria
organic compounds in the absence of light? Identify a from food. Use the Internet and other sources to research
bacterium capable of this feat. What can be substituted the method of pasteurization, and which micro-organ-
for X? isms it eliminates.
29. When you consume food, the proteins in the food are 34. Speculate what the consequences would be to the
broken down by enzymes in the stomach and small in- economy, and to the environment if all bacteria on Earth
testine. Suppose you swallowed some viruses. Predict became extinct. Give specific examples to support your
what would happen to the viruses. speculation.
30. The graph in Figure 12.24. shows the growth of two 35. Smallpox, a disfiguring and often fatal viral disease, has
groups of bacteria. One group was infected with a bac- been completely irradicated. There have been no re-
teriophage and the other group was not. ported cases for decades. However, the samples of the
virus exist in labs. Should these samples be destroyed?
Create a PMI chart about the pros and cons to society
6 destroying the virus. Decide on the best course of action
and justify your decision.
uninfected group
5
Number of living bacterial cells
36. Compare and contrast the nature of a bacterial infection

to a host organism in terms of invasiveness and toxi-
4
genicity.
(millions)
3 37. Explain how bacterial activity affects the makeup of gases

in the atmosphere.
2
infected group 38. Explain why certain viruses, such as the influenza virus,
1 are difficult to treat.
39. Some scientists claim that the recent outbreaks of dis-

0
eases such as haemorrhagic fever from tropical coun-
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
tries is largely due to human activities such as
Time (h) deforestation and rapid world travel. Do you agree? Write
brief summary of your point of view.
FIGURE 12.24
40. Recent outbreaks of foot and mouth disease have affected
the livestock and dairy industries in Europe, but as of
Analyze the graph. What effect did the bacteriophage April, 2001 the virus that causes the disease has not been
have on the bacteria? Explain your answer. found in Canada. Research the reproductive cycle of the
virus, how the virus is spread, the kinds of animals it in-
31. There may be a relationship between temperature and fects, the symptoms of the disease, and the methods used
the growth rate of bacteria. Propose a hypothesis and to prevent its spread. Create a pamphlet to increase
make predictions based on your hypothesis. Develop an the general public’s awareness of the disease. Include
experimental procedure to test this hypothesis. What information on the threat the virus poses to Canadian
variables will you control and what variable will you agriculture.
manipulate?
41. Many people have reservations about genetic engineer-
ing. Create a PMI chart about the pros and cons of
genetic engineering. Do you feel that genetic engineer-
Making Connections
ing’s benefits outweigh the risks? Support your opinion.
32. Discuss the role of bacteria in each of the following tech-
nological applications:
a) waste management
b) sewage treatment
c) genetic engineering
d) food processing

CHAPTER 13
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS Protists, Fungi, and
compare and contrast the structure
Plants
and function of different types of
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
(13.1)
each life kingdom and a
representative virus (13.1, 13.2,
13.3)
cycles of representative organisms
representative virus (13.1, 13.2,
13.3)
from each of the kingdoms
(Investigation 1)
[CATCH: D186 photo of an insect devoured by

a fungus. See photo reference attached.1/3-1/2
page]
Caption: Figure xx.
FIGURE 13.1 Killer fungus. This insect was destroyed by a fungus. There are many weird
and interesting types of fungi, beyond the mushrooms you eat in a salad.
418
I n this chapter you will explore the world of eukaryotic protists, fungi, and
plants. Protists present a challenge to taxonomists. There are animallike,
plantlike, and funguslike protists, and how to divide the protist kingdom and
the plant, fungus, and animal kingdoms has been an ongoing debate among
taxonomists. For example, some taxonomists group algae in the plant king-
dom because they contain chlorophyll. Others consider plants to be multi-
cellular, land-based photosynthetic organisms and place all algae, single- and
multi-celled, in the protist kingdom. This book also places algae in the pro-
tist kingdom.
Grouping fungi with plants in this chapter has been done because his-
torically, fungi were once thought to be a lower form of plants. In reality, they
are very dissimilar and their roles in ecosystems differ significantly. Plants,
like algae in the kingdom Protista and cyanobacteria in the kingdom
Eubacteria, use sunlight to form complex organic molecules from simple
materials in the environment. Fungi decompose the organic matter of dead
plants and animals, releasing simple molecules back to the environment
(Figure 13.1). Plants and fungi thus participate in complementary ways in
recycling the materials of life.
Two major groups of plants arose from an ancient form of algae. One
group, the bryophytes, are very primitive and lack true roots, stems, and
leaves. A second group, the tracheophytes, are comprised of modern-day
plants with vascular tissues and are found with spore- and seed-producing
varieties.
Discovering Biology CHECKPOINT
A century ago, taxonomists

How Much Humus in Soil? hypothesized that fungi
were a lower form of plants.
Humus is the dark-coloured portion of soil consisting of organic matter. The
Think of a mushroom and
organic matter is the result of fungal decay of dead plant and animal bodies
a geranium plant. Pair up
and waste. To determine the percentage of humus in a sample of soil:
with another student in
your class and brainstorm
1. Obtain a small amount of dried soil from a garden. Weigh the sample. traits that the two organ-
2. Place the dried soil sample in a crucible. isms have in common.
Then brainstorm traits that
3. Heat the crucible strongly for 20 minutes so as to burn away any are different between the
humus content present two organisms. In what
sense might it have been
4. When cool, weigh the sample.
thought that fungi, such as
5. Calculate the humus content as a percentage of the total mass. mushrooms, were a lower
form of a plant? Create a
Venn diagram to show the
similiarities and differences
between plants and fungi.
CHAPTER 13 Protists, Fungi, and Plants 419

13.1 The Protists

Key Understandings
compare the structure and function of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
describe the general characteristics of protists
compare the life cycle of a protist to the life cycle of a prokaryote
classify organisms from the major groups of protists
Organisms in the kingdom Protista first Comparing Prokaryotes

appeared about 1.5 billion years ago. and Eukaryotes
For the first two billion years of life in
Unlike prokaryotes, eukaryotes have
the biosphere, prokaryotes were the only
their DNA in a nucleus that has a mem-
organisms. The protists were very dif-
brane. Eukaryotes also have organelles
ferent in several important ways from
that are surrounded by membranes (for
the prokaryotes. The most striking
example, chloroplasts and mitochon-
difference is that protists are eukaryotic
dria). Do such differences mean that
organisms.
eukaryotes are more advanced or more
successful than prokaryotes? Many bi-
ologists believe eukaryotes are not of a
“higher order” than prokaryotes. All
prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms
living today resulted from millions of
years of natural selection and each
organism is well adapted to its environ-
ment, having characteristics that enable
bacteria (E. coli) protist (paramecium)
it to live successfully in its particular
2 µm long 75 µm long environment. The differences are sum-
marized in Table 13.1.
FIGURE 13.2 Prokaryote TABLE 13.1 Comparison of Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
versus eukaryote. This protist,
a eukaryote, is far larger
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
than bacteria, which are
prokaryotes.
Organelles/Cell parts Cytoplasm contains a watery Cytoplasm has suspended membrane-
suspension of ions, enzymes, surrounded organelles (for example,
macromolecules, and ribosomes, nucleus, chloroplasts, mitochondria,
floating freely inside the cell vacuoles) and ribosomes.
membrane.
Genetic Material Genetic material (DNA) is A “true” nucleus surrounded by a

concentrated in a region called the membrane contains DNA. A nucleolus
nucleoid, but no membrane contains RNA.
separates this region from the rest
of the cell.
Metabolism Chemical reactions to support the Chemical reactions are carried out in
work of the cell are carried out specialized membrane-surrounded
throughout the cytoplasm in a organelles (for example, respiration in
suspension of water, ions, large mitochondria, photosynthesis in
molecules, and enzymes. chloroplasts).

There are other structural differ-

ences between prokaryotes and
eukaryotes. First, eukaryotic cells are
usually about 10 times larger than
prokaryotic cells (Figure 13.2). Image omitted due to copyright
Eukaryotic cells have many chromo- restrictions.
somes in long strands, unlike prokary-
otic cells that have a single chromosome
in a ring. With more chromosomes, eu-
karyotic cells have many more genes.
The kingdom Protista contains about
115 000 species, and they are extremely FIGURE 13.3 Giardia, a zooflagellate, can
cause digestive problems in humans. This illness
diverse in their cell structures, patterns
is commonly known as “beaver fever” since it
of nutrition, metabolic needs, reproduc- can be picked up by drinking polluted lake water.
tion, and habitats. In fact, the kingdom
Protista can almost be described as a gambiensis. The carrier for sleeping sick- INFOBIT
grab bag of organisms that do not fit into ness is the tsetse fly. Humans can con-
the other kingdoms. The one thing they tract the disease if bitten by an infected Termites are one of the few
have in common is that they are all eu- fly. Once inside, the zooflagellate multi- organisms that eat wood.
Termites cannot digest wood
karyotes. The phlyogeny within this plies in the bloodstream, destroys red
without the help of a
kingdom is very complex and makes it blood cells, and attacks other tissues. zooflagellate Trichonympha,
difficult for taxonomists to classify them. Symptoms include fever, chills, and a a wood-digesting protist,
Currently, there is more than one skin rash. When the zooflagellate attacks which lives by the thousands
accepted way to separate protists into the nervous system, the infected person in the gut of each termite.
Trichonympha produces an
groups. For a general discussion of loses consciousness and may never
enzyme called cellulase, which
protists, this book groups them by recover. The disease is often fatal. Other breaks the cellulose bonds in
nutritional patterns into animallike, species of Trypanosoma cause similar wood, releasing the nutrients
funguslike, and plantlike protists, even diseases in cattle and other livestock. from the wood into the gut of
though this does not follow any phylo- the termite.
genetic pattern. Amoebas Amoebas are single-celled pro-
tozoans with no set body shape. They
create temporary projections of cyto-
Animallike Protists
plasm called pseudopods to move and
Some protists formerly classified under feed. They feed on small organisms by
the animal kingdom were often called endocytosis, engulfing organisms with
protozoans. These protists are animal- their pseudopods (Figure 13.4). Particles
like because they eat or ingest material of food are sealed off in food vacuoles
from their surroundings. within the cytoplasm. Organic material
is then digested and absorbed.
Zooflagellates These protists possess one
or more flagella (singular: flagellum)—
long whiplike structures that are used to
move the organism through the water.
Those organisms with flagella are called
zooflagellates. Some zooflagellates are
heterotrophs and feed on other protists.
Other species live as internal parasites
on animals, including humans. Some
protozoan parasites are human
pathogens (Figure 13.3).
Sleeping sickness, one of the most
serious diseases of Africa, is caused by
the parasitic zooflagellate Trypanosoma FIGURE 13.4 An amoeba engulfing a euglena via endocytosis.

WEBLINK Some amoebas are parasitic. For ex- reaches the end of the oral groove, the
ample, amoebic dysentery is a disease membrane pinches off, surrounds the
There are several different caused by a species of Entamoeba com- food, and a food vacuole is formed. The
ways of classifying protists. monly found in tropical regions. If a food vacuole breaks free, travels around
Research the different
taxonomic systems, and create person drinks infected water, the para- the cytoplasm of the cell, and joins up
charts or diagrams that show sitic amoebas enter the digestive system with a lysosome. The lysosome contains
the different groupings. and feed on the intestinal walls, often digestive enzymes that break down the
Begin your research at causing bleeding. These parasitic amoe- food. After digestion, the usable prod-
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11. bas form protective cysts to avoid being ucts are absorbed into the cytoplasm.
digested themselves, and are passed out Any undigested food is discharged
of the body in the feces. In countries with through an opening called the anal pore.
poor sanitation, Entamoeba can pass Paramecia, like other ciliates, have
into the water supply and create major two types of nuclei—a large macronu-
public health problems. cleus and one or more smaller
micronuclei. Reproduction in parame-
Ciliates Many protozoans are covered cia, like other protists, occurs by binary
with hairlike projections, or cilia, and fission. The micronuclei divide by
are called ciliates. The cilia move back mitosis and the macronucleus simply
and forth like oars to move the organ- pinches apart to produce two daughter
ism through the water. Unlike amoebas, macronuclei. This form of reproduction,
ciliates have an elastic outer covering involving each individual cell, is
called a pellicle that maintains their asexual. Paramecia use sexual repro-
shape. All of these organisms are aquatic duction in the form of conjugation (Figure
and heterotrophic. They inhabit both salt 13.6). Two paramecia line up against
and fresh water. A freshwater ciliate each other and join at their oral grooves.
called Paramecium is one of the most The macronucleus in each cell disinte-
common species in this group. The beat- grates and the remaining micronucleus
ing of the cilia also sweeps food into its undergoes meiosis. The reorganization
oral groove (Figure 13.5). When food of the genetic material through meiosis
and the mutual exchange of micronuclei
by the two conjugating cells may result
in organisms better able to survive when
conditions change.
Contractile cilia
vacuole Sporozoans Sporozoans are protists that
produce spores during their asexual
phase of reproduction. They are
non-motile and parasitic, obtaining their
nutrients from the bodies of their hosts.
oral groove
The best-known sporozoans are from
micronucleus
the genus Plasmodium. They cause a dis-
macronucleus cell mouth
ease called malaria. These organisms
spend part of their life cycle within
human red blood cells (Figure 13.7).
When a female Anopheles mosquito
food vacuoles infected with Plasmodium bites a
human, the mosquito transmits
Plasmodium into the human circulatory
anal pore
system. The parasites enter the blood
and find their way to the liver, change
their form, multiply, and re-enter the
bloodstream, infecting blood cells along
FIGURE 13.5 Paramecium, a ciliate

meiosis mitosis
macronucleus
micronucleus 1n
2n
FIGURE 13.6 In conjugation, two individual paramecia swap DNA to
create new micro- and macronuclei that have new combinations of DNA.
the way. When the red blood cells (filled The infecting cells reproduce sexually in
with parasites) burst, large amounts of the gut of the mosquito and move to the
toxins fill the bloodstream. These toxins salivary glands. These mosquitoes can
cause alternating chills and fever, which then transmit malaria when they bite
are the symptoms of malaria. If an un- humans. Malaria is a very serious dis-
infected mosquito bites the victim, the ease worldwide. Some types of malaria
mosquito ingests some of the parasitic can be fatal.
Plasmodium cells along with the blood.
Spores infect
liver cells. liver cells
Plasmodium undergoes
several developmental Cells burst
stages in the mosquito. and release
Plasmodium
cells.
Mosquito bites human, injecting Plasmodium

Plasmodium spores. cells
Plasmodium cells
red blood cells infect red blood cells.
Anopheles mosquito draws up blood and Red blood cells burst and Plasmodium cells enter
Plasmodium cells from blood of infected person. bloodstream. Some infect other red blood cells.
FIGURE 13.7 Life cycle of Plasmodium

Discovering Biology
How Do Protists Respond to Changes in their Environment?
Protists respond to unfavourable conditions in various ways. As single-celled
organisms, they lack complex nervous responses but do exhibit noticeable
behaviours to ensure survival.
1. Bring a small sample of pond or stream water to class.

2. Place a drop of the sample on a concave slide using an eye dropper.
3. Tease apart a square of cotton gauze and place a few strands of the gauze
over the water sample and place a coverslip on top.
4. Use a microscope to examine the pond water under low and then medium
power magnification.
What happens to the protists as they bump into the cotton fibres? Record
how the various types of protist react to the gauze.
Draw diagrams of each type of protist in your sample and classify the or-
ganisms using a pond-organism study guide.
Funguslike Protists ticellular mass. Eventually, a fruiting

body forms and releases spores.
All funguslike protists are heterotrophic
As their name suggests, water
and most are decomposers that feed
moulds live in water, though there are a
on dead plants and animals by endocy-
few species in this group that live on
tosis. They tend to live in cool, damp
land. If you have seen a whitish, cottony
habitats. There are three major phyla of
mould growing on dead fish, it was
funguslike protists: acellular slime
probably a water mould. Water moulds
moulds, cellular slime moulds, and
are all aquatic and feed on the remains
water moulds.
Image omitted due to of dead plants and animals. Although
Acellular slime moulds are single-
copyright restrictions. most of the land species are helpful
celled protists that have many nuclei.
decomposers of dead matter, a few are
During most of its life, an acellular slime
serious plant parasites that attack crops
mould is a plasmodium, a wall-less
such as avocados, grapes, and potatoes.
mass of cytoplasm with many nuclei that
Phytophthora infestans, for example,
have divided over and over by mitosis.
a) was the cause of the Irish potato famine
This huge mass of cytoplasm streams
in the mid-1800s.
very slowly over an object using an
extended network of strands called
pseudopodia. If food runs out, the slime Plantlike Protists
mould forms reproductive structures There are 24 000 species of protists that
called fruiting bodies, which produce contain chlorophyll and carry out pho-
spores by meiosis. The spores scatter tosynthesis, and so they resemble plants.
and germinate into flagellated cells.
These cells fuse to produce diploid amoe- Euglenoids A diverse group of species,
boid cells (Figure 13.8). euglenoids have been classified by bi-
Cellular slime moulds live in fresh ologists at one time or another both as
water, in damp soil, or in decaying mat- plants and as animals. They are unicel-
b)
ter such as rotting logs. In the feeding lular flagellates, but many members of
FIGURE 13.8 Slime moulds stage of their life cycle, they move about the group photosynthesize, as do the
a) in plasmodial stage, and as amoebalike cells. When food is scarce, algae.
b) forming fruiting bodies. they come together to form a large mul-

flagellum
eyespot
Image omitted due to copyright contractile

chloroplast vacuole
restrictions.
food storage bodies
nucleus
pellicle
FIGURE 13.9 Euglena. The flagella are not

clearly visible in the photograph on the left.
The freshwater organism, Euglena, are tremendously abundant in the

(Figure 13.9) propels itself through oceans and are the key food source in
the water by means of its flagellum. marine and freshwater ecosystems.
Euglena obtains its nourishment in Dinoflagellates are single-celled
more than one way. In sunlight it is fully algae that have two flagella (Figure Image omitted due to
autotrophic, using its chloroplasts to 13.11). Most are photosynthetic, though copyright restrictions.
produce sugars through photosynthe- some species are heterotrophs. They are
sis. In the dark, the organism begins to extremely abundant in both marine and
lose its chlorophyll and feeds as a freshwater environments. Each species
heterotroph on dead organic material has a characteristic shape. The beating
in the water. of their flagella causes them to move in
a spinning motion. An interesting char- FIGURE 13.10 Each species
Algae Algae are protists that resemble acteristic of dinoflagellates is they tend of diatom has a characteristic
shape.
plants because they have chloroplasts to be luminescent: when the surround-
that contain the photosynthetic pigment ing water is agitated, they give off light.
chlorophyll. Some algae are single-celled, Dinoflagellates reproduce asexually by
others live in colonies, and other species mitosis.
are multicellular, reaching enormous Dinoflagellates grow rapidly when
size. There are six main groups of algae, nutrients in the water increase or ocean
but here the discussion centres on three temperatures rise. This rapid population
groups. growth is called a bloom. When the di-
One group of algae, called diatoms, noflagellate Gonyaulax polyhedron
take on a golden coloration due to yel- blooms, it’s called a “red tide” because
low-brown pigments contained within the pigment phycoerythrin that colours
glasslike shells made of silica. Their the algae also turns the water red. These
outer covering is made of two halves that dinoflagellates produce toxins. As shell-
fit together like the lid and bottom of a fish and fish feed on them, the toxins
shoebox, and each species has a char- concentrate in the bodies of the
acteristic shape (Figure 13.10). Diatoms organisms. The toxicity moves through


FIGURE 13.11 Dinoflagellates FIGURE 13.12 Red tide
the food chain as other animals, such as Other groups of algae are large, mul-
humans, consume the toxic shellfish and ticellular, and are commonly known as
fishes. There may be enough of these seaweeds (Figure 13.13). Multicellular
toxins in the fish and shellfish to cause algae differ from plants in that the zy-
serious illness or even death in humans. gote, or newly reproduced cell of an alga,
Green algae can be single-celled, as is on its own as an unprotected single
in Chlamydomonas, or colonial, as in cell. A plant zygote, on the other hand,
Volvox. Each cell has two flagella, which grows from a multicellular embryo that
move the cell around. They live in fresh is protected by other parental cells. Also
water. Ancient green algae are thought they differ from plants in that they do
to have given rise to the first plants be- not have tissues or organs.
cause they have cellulose in their cell Algae are extremely important to life
walls and because their chloroplasts are on Earth. Algae perform 50% to 75% of
very similar to those of plants. Also, the all photosynthesis on Earth, and so pro-
bi-flagellated cells of green algae look vide most of the world’s free oxygen.
like the gametes of multicellular algae Some types of algae are eaten as is, but
and primitive plants. algae are mostly used in the manufac-
ture of food products.
The Plant–Protist Divide

Some algae can be classified either as
plants or as protists. Whether they fall
into one kingdom or the other depends
on how plants are defined. If plants
are defined as multicelluar eukaryotes
that perform photosynthesis, then mul-
Image omitted due to copyright ticellular algae fit the description, and
restrictions. can be considered plants. But multicel-
lular algae are quite different from plants
in many ways. The vast majority of
plants have adaptations for living on
land, such as rigid cell walls and spe-
cialized organs for support (roots and
FIGURE 13.13 This giant
stems), and for photosynthesis (leaves).
kelp is brown algae.
A giant kelp can grow to
Since multicellular algae are all marine,
100 m and has the fastest they do not have these adaptations and
growth rate of any organism. so are considered protists at this time.

Section 13.1 Review

1. Compare and contrast a prokaryotic
cell and a eukaryotic cell.
2. Explain how the cell parts of a prokary-
ote are similar to and different from a
eukaryote.
3. Compare the life cycle of an organism
from the kingdom Protista to the life
cycle of an organism from the kingdom
Eubacteria.
4. Organisms in the Kingdom Protista are
defined by what they are not. Explain.
5. Explain how Paramecium carries out
reproduction. How is its reproduction FIGURE 13.14
similar to and different from the re-
production of a typical eubacteria?
6. Explain why Euglena is difficult to clas-
sify.
7. Why are algae not classified as plants
even though they contain chlorophyll? 9. Classify each of these two
8. What are slime moulds? Why are they organisms in Figure 13.14. To which
classified as protists? kingdom does each belong? Explain
your decision.
13.2 The Fungi

Key Understandings
describe the general characteristics of fungi
classify organisms from the three major groups of fungi
describe the life cycle of a typical fungus
Most people are familiar with mush- decaying matter. Therefore, they are
rooms at the market but what about decomposers. They release digestive
moulds? A commonly recognized mould enzymes into their immediate environ-
forms on over-ripe oranges. Moulds and ment. These enzymes break down the
mushrooms are both fungi. dead organic matter. Fungi then absorb
the digested food through the cell wall.
This method of nutrition is different from
Characteristics of Fungi
slime moulds, which take up their food
The kingdom Fungi contains het- by simple endocytosis.
erotrophic eukaryotic organisms that are The bodies of most fungi consist of
saprobes, absorbing their food from threadlike filaments called hyphae. As

Caselike Fungi
Discovering Biology Do All Moulds Look Alike?
(Division Zygomycota)
In this activity you will look at the structure of moulds. Your teacher Most fungi in the division Zygomycota
will give you two samples of mouldy food in sealed plastic bags. are terrestrial saprobes. One common
One bag contains mouldy bread and the other bag contains mouldy mould is bread mould, or Rhizopus
fruit. Observe the moulds in the plastic bags using a hand lens.
(Figure 13.15). Its tangled mass of
mycelium grows and produces several
How are the moulds similar and different?
types of hyphae. Threadlike hyphae that
Draw a diagram of your observations. extend over the surface of the food are
called stolons. As the hyphae make con-
CAUTION: Do not open the sealed bags at any time. Return the sealed bags tact with the food, they extend into the
to your teacher when finished the activity and wash your hands in food source, such as bread, like roots of
soapy water. a plant. These hyphae are called
rhizoids. Rhizoids support further
growth of the mould by absorbing water
and sugars from the bread. After a few
days, black caselike structures appear
among the hyphae on the surface of the
bread. These caselike structures are
called sporangia and grow at the tips
of reproductive hyphae. Each spo-
the hyphae grow, they branch, forming rangium has the ability to produce sev-
a tangled mass of filaments called a eral thousands of spores. When each
mycelium that is well adapted to absorb sporangium breaks open, air currents
nourishment from its food source. In a carry the spores and, if conditions are
forest, for example, the almost invisi- ideal and another food source is avail-
ble mycelia of fungi obtain nutrients able, those spores germinate and begin
from fallen trees, thus decomposing the to grow on the new food source. Hyphae
trees. Most hyphae have cell walls. A branch out and form a new mycelium.
substance called chitin strengthens the This form of reproduction is asexual and
cell walls of fungi instead of cellulose takes place when growing conditions are
found in plants. most favourable.
Under less favourable conditions,
Rhizopus reproduces sexually by devel-
Reproduction
Investigation oping two genetically different types of
Most species in the kingdom Fungi hyphae. The two types of hyphae are
Refer to page 445,
Investigation 1 reproduce both asexually and sexually represented as plus and minus. When
by means of spores. Spores are single plus and minus hyphae make contact
reproductive cells that have a haploid
number of chromosomes. The
100 000 species of fungi are grouped
into divisions based on their pattern of
sexual reproduction. (Phyla are called
divisions in the kingdom Fungi.) Fungi
with spores in a caselike structure, called Image omitted due to copyright
a sporangium, are placed in the divi- restrictions.
sion Zygomycota. Fungi with spores in
a saclike structure, called an ascus,
are placed in division Ascomycota. Fungi
with spores that form in a clublike struc-
ture, called a basidium, are placed in
the division Basidiomycota. FIGURE 13.15 Bread mould

with each other in a conjugation process, yeasts reproduce very rapidly by

their nuclei join together to produce a budding (Figure 13.17). A bud begins
zygospore. The zygospore remains as a small bulge that pushes out from
dormant until the growing conditions the cell. As the bud grows larger, the nu-
improve, at which time the zygospores cleus divides by mitosis. One nucleus
germinate and form a new mycelial moves into the bud and the other re-
mass. mains in the original cell. Often, the bud-
ding cell remains attached to the original
cell and the reproductive process repeats WORDORIGIN
Saclike Fungi
itself over and over and a long chain
(Division Ascomycota) forms. Under poor conditions, yeasts re- Ascospore from the Greek
Fungi in this division are characterized produce sexually by forming ascospores. words askos meaning “a skin”
by their formation of a sac structure used or “a leather container” and
In the ascospore stage, yeasts can re-
sporos meaning “a seed.”
in reproduction. They include mildews, main dormant for extended periods of
some moulds, and some yeasts (Figure time until conditions for growth improve.
13.16). Sac fungi produce two kinds of Yeasts can tolerate conditions lack-
spores. Spores produced as a result of ing in oxygen and carry out anaerobic
sexual reproduction are called
Investigation
respiration, or fermentation. In this Refer to page 446,
ascospores. They are produced in an process, sugar molecules are broken Investigation 2
ascus or sac. Spores produced asexually down by enzymes in the yeast cells, re-
are called conidia. Conidia are formed leasing energy for use by the yeast cells.
in chains at the tips of specialized re- Carbon dioxide and alcohol are released
productive hyphae. as by-products. This fermentation

FIGURE 13.16 A truffle is an ascomycete that FIGURE 13.17 A budding yeast cell.
forms fruiting bodies underground. They are
considered a delicacy and sell for hundreds of
dollars.
ability of yeasts is used to advantage
Powdery mildews are parasitic by the baking industry. Baker’s yeast is
ascocarps that infect cereal grains, lilacs, added to the dough. As the yeast cells
roses, and many other plants. They feed on the sugar molecules in the
can be a serious problem to grape dough, carbon dioxide is given off, which
growers. causes the dough to rise. Wine makers
use other strains of yeasts that generate
Yeasts Yeasts are unicellular. Some high volumes of alcohol in fermentation.
are grouped with the ascomycetes be- Not all yeasts, however, are useful to hu-
cause they form an ascus in one stage mans. Some yeasts cause infections of
of their life cycle. Each yeast cell is oval- the skin, lungs, and kidneys. Many are
shaped and surrounded by a cell wall. parasitic and cause disease. In trees,
The cytoplasm contains a large vacuole yeasts cause Dutch elm disease, chest-
and a nucleus. Under ideal conditions, nut blight, and apple scab.

cap Clublike Fungi called basidia (singular: basidium). Each

(Division Basidiomycota) basidium contains several thousand
spores. The spores are haploid. When
The fungi that are grouped into the
they are blown by the wind onto suit-
divison Basidiomycota include mush-
able ground they germinate through cell
rooms, rusts, smuts, puffballs, and
division. The new mycelium that grows
bracket fungi and some yeasts. Many
fruiting
basidium from a spore is also haploid. When two
members of this division are saprobes,
body mycelia are of complementary mating
and others are parasites.
types, shown as red and blue in Figure
hyphae Under damp conditions in soil or in
13.19, they fuse. After fusing the result-
rotting wood, the mycelial mass of
ing mycelium is dikaryotic, meaning
hyphae form knobs that absorb water
each cell has two nuclei. All the daugh-
and grow quite large. Pushing up
ter cells also have two nuclei. When con-
through the soil or perched on rotting
ditions are right, a reproductive
logs, these knobs become spore-bearing
structure, the fruiting body, forms.
structures called fruiting bodies (Figure
Initially, the mushroom is made of
13.18). The umbrellalike cap of each
dikaryotic cells. Eventually, the nuclei of
species of mushroom has a characteris-
the cells on the gills fuse to form diploid
tic shape and is used as the basis of its
cells. Meiosis happens shortly after in
FIGURE 13.18 Structure of a classification. The cap contains many
mushroom. Hyphae form an these cells, creating haploid spores.
gills, or thin sheets, that radiate out like
underground network called a These spores drop out from the gills and
spokes on a wheel. Each gill bears
mycelium and a reproductive are blown away in the wind.
structure above ground called thousands of clublike reproductive cells
a fruiting body.
6. meiosis
5. fusion of nuclei
(fertilization) d hap
l oi loi
d
dip
1. spore formation
gills spore from another

mushroom
4. mushroom 2. germination
formation
dik
aryo
tic
FIGURE 13.19 Life 3. fusion

cycle of a mushroom,
a Basidiomycete.

Image omitted due

to copyright
restrictions.
FIGURE 13.20 Parasitic club fungi can cause FIGURE 13.22 A puffball releasing spores
large crop losses.
Parasitic rusts and smuts make up Puffballs (Figure 13.21) are round WEBLINK
another important group of fungi. Smuts or pear-shaped fungi. Often white, they
cause damage to grain crops such as resemble mushrooms, except that they Research the life cycles of a
corn, oats, wheat, rye, and barley (Figure release their spores only when the fruit- slime mould, a zygomycete,
and an ascomycete. Draw
13.20). Parasitic fungi are difficult to ing body dries up and splits open. diagrams of each and describe
control because they have complex how they are similar and
reproductive cycles that often include how they are different.
“Imperfect” Fungi Begin your research at
more than one host. For example, the
wheat rust fungus infects the common There are some species that have no www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
barberry bush as well as the wheat plant. known sexual phases and so cannot be
Bracket fungi can exist as saprobes classified into divisions. These species
on the wood of dead trees, or as para- are known as imperfect fungi. Many of
sites on the wood of living trees. The these species cause diseases in plants
mycelium of a bracket fungus penetrates and animals, including humans.
and breaks down the woody tissue of its You have probably seen the green
host and, as it grows, the fungus itself mould, Penicillium growing on oranges.
takes on a woody texture. Over the years Penicillium was considered an imperfect
of its life, the bracket fungus adds addi- fungus, but has recently been classified
tional layers of hyphae and appears like as an ascomycete. In 1928, a Scottish
a shelf extending out from the woody bacteriologist named Sir Alexander
bark of a tree (Figure 13.21). Fleming made history when he observed
Penicillium growing on a Petri dish
containing a culture of Staphylococcus
bacteria. Surprisingly, he discovered that
the bacteria only grew on the dish in
places where the green mould did not
grow. In other words, something about
the Penicillium mould prevented the
growth of the Staphylococcus bacterium.
restrictions.
Over the next few years, Fleming
experimented with Penicillium and
eventually isolated a chemical substance
produced by the fungus. This chemical
inhibited the growth of bacteria and
became known as penicillin. It was the
first antibiotic to come into medical use
to fight infectious diseases caused by
bacteria.
FIGURE 13.21 Bracket fungus


FIGURE 13.23 Penicillium is inhibiting the FIGURE 13.24 In athlete’s foot, the mycelium
growth of Streptococcus, shown by the clear of Trichophyton invades the top layer of skin,
area surrounding the Penicillium. causing sores.
An antibiotic is a substance burning and stinging sensations (Figure

produced by a fungus or other micro-or- 13.24). Keeping the feet dry and cool
ganism that inhibits the growth of mi- prevents athlete’s foot, especially during
crobes. Antibiotics are not all alike in warm weather that encourages fungal
their chemical properties and the way growth.
they attack bacteria. Some antibiotics,
such as penicillin, prevent the formation
of cell walls in reproducing bacteria
(Figure 13.23). Other antibiotics prevent Fungal Associations
the formation of bacterial cell Certain fungi associate with other or-
membranes. ganisms for the mutual benefit of both
The common mould Trichophyton partners.
rubrum causes a contagious fungal in- Lichens are symbiotic associations
fection called athlete’s foot that occurs of a fungus with either an alga or a
most often between the toes and on the cyanobacterium (Figure 13.26). In this
soles of the feet. This fungus thrives in partnership, the alga provides nourish-
warm, damp places, such as the floors ment to the fungus through photosyn-
of showers, swimming pools, and thesis. The fungus provides the alga with
gymnasiums. The symptoms of athlete’s water, essential minerals, and protection
foot are reddened, cracked, and peeling from dryness in its barren and often
skin, accompanied by itching or rocky habitat (Figure 13.25).
antibiotics to patients with relatively penicillin. As bacteria developed re-

mild bacterial infections. The effec- sistance to these other drugs, the
tiveness of certain antibiotics, such pressure on them to resist penicillin
as penicillin, has declined as the decreased, and recently, Canadian
Penicillin Makes a number of resistant bacteria to these doctors have again had success using
Comeback drugs has increased. Highly resistant penicillin. This illustrates the dynamic
bacteria evolved in response to peni- nature of the evolution of organisms
cillin until the antibiotic could no in response to the shifting environ-
In recent years the medical profes- longer effectively control their growth. mental conditions that affect their
sion has expressed concern about Doctors prescribed other antibiotics, growth and survival.
the over-prescription of common such as erythromycin, to replace

fungal
hyphae
algal cell

restrictions. dense
hyphae
algal
layer
loose
hyphae
dense
hyphae
FIGURE 13.25 Lichens don’t need soil to grow.
rock
They can grow on bare rock. They are the light
green patches on the rocks.
Other fungi associate with the roots lichen WORDORIGIN

of plants. These associations are known
as mycorrhizae. The fungus mycelium Mycorrhizae from the Greek
forms a thick web over the surface of a words mukes meaning “mush-
room” or “fungus” and rhiza
plant’s roots. Sometimes the hyphae ac-
meaning “root.”
tually penetrate the surface of the root’s
cells. The fungal mycelium absorbs FIGURE 13.26 The structure of a lichen
water and minerals from the soil, which
it passes to the root. The plant provides INFOBIT
the fungus with amino acids and sugars.
Mycorrhizae are essential to the Still other fungi associate with in- Scientists have recently
health of plants and most plants have sects. Some leaf-cutting ants cultivate a discovered a fungus
them. Plants with active mycorrhizae particular species of fungus, providing associated with white pine
tend to be a deeper green and can bet- it with leaves on which it feeds. The ants trees that has a unique method
of supplying nitrogen to the
ter resist droughts and temperature also remove competing fungi. The fun- trees. Instead of absorbing
extremes than plants of the same species gus grows and then serves as food for dead organic matter, this
that lack mycorrhizae on their roots. the ants. fungus paralyzes and then kills
soil insects.
Section 13.2 Review

Understanding Concepts 5. Fungal interactions can be beneficial
or harmful. Give examples of both
1. What nutritional pattern do all fungi types of interactions, and indicate the
have in common? relationship.
2. Draw a diagram of a typical fungus.
Label relevant structures.
Making Connections
3. Create a chart that lists examples, gen-
eral characteristics, and type of repro- 6. Create a chart showing the economic,
duction (sexual, asexual) for each group environmental, or health impacts of
of fungi. five different fungi.
4. Name the characteristic used to clas- 7. If all fungi on Earth were to disappear,
sify fungi into various phyla. Describe what immediate and long-term results
how this characteristic differs between would you predict? Explain.
the phyla.

13.3 The Plants

Key Understandings
describe the general characteristics of plants
describe the life cycles of various plant groups
classify organisms from the various plant groups
The earliest plants appeared in the bio- General Characteristics

sphere around half a billion years ago.
By broad definition plants are eukary-
Until that time, the land surface of Earth
otic, multicellular organisms that carry
was nothing more than a mass of
out photosynthesis. Their cells have cell
barren rock. The earliest land plants are
walls containing cellulose. They are
thought to have evolved from simpler
mostly land-dwelling. More precisely
algal-like ancestors that lived in the
defined, plants develop from embryos
oceans. Even though primitive plants
protected by tissues of the parent plant.
were tiny, their metabolic activities
This is one of the reasons why algae are
helped to convert bare rock into soil that
not classified as plants.
could support the needs of their suc-
Plants include mosses, ferns,
ceeding offspring. During the millions of
conifers, and flowering plants (Figure
years leading up to the present, more
13.27). Plants are adapted primarily for
and more plant species evolved. Today,
life on land (though a few are aquatic)
the biosphere is full of animals, fungi,
and thrive in a wide variety of environ-
protists, and bacteria living in widely dif-
ments. For example, mosses grow in
ferent environments. But the most visi-
moist environments, whereas cacti are
ble kingdom by far is the plant kingdom.
well adapted for life in harsh deserts.
flowering
mosses ferns conifers plants
flowers
Image omitted due
to copyright
restrictions.
seeds restrictions.
vascular
tissue
a) Mosses b) Ferns
multicellularity
green algae
(ancestors)
Image omitted
FIGURE 13.27 Four main varieties of plants. Image omitted due to copyright
Mosses are multicellular; ferns have vascular due to copyright
restrictions.
tissue; conifers have seeds produced in cones; restrictions.
flowering plants have seeds produced in
flowers.
c) Conifers d) Flowering plants

Plant Life Cycles sporophyte dominance (2n)
ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS
mosses ferns gymnosperms angiosperms
sporophyte
generation
1n
meiosis
multicellular
egg
diploid
adults sperm
fertilization
2n
gametophyte
generation
mitosis and zygote
development
haploid (1n)
diploid (2n)
gametophyte dominance (n)
mi
tos
sis FIGURE 13.29 The generational dominance varies among plant divisions.
is
to
multicellular
mi
gametophyte
spores gametes
these haploid cells from two individuals
1n meiosis fertilization fuse to create a new, diploid zygote. capsule
2n Through mitosis, a new diploid indi-
multicelluar vidual is produced.
sporophyte
A plant produces haploid reproduc-
zygote
tive cells called spores. Unlike animal ga- sporophyte
metes, spores do not have to fuse with stalk
mitosis another cell. A spore will undergo cell di-
vision to grow into a new plant. However,
this generation is haploid. These haploid
plants eventually produce gametes,
FIGURE 13.28 Human life cycle compared to which fuse to produce a diploid zygote.
plant life cycle.
The zygote then grows into a diploid
sporophyte plant. These generations can
look quite different from one another. In
Life cycles vary among the different plant the more primitive plants, the gameto-
groups but they share certain charac- phyte generation dominates, but in the gametophyte
teristics. Plants go through an alterna- seed-producing plants the sporophyte
tion of generations. One generation is generation dominates (Figure 13.29).
haploid (1n) and the other is diploid (2n).
These are called the gametophyte and
sporophyte generations. This is very dif- Non-Vascular Plants
ferent from the animal life cycle. The term bryophyte includes mosses,
rhizoids
Animals, such as humans, are diploid liverworts, and hornworts. Until recently
throughout their entire lives (Figure they were all included in one division
13.28). The only cells that are haploid (the botanical term for phylum), but each
FIGURE 13.30 In the moss
are the gametes (eggs and sperm), pro- is now placed in its own division. (See Mnium, the sporophyte
duced through meiosis. At conception, Table 13.3 on page 444). These plants grows on the gametophyte.

lack true roots, stems, and leaves and Bryophytes also reproduce sexu-
they do not have specialized tissues to ally (Figure 13.33). In order for sexual
transport materials throughout the plant reproduction to occur in non-vascular
Image omitted due to body (Figure 13.30). They usually grow plants, sperm have to swim from the
copyright restrictions. in dense mats in moist environments male reproductive organ to the female
and are only a few centimetres tall reproductive organ. So water, even in
(Figure 13.31). Most bryophytes live on minute amounts, must be present in
the soil but some grow on bare rock, dead order for fertilization to occur. This is
a) Mosses trees, and even on buildings. They first another important reason why
appeared about 400 million years ago. bryophytes grow in wet environments.
Liverworts can reproduce asexually Like fungi, bryophytes produce
by vegetative reproduction. A small seg- spores rather than seeds. A plant that is
ment of the plant either branches off or the result of fertilization releases the
Image omitted due to breaks off the original and grows into an spores. Wind or water can carry the
copyright restrictions. identical new plant (Figure 13.32). spores to a suitable environment where
they develop into mature plants.
The Importance of
b) Liverworts
Bryophytes
FIGURE 13.31 Some
bryophytes Sphagnum moss, or peat moss, grows in
open, wet environments such as bogs.
restrictions.
Most bogs are found in boreal regions.
As the moss begins to decay, it accumu-
lates and compresses older layers of moss.
Because of the constant wetness and lower
oxygen levels in the bog, the moss layers
FIGURE 13.32 Vegetative reproduction in a only partially decay. These layers are
liverwort. Plantlets form within the gemmae known as peat and may reach depths
cups. Eventually the plantlets break off, develop of over 10 metres. Dried peat has been
rhizoids, and grow into complete new plants.
used for hundreds of years as a fuel. In
n
spores n n
n
spore capsule spores germinate
and grow into ...
sporophyte
2n sperm antheridium
n
parent male
gametophyte 2n archegonium n gemeto-
phyte female
gemeto-
developing 2n phyte
sporophyte egg
in archegonium zygote
n
FIGURE 13.33 Life cycle of a bryophyte

storage for carbon dioxide. As a conse-

quence, more carbon dioxide remains in
Earth’s atmosphere, contributing to the
greenhouse effect. Many scientists believe
Image omitted due to copyright the increasing level of carbon dioxide in
restrictions. the atmosphere is the main cause of
global warming.
The Vascular Plants

Tracheophytes are a diverse group of
FIGURE 13.34 Commercial harvest of a peat
bog in Quebec.
plants that include most modern-day
plants. They first appeared on Earth
about 360 million years ago. They are
well adapted to life on land due to the
parts of Finland and Russia it is still burned presence of conducting tissues called
for heat. In Ireland, power stations use peat xylem and phloem, which transport ma-
to generate electricity. terials throughout the plant. Because of
Peat moss is also used around the this feature, tracheophytes are known as
world as a soil additive. As a result of the vascular plants. The evolution of
extensive harvesting, peat bogs in some conducting tissues allowed plants to
countries are disappearing at an alarm- grow much taller than the bryophytes.
ing rate. In Canada, only a very small The vascular plants are divided into two
percentage of peat bogs are harvested. groups: the spore-producing plants and
The peat industry is carefully managed the seed-producing plants.
to cause minimal damage to bogs.
Canada is the third-largest producer of
peat moss in the world next to Russia
Spore-producing
and Germany. The main areas of Vascular Plants
commercial peat harvesting are in The club mosses and horsetails (Figure INFOBIT
southern Quebec (Figure 13.34) and 13.35) contain the smallest and most prim-
One type of horsetail is known
northeastern New Brunswick. itive members of the tracheophytes. They
as the “scouring rush”
With the worldwide harvesting of are descendants of ancient plants that because it was used in the
bogs, these complex ecosystems are made up most of Earth’s forests hundreds 1700s to clean pots and pans.
disappearing. Peat bog removal also of millions of years ago. Today, they mostly Because the stem contains
affects the carbon cycle. Bogs store vast grow in marshes and on the edges of the sandlike substance, silica,
scouring rush stems can be
amounts of Earth’s carbon dioxide. streams. One Central American variety of
used to scour dishes or pots.
The removal of bogs has reduced ground horsetail grows to 10 m high.
FIGURE 13.35 Spore-producing vascular plants

a) Ferns b) Horsetails c) Club mosses

As mentioned previously, tracheo- sperm have to swim to the archegonia

phytes were the dominant form of plants to fertilize the eggs.
on Earth during the Carboniferous
Period (about 360 to 290 million years
Seed-producing
ago). The fossilized remains of this group
of plants form the coal deposits. Humans
Vascular Plants
have been using coal for centuries as a The seed producers are the most
fuel source. successful plants on Earth. They have
Ferns are closely related to club highly specialized organs, namely leaves,
mosses and horsetails but are much stems, and roots that have allowed them
more widespread. They have also been to adapt to a wide variety of environ-
on Earth for about 400 million years. ments. The two main groups of seed-
Over 12 000 species of fern can be found producing plants produce either cones
from the arctic to the tropical rain or flowers. In both groups, sexual
forests. They are found mostly in shady reproduction occurs by the process of
and wet environments. pollination, or the transfer of pollen
The leaves of ferns are called from where it was formed to a receptive
fronds. Ferns have underground stems surface. Because of pollination, seed-
called rhizomes. Ferns produce spores producing plants don’t need water to
in sporangia, tiny containers found on complete their life cycle. Seeds can
the underside of the fronds (Figure survive in dry environments and provide
13.36). Like bryophytes, ferns need an efficient way of dispersing offspring.
water to complete their life cycle because
n
n
2n
spores
n
sporangium
mature sorus
sporophyte
gametophyte
rhizoid
n
archegonium
n
2n developing
sporophyte
antheridium
2n
embryo
gametophyte sperm
FIGURE 13.36 The life cycle of a typical fern. The young sporophyte grows from the gametophyte.

FIGURE 13.37 Welwitschia, a gneta, has long, straplike leaves. Ginkgo leaves are fan-
shaped and are dropped in the fall. Cycads are not ferns. Their leaves are long needles.


a) Welwitschia b) Ginkgo c) Cycad fern
Gymnosperms ized reproductive structures called cones. INFOBIT

Gymnosperms have two types of cones:
In addition to conifers, there are three
male and female (Figure 13.38). Male Gingko trees are often used in
groups of gymnosperms: gnetae (singu- landscaping because they are
cones, called pollen cones, produce pollen
lar: gneta), ginkgos, and cycads (Figure resistant to fungi and pollution
grains. Female cones, called seed cones,
13.37). Cycads flourished 225 million and their leaves turn gold in
produce ovules. The male cones release the fall. But ginkgos have a
years ago, but now only a few species re-
pollen grains, which are carried in the drawback. Mature trees are
main in subtropical and tropical areas.
wind and some of them drift into the fe- either male or female. Female
Ginkgoes were far more common 170 trees bear fruit that smells like
male cones. Once inside, the pollen grain
million years ago. Now only one species rotting garbage!
produces sperm cells by mitosis. These
survives, Ginkgo biloba. Today, conifers
sperm cells leave the pollen grain and fer-
are the most numerous group of gym-
tilize the ovules in the seed cone. After fer-
nosperms. The leaves of conifers are elon-
tilization, zygotes grow into seeds on the
gated into what are commonly called
surfaces of the cone’s scales. Once the cone
needles.
has matured, and if it lands on good soil,
The most striking characteristic of
the seeds can develop into new plants.
gymnosperms is that they have special-
male cone pollen

(contains sperm)
female cone
egg

restrictions.
mature growth embryo

tree seedling inside seed
FIGURE 13.38 The life cycle of a gymnosperm. FIGURE 13.39 Softwoods from conifers are
Pine trees have two types of cones. The male used extensively in construction.
cone is far smaller than the female cone.

The Importance of softwood and is the second-largest pro-

Gymnosperms ducer next to the United States. British
Columbia, Quebec, Ontario, and Alberta
The wood from conifers is referred to
are the main producers, with B.C.
as softwood. Approximately 50% of
providing over half of the softwood pro-
TABLE 13.2 Canadian Ontario’s forests consist of conifers.
duced (Figure 13.39). Ontario supplies
Softwoods and Their Uses. Canada supplies about 20% of the world’s
about 10%. In 1996, Canadian softwood
exports to 87 countries generated over
Conifer Region where found Commercial uses
$12 billion in revenue. The main im-
Eastern spruce across Canada framing lumber, plywood, shipping crates, porters of our softwood are the United
(black, white pulp States, Japan, and the European Union.
spruce) Canada uses about 4% of the world’s
White pine Manitoba to window and door frames, doors, cabinets, supply of softwood; our southern neigh-
Maritimes toys, carvings, caskets bour uses about one-third of the world’s
Balsam fir across Canada construction lumber, framing lumber, supply! But per capita, Canada is the
plywood, particle board, shipping crates, pulp biggest consumer.
Softwoods are grouped commer-
Eastern Ontario to Maritimes framing lumber, roofing, plywood, pulp
Hemlock cially into four categories: Spruce-Pine-
Fir, Hemlock-Fir, Douglas Fir, and
Douglas fir southern B.C. construction lumber, plywood, railway ties,
Western Red Cedar. Table 13.2 indicates
doors (the most versatile of all wood)
some uses of members of each of these
Western B.C. shingles, doors, fencing and fence posts, groups along with the region in Canada
red cedar decks, siding, pulp where the tree grows.
Angiosperms
Angiosperms are the flowering plants.
anther
They are the most widespread of all land
pollen plants, with about 250 000 species
worldwide. All angiosperms reproduce
tube cell
mature sexually by means of flowers, through
sporophyte sperm cells the process of pollination. Angiosperm
microspores
seeds are contained in a protective wall
pollen
GAMETOPHYTE germination that develops into a fruit.
GENERATION
(n) stigma
carpel Angiosperm Life Cycle
ovary The angiosperms are the most success-
pollen
seed tube ful group of plants on Earth. Using
germination flowers as their reproductive struc-
and growth
megaspore tures frees them from requiring a wa-
tery environment like the mosses and
egg ferns do. The ovules of angiosperms are
SPOROPHYTE fertilization more protected than those of gym-
GENERATION
(2n) nosperms and their well-protected seeds,
dispersed through a variety of
ingenious methods, also contribute to
the success of the angiosperms.
seed In order for the angiosperms to
reproduce, an ovum inside the pistil, the
zygote
embryo FIGURE 13.40 The life cycle of an angiosperm

(developing zygote)

female part of the flower, must be fer- stamen carpel

tilized by a sperm cell, contained in a stigma
anther
pollen grain. Once fertilized, the zygote
style
develops into an embryo contained in
filament
a seed. Seeds are enclosed in a fruit. The
seeds must be released from the fruit ovary
and find suitable soil in which to
germinate into a new plant. The
angiosperm life cycle is summarized in petals
Figure 13.40. sepals
receptacle
pedicel
bud flower
FIGURE 13.42 Flower parts

restrictions.
Pollination Angiosperms have developed
an amazing variety of methods to trans-
fer pollen from one flower to another. In
self-pollination, pollen from the same
plant fertilizes an egg cell. More com-
monly, pollen is transferred from one
plant to another of the same species
(cross-pollination) by wind, water, or
FIGURE 13.41 The typical angiosperm flower
animals (Figure 13.43). Pollen produced
contains both male and female reproductive
structures. in the anthers is transferred to the
stigma of another plant by one of these
methods. Flowers are adapted to a
specific method of pollination.
The Flower The group is defined by the
distinct reproductive structure: the
flower. The outermost part of a flower is
made of the sepals and petals (Figure Image omitted due to copyright
13.41). The mature flower contains both restrictions.
female and male parts. A stamen is
the male reproductive part of the flower.
Pollen grains, each containing sperm
cells, are produced by the anther (Figure
13.42). The female reproductive struc-
ture is called the carpel. At the base of
the carpel is the ovary, which produces
an egg inside an ovule.
restrictions.
Pollen is released and carried to
other flowers of the same species by var-
ious means. When a pollen grain lands
on the stigma, the carpel opening, it
travels down the pollen tube and one FIGURE 13.43 Animal pollinators. Bees (top)
of the sperm inside the pollen grain and other insects transport pollen from flower to
flower. Hummingbirds (bottom) also pollinate the
fertilizes the egg in the ovary. flowers they visit.

nucleus fuses with the ovum to produce

a zygote. The other sperm nucleus fuses
with the two polar nuclei of the ovule to
FIGURE 13.44 Bee in a Image omitted due to copyright become endosperm tissue. As in gym-
scotch broom. This species of restrictions. nosperms, the endosperm stores
orchid has a specialized nutrients for the developing seed. After
flower. When a bee lands on
fertilization, the ovule develops into a
the flower, the curved anther
“dabs” pollen onto the back seed and the ovary into a fruit. The
of the bee. ovary enlarges, and its wall thickens to
For example, insect-pollinated flowers, form the fruit. The other flower parts die.
are usually brightly coloured, and pro- In fleshy fruits, the ovary wall thick-
duce sweet nectar to attract insects. ens into a soft pulp that has a high sugar
Many flowers have also developed a content. Not all fruits are fleshy. Dry
specialized “landing area” or platform fruits, including nuts such as almonds
designed so that visiting insects, and cashews, are often mistaken for
unknowingly, can pick up pollen effi- seeds. While seeds mature within the
ciently (Figure 13.44). ovary, the ovary walls themselves be-
come modified to form the fruit (Figure
INFOBIT
Fertilization The process of fertilization 13.46). Fruits that develop from a sin-
A fruit is defined as a fertilized is summarized in Figure 13.45. The gle ovary in a single flower are called
ovary of an angiosperm. Many pollen grain germinates when it lands on simple fruits. Tomatoes, plums, and
people are not aware that by a stigma. A pollen tube grows down into pears are examples of simple fruits.
this definition, tomatoes, corn, the ovary. One of two nuclei in the pollen Fruits that develop from many ovaries
peas, and cucumbers are all
grain, called the generative nucleus, in a single flower are called aggregate
fruits.
divides into two sperm nuclei. One sperm fruits. Raspberries are an example.
pollen grain tube cell

sperm cells
stigma
pollen tube
sperm cells
style
fusion of one sperm

micropyle cell with nuclei of central
cell to form endosperm
ovary (3n)
fusion of one
ovule egg sperm cell with
with female (n) egg to form zygote
gametophyte (2n)
pollination pollen tube double
growth fertilization
FIGURE 13.45 Fertilization in angiosperms. Two fertilizations take place. One

fertilization creates a triploid cell, which forms the endosperm to nourish the young
embryo when it germinates. The other fertilization creates the zygote.

carpels
receptacle
a Apricot b Pea c Strawberry

(one carpel, one seed) (one carpel, many seeds) (many carpels, many seeds,
one receptacle)
FIGURE 13.46 The flesh of an apricot a) and a pea pod b) are mature ovaries and
so are fruits. A strawberry c) is actually a receptacle. The “seeds” on the surface
are actually minute carpels, each containing its own seed and fruit.
Seed Dispersal There are many ways in

which seeds find their way to suitable
soil in which to germinate. Some seeds,
such as those of the milkweed (Figure
13.47), are blown by the wind. Coconut
seeds are often carried on water. The
cocklebur seeds have tiny hooks that restrictions.
allow them to attach to animal fur. As
you know, the fruits that humans eat are
also eaten by birds and other animals.
The seeds of these fruits are often car-
ried away, undigested, in the digestive
tract of the animal. They may find suit-
able soil in which to germinate after the FIGURE 13.47 The seeds of some plants, such
animal eliminates the seeds with its as this milkweed, have shapes or structures that
undigested wastes. enhance dispersal by the wind.

INFOBIT
In 1941, George DeMestral, on

a walk in the woods in his
native Switzerland, decided to
look more closely at the burrs
collected on his clothing and
his dog. Under the microscope
he observed the intricate, tiny Image omitted due to copyright Image omitted due to copyright
hooks on the burrs. He realized restrictions. restrictions.
that he could use nature’s
invention to serve a variety of
uses that the zipper could not
serve. After many years of
trying to develop a suitable
fabric containing the many
tiny hooks, Velcro was finally
patented in 1955. Velcro is used
in clothing, shoes, medical a) b)
supplies, luggage, aircraft, and
sports equipment. FIGURE 13.48 Some seeds are enclosed in tasty fruit a) that entices animals, who
eat the fruit and disperse the seeds. Other seeds are enclosed in burrs b) that attach to
passing animals who disperse the seeds over wide distances.
TABLE 13.3 Summary of

Division Common name Number of species
plant Classification. Note that
botanists refer to phyla as Non-vascular plants Bryophyta mosses 12 000
divisions in the plant
kingdom. Hepatophyta liverworts 6500
Anthocerophyta hornworts 100
Vascular plants
Spore-producing plants Lycophyta club mosses 1000
Sphenophyta horsetails 15
Pterophyta ferns 12 000
Seed-producing plants
Gymnosperms Coniferophyta conifers 550
Cycadophyta cycads 100
Ginkophyta ginkgo 1
Gnetophyta gnetae 70
Angiosperms Anthophyta flowering plants 250 000
Section 13.3 Review

Understanding Concepts 4. Explain why a cucumber, which is
commonly thought of as a vegetable, is
1. Explain the difference between cross- actually a fruit.
pollination and self-pollination.
5. What characteristic would you expect
2. In angiosperms, the fertilization is wind-pollinated flowers to have that is
called double fertilization. Explain why different from bee-pollinated flowers?
this term is appropriate
6. Using diagrams, compare the life cycle
3. Why do bryophytes (non-vascular of a moss to that of an angiosperm.
plants) survive best in moist, shady Indicate similarities and differences.
habitats?

Inquiry Skills


Growing Moulds
Problem Part B: Examining Mould

In this activity, you will be growing and classifying
moulds. Procedure
1. Examine the bread mould under the binocular
Materials microscope through the covered Petri dish. Draw
your observations and label the hyphae, stolons,
slice of bread (prefer- hand lens
rhizoids, sporangiophores, sporangia, and spores.
ably home-baked prepared slide of
without preserva- Rhizopus 2. Obtain a prepared slide of Rhizopus. Observe its
tives) binocular microscope structures under low power on a compound
milk compound micro- microscope. Repeat your observations under
Petri dish scope medium and high power. Draw a diagram of what
paper towels marking pen you observed.
scissors
eye dropper
1. Why do you think that the section of bread was
CAUTION: Wear goggles and when you are finished, rinse dampened with milk?
your Petri dish in a dilute solution of bleach. Wash your hands 2. Did your mould resemble the Rhizopus on the slide?
with soapy water when finished the activity. Explain why or why not.
3. Classify the moulds that grew on your bread.
4. How are the bread moulds different from edible
Part A: Culturing Mould mushrooms?
Procedure Concluding and Communicating

1. Cut several thicknesses of paper towel to fit the bot- 5. What type of mould(s) grew on your bread? Explain
tom of a Petri dish. why you classified them as you did.
2. Moisten the towels and place them in the bottom 6. Moulds are often the main cause of many allergies.
of the Petri dish. Research which part of the mould causes allergies.
3. Place a section of bread (without the crust) over the 7. Can fruit mould grow on bread? Explain.
paper towels.
4. Dampen the section of bread with a few drops of
milk.
Extending
8. Design an experiment to test the effect of each of
5. Place the cover over the Petri dish and seal with
the following variables on the growth of bread
masking tape.
mould: heat, light, moisture.
6. Set the petri dish aside at room temperature or
9. Design an experiment to grow edible mushrooms
slightly warmer for 4-5 days.
on a portable substrate (e.g., a log).
7. Without removing the cover to the Petri dish,
examine the bread mould daily with a hand lens.
When a white fuzzy growth appears on the
surface of the bread with black dots sprinkled
throughout, you can start Part B.

Inquiry Skills

Improving the Growth of Yeast Analyzing and Interpreting

Problem Experimental Design

Suppose you are a research scientist for a biotechnol- 1. The following variables may affect the growth of
ogy company. A large bakery has hired your com- yeast: pH, temperature, oxygen, water, amount of
pany to help them improve the ways they grow yeast. sugar, and salt concentration. Choose one vari-
Yeast cells are used to make baked goods rise, giving able you believe will enhance the growth of yeast.
more volume and a lighter texture. Each scientist has 2. Use the standard procedure for the growth of yeast.
decided to investigate a variable that will enhance Design an experiment to test the effect of the
the growth of the yeast. chosen variable on yeast growth. Ensure your
The following steps outline a standard procedure experimental design is complete.
for growing yeast. 3. Carry out your experiment, following all relevant
1. Measure 1.0 g of yeast on the triple beam balance. safety requirements.
2. Measure 0.25 g of sugar. 4. Collect and record your data appropriately.
3. Pour sugar and yeast into a 150-mm test tube.
4. Add 5.0 mL of distilled water to the test tube. Analyzing and Interpreting
Ensure that all yeast is in the solution. 1. Compile the information from your own and your
5. Place the test tube in a warm water bath (incubate classmates’ (colleagues’) work. Analyze that infor-
at 37°C) for 10 minutes. mation to agree on the final recommendations to
6. After 10 minutes remove the test tube from the the bakery.
warm water bath and measure the height of the 2. Explain, using your knowledge of fermentation, the
foam produced using a ruler. This will indicate how use of sugar in this investigation.
much growth has occurred. Note other character- 3. What factors influenced the rate of CO2 production?
istics of the foam, such as density, as a confirma-
4. Which factor maximized the growth of yeast?
tion of the results.
Materials Concluding and Communicating

5. Describe from your observations the best condition
yeast
for maximum yeast growth.
triple beam balance
sugar 6. Identify any experimental error that could have af-
150-mm test tube fected your results.
large beaker 7. If you repeated this procedure, what changes would
other items as needed you focus on and why?
8. Draw a specific conclusion regarding your variable.
Prepare a report on your data and conclusion to
present to colleagues who have investigated other
variables.

Key Terms
alternation of generations diatom hyphae rhizoid

anal pore dinoflagellate lichen slime mould
angiosperm endocytosis lysosome sporangium
anther endosperm macronucleus spore
ascospore eukaryote micronucleus sporophyte
ascus fermentation mycelium sporozoan
basidium flagella mycorrhizae stigma
bryophyte food vacuole oral groove vascular plant
budding fruit ovule water mould
cap fruiting body pellicle zygospore
cilia gametophyte plasmodium
cones gills pollination
conidium gymnosperm pseudopod
13.1 The Protists Most fungi consist of a tangled mass of hyphae that
The kingdom Protista contains only eukaryotic or- form a mycelium. The fungi can reproduce asexu-
ganisms. Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus surrounded ally as well as sexually.
by a membrane, and organelles also surrounded by Lichens are an alga and a fungus living together in
membranes. a symbiotic association. Mycorrhizae are associa-
The protist kingdom is extremely diverse. Most tions of fungi with the roots of plants.
are unicellular. Some resemble animals by ingest- 13.3 The Plants
ing food particles. Some resemble plants
All members of the plant kingdom are multicellular
by having chlorophyll. Some resemble fungi by
absorbing molecules from their surroundings. Some and have cell walls made of cellulose. They are al-
are parasitic. most all land plants, though some are aquatic.
The plant life cycle involves an alternation between
Amoebas move by means of pseudopods, flagellates
by means of flagella, and ciliates by means of cilia. the gametophyte and sporophyte generations.
Sporozoans are non-motile. The bryophytes lack vascular tissues.
It is thought that plants evolved from the green Vascular plants are divided into two groups: the
algae. spore-producing tracheophytes and the seed-
producing plants.
13.2 The Fungi
Most of the kingdom Fungi are multicellular The seed-producing plants are the most successful
eukaryotes. All lack chlorophyll and absorb nutri- group of plants. They include the gymnosperms and
ents from their environment. the angiosperms.
Fungi are classified by their reproductive structures: Gymnosperms are non-flowering plants and an-
the caselike Zygomycota, the saclike Ascomycota, giosperms are flowering plants.
and the clublike Basidiomycota.
1. Look back at the Checkpoint on page 419 and revisit the 3. Review the skills you have used so far in completing the
Venn diagram you made before beginning this chapter. Investigations in this unit. Complete a chart to summa-
Draw a revised diagram if you would change or add rize the skills you have developed.
information based on what you have learned.
2. Starting with the word “protists,” create a concept
map that shows how species in the kindgom Protista re-
semble species in the plant and fungi kingdoms.
CHAPTER 13 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts 15. Describe the structure of a mushroom.
1. Small, hair-like projections used for locomotion by 16. In what sense might lichens be called “pioneer
paramecia are organisms?”
a) pseudopodia
b) cilia 17. You are shown an organism that looks somewhat like a
c) flagella mushroom. Describe at least three characteristics that
d) mycorrhizae would enable you to classify the organism as a plant or
as a fungus.
2. Eukaryotic cells
a) have genetic material but no nucleus 18. What are the characteristics of bryophytes?
b) are more primitive than prokaryotic cells
c) carry out chemical reactions throughout the 19. What are the characteristics of tracheophytes?
cytoplasm in a suspension of water
d) evolved from prokaryotic cells 20. Describe how a fruit is formed.
3. The kingdom Protista contains 21. Researchers have found that some plants have the
a) the unicellular prokaryotes ability to produce juvenile insect hormone. This sub-
b) the unicellular eukaryotes stance helps to regulate the timing of insect development.
c) only animal-like eukaryotes By producing large amounts of the hormone, plants
d) the Fungi are able to prevent insect predators from going through
metamorphosis (i.e., changing from a larva to an adult
4. In which division in the kingdom Fungi are mush- insect). How might this be of survival benefit to these
rooms found? plants?
a) Zygomycota
b) Ascomycota 22. What characteristic do all species in the protist, fungi,
c) Basidiomycota and plant kingdoms have in common?
d) Imperfect fungi
23. Compare endospores in bacteria with spores in protists.
5. The male portion of a flower is the
a) sepal 24. Do you think malaria could be transmitted through blood
b) carpel transfusions? Explain your answer.
c) stamen
d) stigma
Applying Inquiry/
6. Construct a concept map that will help you to understand Communication Skills
the different types of protists.
25. Table 13.4 provides examples of different types of fruits.
7. Name three methods of locomotion used by some species
Obtain samples from each of the categories, investigate
of protists and describe these methods.
their similarities and differences, and provide descrip-
tions that distinguish one type of fruit from another.
8. Draw a labelled diagram to describe the life cycle of
the malarial parasite, Plasmodium vivax.
26. Predict where you might find mould spores in your home.
Design an investigation to see if your predictions are
9. How do euglenoids resemble plant and animal cells?
valid.
10. Construct a concept map that will help you to understand
27. Create a dichotomous key to classify an unknown or-
the different types of fungi.
ganism into the protist, fungi, or plant kingdom.
11. Why are slime moulds classified as protists and not fungi?
28. A paramecium can reproduce asexually about 700 times
before dying. However, if it reproduces sexually through
12. Describe the hyphae that make up the bread mould
conjugation in addition to asexually, it can reproduce
Rhizopus.
many more times. Develop a hypothesis for this
observation.
13. Describe the conjugation process in the case-like
Zygomycota.
29. Figure 13.49 shows the effects of mycorrhizae on plant
growth. For each species, one tree grew with
14. How are saclike fungi different from the club fungi?

Type of Fruit Examples Description Canada who visit their former homeland have an ex-
tremely high risk of contracting the disease because they
legume pea, bean have lost their immunity. Explain why these immigrants
achene sunflower, buttercup, dandelion to Canada are more at risk upon revisiting their former
grain corn, wheat, rye, oats homeland than when they resided there originally.
samara maple, elm 31. Explain why it is unwise to assume that it is safe to drink
nut acorn, walnut, cashew, chestnut the water from lakes in our provincial parks. Include a
pome apple, pear specific protist in your answer. Do additional research
on this protist and prepare a public information pam-
drupe peach, cherry phlet on the problem for provincial park visitors.
berry grape, tomato, blueberry
pepo cucumber, squash, melon, pumpkin 32. Biodiesel fuels are becoming an alternative to existing
energy sources for combustion engines. Developed
hesperidium orange, lemon, grapefruit over the last decade, they blend soybean oils with algae,
aggregate strawberry, raspberry resulting in fuels with high lubricating, clean burning
multiple pineapple, fig and high energy-releasing properties. Explain why the
addition of algae to the plant oils might enhance the en-
TABLE 13.4 ergy-releasing properties of the fuel.
33. Describe what environmental conditions might cause

without mycorrhizae harmful protists, such as Gonyaulax polyhedron, to mul-
with mycorrhizae tiply rapidly in large numbers, creating a “red tide.” How
6 can it be explained that deadly toxins from a microscopic
protist can often have fatal effects on humans, fish,
and other organisms?
5
34. Explain what natural benefit in nature a fungus like
4 Penicillium might have due to its ability to produce a
chemical inhibiting the growth of Staphlococcus bacte-
height (m)
3 ria. How has this ability been utilized in medical

practice?
2 35. Some species of vascular plants are considered endan-

gered. Comment on Canadian and provincial habitat
1 protection efforts and land-use policies as they relate
to populations and communities of vascular plants.
0
pine hemlock beech poplar 36. Some people enjoy eating wild mushrooms and go into
the countryside to hand-pick them. Unfortunately, many
Tree species
people become seriously ill or even die from misidenti-
FIGURE 13.49 fying, and then eating, poisonous ones. Do you think
picking wild fungi should be made illegal? Create a
PMI chart on this proposition and, based on your chart,
mycorrhizae and one without mycorrhizae. Analyze the back up your opinion.
graph. How does the growth of the two plants in each
species compare? Make a generalization about the 37. Blooms of toxic protists are on the rise worldwide. These
growth of plants that have mycorrhizae. blooms have serious effects: large numbers of fish die as
a result, and shellfish become contaminated. Humans
can become seriously ill or die if they eat the contami-
nated shellfish, and fisheries have to be shut down, re-
Making Connections sulting in losses for the fishing industry. A rapid increase
in coastal development, and the pollution created by
30. It has recently been reported that the incidence of malaria these developments is thought to be behind these blooms.
in Canada has increased significantly over the last What should be done to decrease the incidence of toxic
decade. One of the main reasons for the resurgence of blooms? Should coastal development be stopped? Decide
this tropical disease is the belief that immigrants to on a course of action to address this problem.

CHAPTER 14
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS The Animal Kingdom
each life kingdom and a
representative virus (14.1–14.5)
cycles of representative animals
representative virus (14.1–14.5)
from each of the life kingdoms
(Investigation 2)
use appropriate sampling
procedures to collect various
organisms in a marsh, pond, or
other ecosystem, and classify
them following the principles of
taxonomy (Investigation 2)
FIGURE 14.1 Both invertebrates and vertebrates teem in the natural ecosystem created by a
coral reef, including the corals themselves. Human activity and climate change threaten the
biodiversity of coral reefs. If these rapid environmental changes continue, coral reefs and the
species that depend on them for survival will continue to disappear at an alarming rate.
450
T hink of an animal. Do you think of a furry, four-legged creature, some-

thing that rustles through brush or roams across savannah? Or do you
picture a creature with buds, tentacles, spines, suckers, something that creeps
across the ocean floor or feeds in the human intestine? Although all animals,
including humans, share certain features, they have evolved a vast diversity
of anatomical and physiological characteristics, and their life cycles vary
widely.
Biologists classify animals into one of two categories: vertebrates (includ-
ing mammals, birds and reptiles), and invertebrates (including insects, worms,
and corals). Vertebrates make up only a small fraction of animal species. Coral
reef, like the one pictured here, teems with animal life. Sponges, corals, jel-
lyfish, clams, sea stars, crabs and squid, all invertebrates, thrive there, along
with vertebrates. In terrestrial environments, invertebrates like flatworms,
leeches, snails, spiders, and insects—the most numerous of all animal species—
flourish along with terrestrial vertebrates.
Researchers have cloned sheep and cows and have genetically modified
flies, mice, and more for purposes such as improving our agricultural industry
and accelerating research into human disease.
Discovering Biology
CHECKPOINT
Pumping Capacity of a Fish
All living things must exchange gases to remain alive. Fish exchange car- Complete a gathering grid
bon dioxide and oxygen with their watery environment using their gills. A to list what you know about
typical goldfish measuring 6 cm long can pump about 31 L of water at 20°C the differences between
across its gills a day. How long would it take for this goldfish to pass all the fish, amphibians, reptiles,
water in a 20-gallon aquarium (1 L = 0.26 gal) through its gills? Predict what birds, and mammals.
would happen if the water temperature were to drop to 10°C. Explain your Copy the following
reasoning. gathering grid into your
notebook:
Amphibians
Mammals
Reptiles
Birds
Fish
Body
covering
Method of
locomotion
Habitat
Skeleton
CHAPTER 14 The Animal Kingdom 451

14.1 Simple Animals

Key Understandings
describe the anatomy of sponges and cnidarians
describe the life cycles of sponges and cnidarians
What is an animal? They vary from • The presence of a coelom, or inter-

microscopic organisms that live in water, nal body cavity, and other structural
to the largest land animal, the elephant. and physiological modifications.
However, some characteristics are com-
mon to all animals. Most biologists today believe animals are
descended from colonial flagellated pro-
• They are heterotrophic, multicellu-
tists. Like other colonial protists, the
lar eukaryotes. They cannot make
ancestor of animals had cells that were
their own food so they must ingest
nearly identical to each other and not
other organisms.
particularly specialized in their form or
• Their cells lack cell walls and have
function (Figure 14.2). Some colonies
only cell membranes surrounding
may have developed cells with differ-
the cell contents.
ent functions for feeding and locomotion.
• They have two types of tissue that
Because these varieties lived more
are only found in animals: nervous
efficiently than other varieties, they had
tissue and muscle tissue.
a selective advantage over those that
• Most animals reproduce sexually.
did not specialize. They grew larger and
The diploid stage of the life cycle is
eventually evolved into organisms that
dominant.
we know as animals.
Body Plan
The organization of an animal’s internal
structures and the way the structures
function define an animal’s body plan.
Although body plans provide clues to the cells
evolutionary relationships of different
animals, they are used more to cluster
animals into a common classification
scheme based on structural similarities.
Biologists examine the features of an an-
imal’s body plan in order to organize the stalk
smaller taxa such as phyla and classes.
These features include:
• The type of body symmetry. Does the
body look asymmetrical or does it
show bilateral or radial symmetry?
• The degree of cell organization
within the body. Do cells exist FIGURE 14.2 The earliest animals are thought
independently or form functional to be related to this choanoflagellate, a colonial
groups, such as tissues or organs? protist.

The Simplest Animals Sponges absorb water through nu- INFOBIT

(Phylum Porifera) merous tiny pores that cover the body
and expel water through larger openings Today, most households use
Some living sponges resemble the an- synthetic sponges to wash,
called oscula. As water travels through
cestral colonial protist. Sponges belong bathe, and clean, but some
canals within the sponge, the sponge ab- specialty stores sell natural
to the phylum Porifera and vary widely
sorbs oxygen and releases waste through sponges. Natural sponges hold
in shape and size depending on their
gas exchange and filters out small or- more water and wear better
habitat. Biologists have identified about than synthetic sponges. The
ganisms.
5000 species of sponges, all aquatic and ones sold grow only in warm
Sponges have three main types of
mostly marine. As sessile organisms, shallow seas. Loofah
cells, each with a special function. “sponges,” are not sponges at
sponges stay fixed in one place (Figure
Flattened epithelial cells cover the inner all, but the dried fibrous interior
14.3).
and outer surfaces of the body. Some of a tropical gourd.
epithelial cells surround pores and
control their size to regulate the flow of
water. Collar cells maintain the flow of
water through the sponge by beating a
Image omitted due to copyright flagellum that extends into the inner
restrictions. canal. The collar that surrounds the flag-
ellum filters micro-organisms that the
cell ingests. Some food passes to a third
type of cell, the amoeboid cell. As amoe-
boid cells move between epithelial cells
and collar cells, they digest and distribute
nutrients, produce reproductive cells, and
develop an internal skeleton. The skele-
ton of the sponge, composed of spicules
Image omitted due to formed from calcium carbonate (chalk)
copyright restrictions. or silica (glass), supports the body.
osculum
epithelial cell
collar cells
FIGURE 14.3 The shapes, colours, and sizes central cavity

of sponges vary depending on their aquatic
environment. Smaller sponges (top) live in spicule
shallow marine waters with strong tidal action. jellylike
Larger sponges with branching structures inner layer
(bottom) live in deep, quiet waters and may amoeboid cell
grow to be over a metre in height.
pore cells
pore
Sponges have a simple, asymmet-
rical body plan made up of a loose
collection of cells (Figure 14.4). They
have no mouth, no digestive cavity, no
muscles, and no nervous system. Within
the animal kingdom, only sponges, the
simplest multi-cellular organism, have FIGURE 14.4 Because sponges lack true
organs, differentiated cells such as the epithelial,
an asymmetrical body plan and lack def-
collar, and amoeboid cells, perform specialized
inite cell layers. functions at the cell or tissue level.

Sponges reproduce both sexually oral

and asexually. In most species, a single
sponge is hermaphroditic, producing
both eggs and sperm. Water currents
carry sperm from one individual to
another to fertilize eggs. Sponges also
reproduce asexually by budding.
The Two-Layered Animals

(Phylum Cnidaria)
Cnidarians show the first major evolu- aboral
tionary changes from the poriferans:
they have symmetrical bodies with cells
organized into tissues. Cnidarians
include hydrozoans (class Hydrozoa), FIGURE 14.5 Radial symmetry
jellyfish (class Scyphozoa), and sea
anemones, sea fans, and corals (class
Anthozoa). About 10 000 cnidarian the endoderm. The mesoglea of jellyfish
species, both solitary and colonial, is like thick jelly, giving the animal its
survive today. They range in size from common name. Some ectodermal cells
microscopic animals to jellyfish that can have muscle fibres that contract to
grow to be 2.5 m wide. All cnidarians move the animal. Other ectodermal cells
show radial symmetry. An organism have a nerve net that allows the cnidar-
with radial symmetry has body parts ian to respond to environmental stimuli.
that repeat around one main axis point All cnidarians have stinging struc-
(Figure 14.5). tures called nematocysts in specialized
Cnidarians have two layers of cells, ectodermal cells called cnidocytes.
an outer layer, or ectoderm, and an Cnidocytes, found on armlike structures
inner layer, or gastrodermis (Figure called tentacles, release toxic substances
14.7). A jellylike layer called the through the nematocysts to paralyze
mesoglea sits between the ectoderm and prey (Figure 14.6). The nematocysts
deliver the sting that some jellyfish
inflict on swimmers.
Discovering Biology Observing Hydra
1. Obtain a few living hydra and place them into a watch glass
containing pond water.
2. Observe the hydra using a dissecting or stereomicroscope.
Use an indirect or cool source of light. Examine them for a
few minutes. Do not disturb the watch glass.
Is the hydra mainly motile or sessile?
restrictions.
Are any of their cells far away from direct contact with
water?
Why is the hydra able to function without a circulatory
system?
Does the hydra have a mouth? An anus?
Can you observe a right-hand or left-hand side of a hydra?
Explain.
3. Touch the tentacles with the tip of a dissecting needle. Describe
FIGURE 14.6 The tentacles of jellyfish extend
what happens. Does the whole body or only the tentacle
down from the outer edge of a cuplike body. The
respond? tentacles of some larger species can grow to be
25 m long.

The tentacles of cnidarians extend release them into the water (Figure
from the mouth region and carry prey 14.8). Once fertilized, the egg develops
to the mouth. The mouth leads to a sac into a free-swimming larva called a
called the gastrovascular cavity, which planula. The planula eventually settles
functions in digestion, circulation, and to the bottom and develops into a new
gas exchange. The same opening func- polyp. The medusa stage dominates the
tions as both mouth and anus. Food life cycle of scyphozoans. Anthozoans
passes in one direction and waste passes lack the medusa stage. The life-cycle
out in the other. stages and modes of reproduction vary
The life cycle of most cnidarians between the three cnidarian classes.
consists of two stages (Figure 14.7). In
the first stage, the polyp looks like a
cylinder and sits on an underwater sur-
face with its tentacles extended into medusae
the water. Polyps are asexual and
reproduce by budding. They usually
dominate the life cycle of hydrozoans. In
the second stage, the medusa, floats like
a bell or an umbrella, usually with its
mouth and tentacles facing downward.
2n
Medusae produce eggs and sperm and
Medusa
gastrovascular mesoglea
cavity n
gastrodermis n
epidermis young
egg
medusa
mouth
2n sperm
zygote
tentacle budding
polyp
2n
Polyp
mouth
tentacle free-swimming
larva (planula)
sessile
epidermis
2n polyp
mesoglea 2n
gastrodermis
gastrovascular
cavity
FIGURE 14.8 In many cnidarians, the polyp
and medusa stage both enter the life cycle. In
jellyfish, a fertilized egg develops into a planula
FIGURE 14.7 Cnidarians develop into two that develops into a polyp. The polyp buds into
different stages with different body structures: other polyps and the polyps bud into medusae.
the flowerlike polyp and the bell-shaped The mature medusae produce and fertilize
medusa. new eggs.

INFOBIT Portuguese man-of-war is a prey, and yet others specialize in

hydrozoan colony made up of many producing eggs and sperm.
Some divers and snorkelers specialized polyps (Figure 14.9). One Some sea anemones can move
carry meat tenderizer in polyp forms a gas-filled float. Some slowly on a base they attach to a surface
their first-aid kits to treat
Portuguese- man-of-war stings. polyps have elongated tentacles to cap- underwater, while most corals are ses-
Meat tenderizer contains the ture prey. Some specialize in digesting sile colonial organisms (Figure 14.10).
enzyme protease, which helps
break down the protein toxin
that causes the painful sting.

restrictions.

restrictions.

restrictions.
FIGURE 14.10 Sea anemones (top) have no

protective covering. Most coral polyps (bottom)
FIGURE 14.9 The Portuguese man-of-war is a generate a protective skeleton of calcium
free-floating hydrozoan whose medusae and carbonate that produces distinctive patterns in
polyps combine to form colonies. different coral species.
Section 14.1 Review

1. Explain the evolutionary relationship
between protists and sponges. 7. Investigate the body plan of a sponge
2. Draw a diagram showing the typical to determine how its structures make
structure of a sponge. Label the it well adapted to life in its environ-
diagram. ment.
3. Explain how being a hermaphrodite
would be an advantage for sessile Making Connections
organisms.
8. Since the early 1980s, marine parks
4. Describe the structure and symmetry
and reserves have been established
of cnidarians.
around the world to protect the coral
5. How do the structures that cnidarians reefs and the animals and plants that
use for locomotion compare with the thrive on them. Access appropriate li-
flagella and cilia of other organisms? brary and electronic tools to research
6. Describe the two life-cycle stages of the causes of reef destruction and de-
cnidarians and explain how each is in- velop an action plan to conserve their
volved in a typical life cycle. existence.

14.2 Wormlike Animals

Key Understandings
describe the anatomy of flatworms, roundworms, and segmented worms
Body Plan animals. Most animal species have a

fluid-filled body cavity between the body
Certain evolutionary changes altered the
wall and the digestive tract. When this
body plan of simple animals, allowing
cavity is lined with a tissue called meso-
them to move through their environment
derm, the cavity is called a coelom. The
more efficiently and diversify. Most
solid body plan of animals without a
animals that move exhibit bilateral
coelom allows nutrients and oxygen to
symmetry (Figure 14.11). In a bilater-
diffuse into all body cells and wastes to
ally symmetrical animal, an imaginary
diffuse out. But because of this, their bod-
line drawn down the middle of the body
ies must be relatively thin and flat.
from the anterior, or front end, of the an-
Having a body cavity provides several
imal to the posterior, or back end, divides
advantages. Internal organs are sus-
the animal into two sides that mirror each
pended in the cavity and are cushioned
other. The dorsal refers to the upper sur-
by the fluid in the space so that they
face, or back, of the animal. The ventral
are not twisted out of shape by muscle
refers to the animal’s underside, usually
movements in the body wall. The body
the side with a mouth.
cavity also provides more room for in-
Most bilaterally symmetrical animals
ternal organs to expand. For example,
move through their environment with
ovaries expand as they develop eggs.
their anterior end forward. Sense organs
Having a mesoderm-lined coelom makes
and nerve cells usually concentrate at
it possible for the digestive tract to de-
the anterior end of a bilaterally sym-
velop specialized regions and also allows
metrical animal, a development known
for the formation of blood vessels, which
as cephalization. As the animal moves,
are formed from mesoderm. Having a
this anterior sensory structure acts as a
body cavity also allows animals to be-
control centre that allows the animal to
come larger.
respond quickly to stimuli.
Although some cnidarians
can move slowly through
their environment, their ra-
dially symmetrical bodies
have no front end that first dorsal
encounters the environment. anterior posterior
Evolution favoured bilaterally
symmetrical animals with
cephalization that could sense
their environment as they
moved through it. As a result,
ventral
most of the world’s living
species today are bilaterally
symmetrical.
The development of the
coelom can be traced through FIGURE 14.11 In bilateral symmetry, the two halves of an animal are mirror images of
the groups of wormlike one another.

The Flatworms the planarian’s head sense light.

(Phylum Platyhelminthes) Projections at the side of the head sense
touch and help the animal position itself
Image omitted due Platyhelminths show bilateral symmetry.
in water currents.
to copyright Because they have few internal organs,
restrictions. all cells that transport oxygen to internal
Class Trematoda The parasitic flatworms
tissues or excrete liquid wastes need to
of the class Trematoda, often called
be near the surface of the animal to
flukes, live part of their lives in mam-
better exchange gas and wastes with the
mals and feed on their tissues and
FIGURE 14.12 A branched environment. The flat body plan of platy-
fluids (Figure 14.14). The outer cell layer
gastrovascular cavity in helminths brings more of these cells to
the planarian, a freshwater often produces a thick cuticle that
the surface and gives the phylum its com-
plathelminth, increases covers the small body, provides shape,
mon name of flatworm. The flattened
surface area for digestion. and protects the animal. Usually a
shape also prevents the presence of a
sucker around the mouth on the ventral
fluid-filled coelom.
surface of the animal attaches the fluke
In most flatworms the mouth opens
to its host. The cuticle and the sucker
into a dead-end sac, or gastrovascular
represent adaptations of the flatworm
cavity, with branches (Figure 14.12). The
body plan to a parasitic existence. In the
branches increase the surface area of the
trematode digestive cavity, two posterior
digestive sac so the animal can absorb
branches connect a large anterior pouch
digested nutrients more efficiently.
to the mouth.
Undigested waste leaves the cavity
through the mouth.
Class Turbellaria The most common

platyhelminths belong to the class
Turbellaria (Figure 14.13). The planari- Image omitted due to copyright
ans, a freshwater species, grow between restrictions.
1 and 2 cm long. To feed, the planarian
extends a muscular tube, or pharynx,
from its mouth on its ventral surface. The
pharynx connects the mouth to the di-
gestive sac. Like all flatworms, planari-
ans have a nervous system, an anterior FIGURE 14.14 The blood fluke Schistosoma
mansoni feeds off snails and also infects the
collection of nerve cells that coordinate
human intestine, causing a serious disease.
information from the sense organs and
direct the animal’s responses to envi-
ronmental stimulae. Two eye spots on
Class Cestoda Most cestodes have a flat
slender body composed of many short
INFOBIT
sections. For this reason, they are com-
The bigger the host, the bigger monly called tapeworms. All tapeworms
the tapeworm. The tapeworm are parasitic and lack body extensions for
Echinococcus multiloculoarus locomotion. Suckers and hooks on the
lives in coyotes and grows Image omitted due to copyright
scolex, or head, attach the tapeworm to
between 1.2 to 3.7 mm. The restrictions.
the inside of the host’s intestine (Figure
tapeworm Polygonoporus lives
in sperm whales and can 14.15). Like the parasitic flukes, tape-
grow to be 30 m. worms have a thick cuticle that protects
them from digestion by the host’s
enzymes. Tapeworms absorb food
FIGURE 14.13 Marine flatworms belong to the directly through their body wall. Their
class Turbellaria. Most turbellarians inhabit fresh- lack of both mouth and digestive sac
water environments but few live in moist terres-
trial habitats.
are adaptations to a parasitic existence.

Discovering Biology Collecting Nematodes
Nematodes may be the most common animal on Earth. To

collect nematodes from a soil sample from a marsh or stream bed,
slip a small piece of rubber tubing over the end of a funnel and
clamp the opening shut with a clothespin. Place the soil sample
Image omitted due
into the funnel. Pour in enough water so that some water stands
to copyright
free on the surface. The nematodes will sink into the funnel’s neck.
restrictions.
Wait 5 min before unclamping the clothespin to release your
“catch” into a container.
Observe the organisms under a microscope. Draw diagrams
of what you see. What characteristics of the organisms identifies
them as nematodes?
FIGURE 14.15 When humans eat raw or

improperly cooked beef, any tapeworms that goes out, nematodes developed a sepa-
infect the animal can transfer into the human rate mouth and anus. In this body plan,
host. With their scolex, or head, the tapeworms food moves through the digestive system
attach to the inside of the host’s intestine.
in one direction only. Nearly all complex
animals have this type of gut. The ne-
matode’s thin body wall and round
shape minimize outer surface area.
The Roundworms Because these features reduce energy
(Phylum Nematoda) requirements, nematodes lack both a cir-
Nematodes are also called roundworms culatory and a respiratory system. They
(Figure 14.16). Most live as scavengers also have a fluid-filled body cavity WEBLINK
in soil and the bottoms of lakes and (Figure 14.17)
Research the phylum Rotifera.
ponds. Several live as parasites in most Find out about their body plan,
plants and animals. Like parasitic flat- The Segmented Worms cell layers, and symmetry.
worms and flukes, nematodes produce Draw a diagram of a typical
a cuticle that covers their body.
(Phylum Annelida) rotiferan and describe how it
Annelids, including earthworms, form a is similar and different from
Nematodes evolved a digestive system
diverse group of 15 000 species of the animal phyla you have
that improved efficiency. Unlike flat- studied so far. Begin your
worms, which have one digestive worms that live in marine, freshwater, research at
opening where food comes in and waste and terrestrial environments. They www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
developed segmented bodies and a
coelom. These changes in their body
plan have given them evolutionary INFOBIT
advantages over other worms. Most of
the segments are identical and have the The Trichinella worm, a
Image omitted due to copyright same structures. The repeating body seg- nematode that forms a cyst in
restrictions. ments allow annelids to increase in size the muscles of pigs, can infect
without losing the capacity to transport humans if they eat inadequately
cooked meat from an infected
molecules and relay messages, so an- pig. The adult female worm
nelids grow larger than non-segmented burrows into the host’s small
worms. Segmentation also improves intestine, lays eggs, and the
locomotion as different muscles evolved offspring infect the host’s
FIGURE 14.16 Although biologists have named muscles causing severe muscle
to control each body segment. Finer
about 10 000 nematode species, as many as pain, muscle deterioration, and
500 000 species may exist. Some parasitic muscle control allows annelids to move body fatigue. This disease is
nematodes grow to be about 1 m long, but their bodies in more complex ways than known as trichinosis.
most nematodes are microscopic. non-segmented worms.

digestive
cavity
digestive mesoderm
ectoderm cavity ectoderm endoderm endoderm digestive
mesoderm cavity
endoderm ectoderm
mesoderm body cavity body cavity
(pseudocoelom) (coelom)
a) acoelomate (flatworm) b) pseudocoelomate (roundworm) c) coelomate (annelid)
FIGURE 14.17 The development of the coelom. Flatworms a), are called acoelomates
because they lack a body cavity. Roundworms b) are pseudocoelomates because even
though they do have a body cavity, it is not lined with mesoderm as in the annelid
worm, c) a true coelomate.
WORD ORIGIN A true coelom (Figure 14.17), a fluid- sandworms and tubeworms. The body
filled body cavity completely lined with wall of most body segments extends out-
Parapodia from the Greek mesoderm, separates the body wall from ward as a series of outgrowths, called
words para meaning “beside”
the digestive tract and protects the parapodia. These parapodia contain
and podia, meaning “little
feet.” delicate internal organs from the outside many blood vessels and function in gas
environment. The coelom also acts as a exchange and locomotion. Stiff setae,
hydrostatic skeleton. Circular and longi- or bristles, extend from each parapodium
tudinal muscles in the body wall squeeze and help the animal grip the surface as
against the incompressible coelom fluid, it moves (Figure 14.18).
allowing the worm to elongate or contract,
something flatworms cannot do.
Since annelids grow larger and weigh
more than platyhelminths and nema-
todes, they need a circulatory system to
help molecules diffuse for gas exchange.
In contrast, nematodes and flatworms
exchange gas through simple diffusion.
The thin body wall of annelids provides Image omitted due to copyright restrictions.
a surface for gas exchange but restricts
annelids to moist environments. Annelids
lack a rigid, external protective covering
and in dry air they lose body fluids
rapidly through their thin body wall.
Classes Polychaeta, Oligochaeta, Hirudinia FIGURE 14.18 Most polychaetes live in marine
More than half of all annelid worms environments. The bristle worm has many stiff
form the class Polychaeta, including setae extending from each parapodium.

Polychaetes have separate male and uals copulate, they exchange sperm to INFOBIT
female sexes. They release sperm and fertilize each other’s eggs. Each adult
eggs into the water and the fertilized lays its eggs in a cocoon outside its body. Some surgeons use leeches in
eggs form ciliated larvae that mature It sheds its cocoon and, once developed, plastic and reconstructive skin
surgery. One company in the
into segmented adults. Oligochaetes, miniature worms emerge.
United Kingdom breeds
commonly called earthworms (Figure Hirudineans, or leeches (Figure leeches and sends them to
14.19), are hermaphroditic. Each 14.20), are external parasites of other doctors around the world to
oligochaete has both male and female animals. They secrete an anti-clotting use on their patients.
reproductive organs. When two individ- agent that keeps the blood flowing. For
hundreds of years, doctors used leeches
to let blood, and they are still used today
to reduce swelling in damaged tissues or
remove pools of blood.

restrictions.
restrictions.
FIGURE 14.19 Many of the 3000 known FIGURE 14.20 Most leeches live in freshwater.
species of oligochaetes live in terrestrial A parasitic leech cuts into its host with the
habitats. Oligochaetes are hermaphroditic. three-toothed jaws on its mouth and its body
swells as it takes in blood.
Section 14.2 Review

Understanding Concepts 8. How has the process of gas exchange
in annelids been made efficient enough
1. Explain how the body plan of a flat- to ensure their survival?
worm demonstrates the principles of
cephalization. 9. Why do you often see more earth-
worms after it rains?
2. Explain how the body plans of animals
evolved to carry out the process of gas 10. Compare the body plan of a segmented
exchange more efficiently as animals worm with that of a roundworm.
have changed their lifestyle.
3. Compare and contrast the character- Applying Inquiry/
istics of flatworms and roundworms. Communication Skills
4. What adjustments are necessary in the 11. Investigate the body plan of a repre-
body plan of an animal for a parasitic sentative flatworm to determine
way of life? adaptations for survival in an aquatic
5. Why is having a third layer of cells and habitat.
a primitive coelom an important adop-
tation?
Making Connections
6. Why is it important for a motile animal
to sense its environment? 12. Research the examples of the harmful
7. What organs, found in other flatworms, effects of roundworms in society.
are missing in tapeworms? Explain
your answer.

14.3 Invertebrate Animals of Increasing

Complexity
Key Understandings
describe the anatomy of mollusks and echinoderms
describe the life cycle of mollusks and echinoderms
Animals with a Shell Scientists believe mollusks are

(Phylum Mollusca) descended from an annelidlike ances-
tor. Mollusks have a moist, muscular body
Mollusks number in excess of 100 000
without a skeleton. Their body plan
species and include snails, slugs, clams,
includes three main components: the
squids, and octopuses. Most are marine
foot, the mantle, and a fleshy visceral
and live freely. Some swim, some creep
mass (Figure 14.21). The foot is muscu-
slowly, and some prefer terrestrial habi-
lar and is used for locomotion and
tats. Mollusks range in size from snails
feeding. The mantle is a thin layer of
as small as 1 mm to giant squids more
tissue that covers the gills and secretes
than 18 m long.
the shell in shelled species. The shell is
made of calcium carbonate. The visceral
mass contains the internal organs.
shell
foot
visceral mass
mantle cavity
clam
(bivalve)
snail
(gastropod)
squid
(cephalopod)
FIGURE 14.21 The body plan of all mollusks includes a foot, a mantle, and a visceral
mass. Members of the three mollusk classes have different forms of the foot and shell
for different functions.

Class Bivalva Bivalves, including clams, INFOBIT

oysters, scallops, mussels, and other shell-
fish, developed a two-part shell that The zebra mussel, Dreissena
extends over the top and sides of the body polymorpha, has invaded the
waters of the Great Lakes and
(Figure 14.22). A flexible hinge connects Image omitted due to copyright the eastern United States.
the two shells. Bivalves are sessile and restrictions. The mussel originated in the
have no head. Having an anterior end Caspian Sea region of Asia, but
with a sensory structure benefits animals a transoceanic vessel that took
that move. Since bivalves stay fixed in one on fresh water in a European
port discharged this ballast into
place, they have no need for an anterior Lake St. Clair, near Detroit and
end, and have “lost their heads,” so to introduced the species to
speak, through evolution. The mollusk foot FIGURE 14.23 The mollusk class Gastropoda North America. Zebra mussels
numbers about 35 000 species. Many feed on native species, clog
is flattened in bivalves. Clams use the flat-
gastropods have shells that vary widely in waterways, and contaminate
tened foot to burrow into sand and mud. shape and colour. The queen conch has the water fowl that feed on
Mussels have a reduced foot that secretes an extremely heavy shell. them, causing reproductive
a set of threads that holds the animal to problems in the birds.
rocks. Scallops lack a foot and clap their
shells together to move through the water.
Bivalves use their large mucus-covered Class Cephalopoda Cephalopods include
gills to capture food from the water and squids, octopuses, and the nautilus (Figure
for gas exchange. 14.24). Cephalopod evolution has favoured
the reduction and modification of the shell
to improve movement. The shell of the
squid is reduced to an internal rod that
runs the length of the animal’s body. This
rod changes the shape of the mantle
and allows the squid to eject water from
restrictions.
the cavity to move more rapidly through
the water. The mobility of large squids
makes them important ocean predators.
Squids have complex eyes and can see
their prey at great distances in the water.
FIGURE 14.22 The giant clam is a sessile
The cephalopod brain, especially that of
bivalve. an octopus, is well-developed and
resembles the brains of more complex
animals.
Class Gastropoda The most diverse group
of mollusks, gastropods, include a rich
FIGURE 14.24 Only one shelled cephalopod, the nautilus, survives today.
variety of snails (Figure 14.23), whelks, Experiments indicate that octopuses have tremendous memories and are able
limpets, slugs, and abalones. Most gas- to learn.
tropods use their large foot to move
slowly across a terrestrial or underwater
surface. To feed, gastropods scrape algae
from rocks with a radula, a flexible
stretch of tissue lined with spines. Most
gastropods exchange gas through their Image omitted due to Image omitted due to copyright
copyright restrictions. restrictions.
gills and their moist skin. In some species,
a shell encloses the gills within a cavity.
In other species, such as sea slugs, the
gills remain exposed. Land snails and
slugs are the only terrestrial mollusks and
they breathe through a simple lung. a) Nautilus b) Octopus

INFOBIT Radially Symmetrical exist today. The echinoderm body plan

Marine Animals reflects an evolutionary shift. As adults,
Sea lilies and sea biscuits are echinoderms are radially symmetrical
both echinoderms. Sea hares (Phylum Echinodermata)
but, as larvae, their bodies show bilat-
and sea slugs are gastropod Echinoderms include sea stars (class
mollusks. The sea mouse is a eral symmetry. The shift in body plan
Asteroidea), sea urchins and sand from bilateral to radial symmetry
marine annelid worm. The sea
cow is a mammal, the sea dollars (class Echinoidea), and sea suggests that the ancestors of modern
robin is a spiny fish, and the cucumbers (class Holothuroidea). About echinoderms probably began as bilater-
term sea dog refers to an 7000 species of echinoderms, all marine, ally symmetrical animals but reverted,
experienced sailor. But a sea
scallop is, actually, a scallop. through evolution, to the more primitive
radial body plan. Recall that cephaliza-
tion offers a sensory advantage to
bilaterally symmetrical animals mov-
ing through their environment. Since
echinoderms move extremely slowly
along the ocean floor, bilateral symme-
try and cephalization hold no advantage,
so echinoderms revert to radial
symmetry as adults (Figure 14.25).
restrictions.
Almost all echinoderms have an
endoskeleton, or internal skeleton, that
supports and protects the animal.
Calcium plates form the endoskeleton
WEBLINK
and extend within the body wall. Spiny
Echinoderms have a water projections on the plates protrude
vascular system, which through the skin. Sea stars have small
connects to tube feet. Using soft gills that extend from the body
the Internet and other sources, cavity for gas exchange. Sea cucumbers,
research their functions and in contrast, have an internal system of
draw and label diagrams FIGURE 14.25 Sea stars have the ability to
showing their structures. generate lost parts. A new individual may form canals called a respiratory tree that helps
Begin your research at from a single arm. (Sea stars are also called distribute gases to all the cells. All echin-
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11. starfish.) oderms reproduce sexually.
Section 14.3 Review

1. How is the method of feeding in
bivalves similar to the way sponges 6. Investigate the body plan of a snail to
gather food? determine how its structures make it
2. Describe the main features of a mol- well adapted to life in its environment.
lusk. How do these features vary from
one class of mollusks to another?
Making Connections
3. What characteristics are common to all
echinoderms? 7. Explain how the feeding behaviour of
leeches has been put to good use by
4. Explain why it was thought that the an-
the medical profession.
cestors of echinoderms were bilater-
ally symmetrical animals.
5. Describe the ways that echinoderms
are structurally different from mollusks.

14.4 Joint-Legged Animals

Key Understandings
describe the anatomy of anthropods
describe the life cycle of anthropods
Animals with an Exoskeleton adaptations that altered and improved

(Phylum Arthropoda) the annelid body plan and enabled the
arthropods to proliferate.
In terms of numbers of individuals and Arthropods have developed a thick-
numbers of species, the arthropods dom- ened external covering, the exoskeleton,
inate animal life on Earth. Biologists built mostly from a strong, waterproof car-
have identified about 1 170 000 species, bohydrate molecule called chitin. This hard
most of them insects, and estimate that layer protects the animal, and resists dessi-
up to 9 000 000 arthropod species still cation, or drying out, in non-aquatic
exist undiscovered. All arthropods have environments. The development of the
a segmented body, a feature that exoskeleton allowed many arthropods to
suggests arthropods evolved from the move from aquatic environments onto the
segmented annelid worms. The land. The rigidity of the exoskeleton, how-
segments, however, have become more ever, prevented efficient locomotion.
specialized and, in the higher arthropods, Arthropods evolved appendages and
almost every segment differs in structure groups of muscles to move these
and function. Arthropods also developed appendages. Over time, the appendages
an exoskeleton, jointed legs, and evolved joints. These adaptations increased
a hemocoel, or blood cavity, further arthropod mobility.
cephalothorax abdomen
brain
green
gland carapace
stomach gonad (testis
first antenna heart or ovary) intestine
ventral
second antenna mandible nerve cord
claw
gill
digestive swimmerets
gland
walking leg
FIGURE 14.26 Segments of the exoskeleton became modified in different arthropod

groups. Specialized regions, modified, jointed appendages, and groups of muscles
improved arthropod function and motility.

The rigid exoskeleton altered the

arthropod body plan in other ways.
Arthropods no longer needed the coelom
to provide body shape and so the coelom
shrank. Though the exoskeleton
provided shape, it also reduced the
arthropod’s ability for gas exchange. Gills
that took in oxygen and released carbon
restrictions.
dioxide evolved in aquatic arthropods,
such as crustaceans. Many other arthro-
pods, especially those that lived on land,
developed tubes called tracheae to carry
oxygen to body tissues.
The rigidity of the exoskeleton also
hindered growth. As the arthropod’s size
increased, the exoskeleton failed to ex-
FIGURE 14.27 Many spiders build webs with
pand. Arthropods adapted by moulting. their silk, but some use their long threads to
As their body grows, they shed their ex- mate or protect their young.
oskeleton periodically and replace it with
a larger one. hatch from eggs and live independently
The arthropod circulatory system from the time they hatch.
has a hemocoel, or blood cavity, a fea- Spiders carry out gas exchange
ture not seen in annelid worms. Over through book lungs, highly folded mem-
time, blood replaced the body fluid of branes in the abdomen that increase
annelids, travelled through vessels, emp- surface area and improve oxygen
tied into the hemocoel, and bathed the uptake. Silk glands in the spiders’
internal organs directly in an arrange- abdomens produce protein threads used
ment called an open circulatory system. to spin webs (Figure 14.27).
Arthropods also developed specialized
sensory receptors, such as eyes and Class Crustacea Crustacean species num-
antennae. ber about 40 000 and include shrimp,
lobsters, crayfish, and crabs. Three
INFOBIT Class Arachnida Members of the class regions divide the crustacean body: the
Arachnida include scorpions, spiders, head, thorax, and abdomen (Figure
A spider’s silk has a tensile mites, and ticks. They abound in ter- 14.26). The exoskeleton forms a thick
strength five times greater than restrial environments. The body of an carapace that covers the head and many
that of steel of equivalent arachnid has two main parts. The head of the other segments. Crustaceans have
weight. If a rope as thick as a
pencil were made of spider’s has fused to the body segments with legs paired appendages attached to each
silk it would be strong enough to form the cephalothorax. Posterior body segment. The first two pairs of
to resist the force from four jet body segments that contain most of the appendages, the antennae, are followed
engines. internal organs compose the abdomen. by the mandibles. The mandibles crush
Most arachnids have six pairs of food and feed it to the mouth. Behind
appendages, each pair modified for a dif- the mandibles, a pair of maxillae bring
ferent function. Arachnids use the first food forward and a pair of maxillipeds
pair to feed, the second pair to sense sense the environment and search for
Investigation their environment, and the remaining food. Behind the maxillipeds, large claw-
Refer to page 478, four pairs to walk. To reproduce, the like chelipeds grab food and protect the
Investigation 1 male arachnid inserts his sperm into a animal from predators. Four pairs of
small sac in the female called the walking legs follow the chelipeds (Figure
seminal receptacle where the sperm 14.28). On the abdomen, six pairs of
fertilize the eggs. In the simple life cycle swimmerets help the crustacean swim.
of most arachnids, miniature adults At the posterior end of the abdomen, a


restrictions.
FIGURE 14.28 Using their groups of muscles FIGURE 14.29 A small sampling of insects.
and jointed appendages, some crabs move Insects live in almost all aquatic and terrestrial
very fast. Lobsters and crayfish use powerful environments. Almost every species of plant or
abdominal muscles, the part that people eat, animal serves as a food source for insects.
to move.
pair of flattened appendages called single pair of antennae sense the envi- INFOBIT
uropods lie on the tail, or telson. They ronment. On the thorax, three pairs of
act as paddles to move the animal back- walking legs move the insect. Insects Many insects metamorphose in
wards. carry out gas exchange through air sacs days but the larvae of the
cicada species Magicicada
Crustaceans have a series of gills that and tubes called tracheae that extend septendecim live underground
are connected to the walking legs. They from external openings to tissues for 17 years before they finally
are protected by the carapace. The gills throughout the body. The adults of most emerge as mature adults.
are feathered to increase the surface area flying insects have two pairs of stiff mem-
for gas exchange. Gases in the water dif- branous wings attached to the thorax.
fuse into and out of the gills and travel Flies, however, have only one pair of
through the circulatory system to the wings. In beetles, the front wings form
body tissues. Because of their large size, hardened wing covers.
crustaceans need more than just diffu- Like other arthropods, insects have
sion alone to get enough oxygen. To separate sexes that produce sperm and
increase diffusion through the blood ves- eggs. Some insects look like miniature
sels of the gills, the swimmerets on the adults when they hatch from fertilized
telson beat and sweep water forward, eggs and undergo simple development
under the carapace, and over the gills. as they mature and grow into adults.
Crustacean sexes are separate and Winged insects undergo more complex
males and females come together to cop- development. Their body structure
ulate. In some species, fertilized eggs stick changes radically in the process of
to the female’s body for protection. metamorphosis as a wormlike larva ma-
tures through each instar, or early stage
Class Insecta Insects are the most of development, into an adult.
numerous of all animal species. There Metamorphosis often includes not only a
are about 1.5 million species (Figure change in shape but also a change in diet.
14.29). Some live freely while others The shift in diet minimizes the competi-
are internal parasites in animals. Insect tion for food between larvae and adults
bodies, like those of crustaceans, and increases the species’ chances for
consist of three main regions: the head, survival.
thorax, and abdomen. On the head, a

Discovering Biology Collecting Insects
To collect insects from soil samples, carpet the bottom of a glass jar with news-
paper. Insert a funnel, neck downward, into the mouth and loosely fill the funnel
with collected soil. Place a bright incandescent desk lamp directly over the soil.
To avoid the light and heat, the insects will tunnel deeper into the soil until they
fall out of the funnel onto the newspaper.
Examine any organisms you find in your sample with a hand lens or dis-
secting microscope. What features do these organisms have that classify them as
insects? What non-insect life did you find?
Classes Diplopoda and Chilopoda Diplopods

are more commonly known as milli-
pedes. The name “millipede” suggests a
thousand feet but members of this class
have only about a hundred pairs of legs. Image omitted due to copyright
The number of segments in the body restrictions.
varies from about 10 to over 100 (Figure
14.30). Each segment has two pairs of
legs. (Diplopoda means “double footed.”)
Chilopods are commonly called cen-
tipedes, which literally means “hundred
feet.” Like diplopods, chilopods have FIGURE 14.30 Millipedes range in length from
about 10 to 100 pairs of legs but each about 2 mm to about 30 cm. All herbivores, they
centipede body segment has only one eat organic matter in leaves and rotting logs.
pair of legs. Centipedes are carnivores.
Section 14.4 Review

1. Describe the main characteristics of
arthropods. 6. Use the following terms to create a con-
2. List the five classes that make up the cept map: adult, cocoon, exoskeleton,
phylum Arthropoda. metamorphosis, larva, moult, instar,
wings.
3. Which adaptations of arthropods are
very useful for living on land?
4. Explain how each of the following is Making Connections
carried out in a chosen representative
7. Discuss different ways that arthropods
arthropod: feeding, gas exchange,
are important to society. Discuss ways
and locomotion.
in which they can be harmful.
5. How has the development of an
exoskeleton in arthropods caused an
alteration in the body plan and affected
its ability to grow?

14.5 Animals with Internal Skeletons

Key Understandings
describe the general features of various chordate groups
describe the life cycles of various chordate groups
use sampling procedures to collect organisms and classify them
The Chordates tail. Certain features, such as gill slits,

(Phylum Chordata) notochord, and tail occur only in early
stages of embryo development of some
Chordates share a number of key char- chordates and indicate ancestral evolu-
acteristics. All have, at some point in tionary relationships. Biologists studying
their life, a dorsal hollow nerve cord, chordate embryos suggest that chordates
a dorsal supporting rod called a evolved from marine animals.
notochord, and gill slits near their Early chordates include tunicates
throats. All are bilaterally symmetrical (class urochordata) and lancelets (class
and have a ventral heart. The body of all cephalochordata), small marne animals
chordates extends past the anus into a still in existance today.
chordates
vertebrates
Chondrichthyes (sharks and rays)
Amphibia (frogs and salamanders)
Reptilia (reptiles)
a mmals)
Cephalochordata (lancelets)
Osteichthyes (bony fish)

Urochordata (tunicates)
ds)
Agnatha (jawless vertebrates)
b ir
s(
e
Av
a (m
a li
m
m
Ma
hair
egg with a shell
legs
lungs
jaws, teeth, two sets

FIGURE 14.31 This phylogenetic tree represents a
of paired appendages hypothesis of the evolutionary ancestor-descendant
vertebrae relationships between different vertebrate groups.
Biologists separate members into groups based on the
appearance of shared evolutionary characteristics, such as
ancestral chordate hair in mammals.

Vertebrates make up the largest mostly scavengers. The lamprey lacks

group of chordates (Figure 14.31). In ver- jaws and paired fins. Its circular mouth
tebrates, the embryonic notochord is modified to attach to the body of an-
develops into a backbone made of carti- other fish to feed on its blood and tissue
lage or bone. The backbone supports the (Figure 14.32). The lamprey also lacks
body, protects the delicate nerve cord and paired appendages. Instead, lampreys
brain, and serves as an attachment for undulate their bodies to move. Water
muscles. The development of the internal passes over multiple gill slits for gas
skeleton provided support and allowed exchange.
vertebrates to grow bigger and move in
INFOBIT more complex ways than arthropods. Class Chondrichthyes Chondrichthyans,
Vertebrates have two pairs of or cartilaginous fish, live in marine habi-
Several species of shark appendages. Both pairs attach to the tats and include sharks, rays, and skates.
inhabit Canadian waters. vertebral column. The development of They have an endoskeleton made of car-
One of the more bizarre
these appendages allowed vertebrates tilage rather than bone. Sharks have two
species is the Greenland shark,
found off the coast of Baffin to move faster. They also evolved an sets of paired fins, a pair of anterior
Island. These slow-moving, anterior skull with a large brain. A large pectoral fins and a pair of posterior
seven-metre-long creatures coelom houses the internal organs. A pelvic fins. A dorsal fin along the mid-
are almost blind due to ventral heart pumps blood through a line of the body stabilizes the fish as it
parasites that attach
well-developed circulatory system that moves. Sharks swim with their tail and
themselves to the sharks’
eyes. delivers oxygen to tissues. In aquatic ver- pelvic fins (Figure 14.33), but skates and
tebrates, gas exchange occurs in the gills, rays undulate their greatly enlarged pec-
while in terrestrial toral fins to propel themselves. In sharks,
vertebrates, the pro- swimming forward moves water over
cess occurs in the paired gills. Sperm develop in the male
lungs. Skin covers in two long anterior testes in the body
the body and consists cavity, while the female produces eggs
of at least two layers. in two large ovaries. During copulation,
The skin often forms the male transfers sperm into a receiv-
accessory structures, ing chamber, called the cloaca, in the
such as glands, female. Most sharks are ovoviviparous,
scales, feathers, hair, which means females retain fertilized,
nails, claws, horns, shelled eggs internally and give birth
and hoofs. To simplify to live young.
Image omitted due to copyright discussion, verte-
restrictions. brates are subdivided
into seven classes:
jawless fishes, carti-
laginous fishes, bony
fishes, amphibians,
reptiles, birds, and
mammals. Image omitted due to copyright restrictions.
Superclass Agnatha
Few species of jaw-
less fishes, or
agnathans, survive
today. They are lam-
FIGURE 14.32 Lampreys cut through the skin of preys and hagfish.
fish with their sharp tongue and feed on the blood Lampreys live as FIGURE 14.33 Most sharks are predators,
and tissue of the host. In recent years, lampreys external parasites on but a few strain protists from the water. Most
have invaded the Great Lakes and killed large skates and rays live on the ocean floor and eat
fish, and hagfish are
numbers of trout. mollusks and other invertebrates.

Class Osteichthyes There are more than

30 000 species of osteichthyans, or bony
fish (Figure 14.34). Like the sharks, bony
fish start their development with a skele-
ton made of cartilage, but as young
fish mature into adults, the cartilage gets
replaced by bone. Flat, smooth, thin, and
lightweight scales cover most species
and protect the body. The four or five
pairs of gills are in a chamber covered
by a flat bony plate called the
operculum. As the operculum flaps up
and down, it acts as a pump. Water is
drawn in through the mouth, into the FIGURE 14.35 Most species of frogs and toads
gill chamber, and out over the gills for live in tropical and warm regions. Salamanders
live in cool, moist environments as well as more
gas exchange. Sharks do not pump temperate regions.
water over their gills. This adaptation
allows bony fish to breathe even when
not moving. million years ago, swamps covered most INFOBIT
In most bony fishes, large sacs called of Earth, and fossil evidence indicates
swim bladders help suspend the fish in that amphibians were the first vertebrate The tropical marine fish
the water. A fish can adjust the amount animals to leave the swamps and live on Anthias squamipinnis lives in
groups among coral reefs.
of gas in its swim bladder to control its land. The life cycle of modern amphib- Each group consists of one
depth in the water. Lungfishes use the ians reflects this evolutionary link. male and an average of eight
swim bladder as a lung for gas ex- Modern amphibians spend the early part females. Males compete to
change. Most fish reproduce by external of their lives in water but develop into maintain their groups but if
fertilization of large numbers of eggs air-breathing terrestrial adults who live the male of the group
disappears, one of the females
shed by the female. most of their lives in a moist habitat. The will change sex and develop
amphibian egg must remain moist. In male characteristics such as
a dry environment, the egg loses water brighter colour, longer fin
rapidly through the delicate coating that spines, and larger size.
surrounds it. The fertilized egg develops
into a larva that lives in water until it
metamorphoses into a terrestrial adult.
restrictions.
FIGURE 14.34 Bony fishes come in diverse

sizes and shapes.
Class Amphibia Amphibian species num-

ber about 4000 and include frogs, toads,
and salamanders (Figure 14.35). Most
FIGURE 14.36 Frogs spend most of their
amphibians live in freshwater at some
lives on land but their fertilized eggs hatch and
time in their lives. Three hundred develop into tadpoles in water.

molecule in the frogs and found and him to apply the molecules to combat
sequenced the gene responsible for microbes that infect organs and moist
the microbial resistance. He called the surfaces of humans, such as the gut,
molecule magainin from the Hebrew the mouth, and the respiratory tract.
Frogs Fight Infection word for “shield.” Magainins disrupt After more than a decade of research,
the cell membranes of micro-organ- marketing, and clinical tests with
isms but they don’t have the same Magainin Pharmaceuticals—a drug
Dr. Michael Zasloff, a geneticist, effect on the cells of the amphibian. company founded on Dr. Zasloff’s dis-
wondered in 1986 why the micro- Each frog species develops its own covery—drugs such as Locilex, devel-
organisms that teemed in his frog magainin and because of the way oped from the frog molecules, may
tanks never infected the wounds of his magainins disrupt microbe cells, the soon enter the battle against micro-
frogs. After careful study, Dr. Zasloff bacteria do not develop resistance to organisms that infect humans.
isolated an anti-microbe defence them. Dr. Zasloff’s discovery drove
INFOBIT The frog has a three-chambered

heart. One chamber receives oxygenated
Researchers today are blood from gas-exchange organs, a
focussing on the rapid global second chamber receives deoxygenated
decline of amphibian species,
especially frogs. Some blame
blood from body tissues, and both cham-
acid rain, insecticides, crop bers pump blood into a common third
chamber. The third chamber delivers a Image omitted due to copyright restrictions.
fertilizers, climate change,
and human encroachment on combination of oxygenated and deoxy-
wetland habitat. Biologists genated blood to body tissues. The lack
are monitoring amphibian
populations to learn what is
of fully oxygenated blood in the body
causing the decline and to tissues limits sustained muscle activity
determine the effects of the in the frog. Methods for gas exchange in
decline on other organisms frogs varies with species. Some diffuse
and their habitats. gas through their lungs, through the lin- FIGURE 14.37 Most lizards walk on four
ing of their mouth, or through their skin. limbs and the largest, the Komodo dragons of
Indonesia, grow as long as 3 m.
Adult frogs always seek fresh water in
which to lay their eggs.
Class Reptilia Reptilian species number Although the reptile’s scaly skin reduces
about 7000 and include crocodiles, water loss, it prevents gas exchange.
alligators, turtles, tortoises, lizards, and Reptiles must carry out gas exchange
snakes (Figures 14.37–14.39). Although through lungs much larger than those of
amphibians began the transition from amphibians. A reptile expands and con-
water to land, reptiles developed struc- tracts its ribs to force air into and out of
tural and physiological adaptations to its lungs. The reptile heart is more de-
thrive in the terrestrial environment and veloped than the amphibian with a par-
expand into arid regions. Unlike am- tially separated third chamber to
phibians, reptiles need no water to improve the separation of oxygenated
reproduce. They have developed an egg blood. Because of this separation, the
with a shell that is waterproof. They fer- reptile heart delivers higher concentra-
tilize their eggs internally and lay them tions of oxygenated blood to muscle
in dry places. Reptiles also developed a tissues than the three-chambered
tough skin that restricts water loss, amphibian heart, allowing reptiles to
and kidneys that can excrete highly sustain higher levels of muscle activity
concentrated urine to conserve water. than amphibians.

TABLE 14.1 Habitat and Feeding Behaviour of the Major Reptile Groups
Reptile Habitat Feeding behaviour
Turtles mostly aquatic: lakes and ponds, mostly herbivores

few in oceans
Tortoises terrestrial mostly herbivores
Lizards mostly terrestrial mostly insectivores
Snakes mostly terrestrial carnivores
Crocodiles aquatic in warm, temperate carnivores

environments, but build nests on land

FIGURE 14.38 Sea turtles spend their entire FIGURE 14.39 Several species have developed
lives in the ocean except when they come poison glands and inject venom into their prey
ashore to lay their eggs. through their teeth. This eyelash viper has large
swellings on either side of its head. These are
poison glands.
Different reptile groups have diver- Class Aves Living species of avians, or
sified into a wide range of habitats and birds, number about 8700, more than
developed different modes of feeding any other vertebrate group except fishes.
(Table 14.1). Birds share a number of features with
One group of reptiles includes tur- reptiles: they have horny scales on their
tles and tortoises. They have an armour legs, they lay large-yolked eggs enclosed
of dorsal and ventral bony plates that in firm shells, and their young do not
form a shell within which they can draw metamorphose.
their head and limbs. Another group of Unlike fish, amphibians, and
reptiles includes lizards and snakes. reptiles, birds are endotherms. They
Snakes probably evolved from lizards generate their own body heat and they
that burrowed. Because of this lifestyle, maintain a high, relatively constant body
snakes lost both pairs of limbs. They also temperature regardless of their sur-
have modified ventral scales to assist roundings. This allows them to sustain
movement. Other reptilian classes in- rapid movement for long periods.
clude crocodiles, caimans, and alligators. (Ectotherms absorb heat from their sur-
Crocodiles and alligators, the largest rep- roundings and cannot move rapidly for
tiles, range in length from 3 to 7 m. long periods.)

barb trachea
barbules
shaft
lung air duct
down
feather
air sac
contour
feather
shaft
FIGURE 14.40 Down feathers have a different structure from FIGURE 14.41 The air sacs empty into the lungs and make the
contour feathers. Down feathers create lots of air spaces to trap bird lungs extremely efficient at gas exchange.
warm air.
The hind limbs of birds are used for which look like large clusters of grapes
walking or perching, and the forelimbs (Figure 14.41). These allow gas exchange
are modified into wings for flight. when the bird exhales as well as when
Birds have feathers, which evolved it inhales. When the bird inhales, air
from scales. They serve two functions. travels to the lungs where gas exchange
They keep the bird from losing body heat happens. But most of the air goes into
and they help it to fly. Long contour the air sacs. When the bird exhales, air
feathers on the wing and tail provide lift from the air sacs passes through the
and stability during flight. Smaller con- lungs and gas exchange happens again.
tour feathers cover the rest of the body Air sacs also make the bird more
(Figure 14.40). Down feathers under- buoyant, which makes flying easier. A
neath the contour feathers provide four-chambered heart distributes gases
insulation. and nutrients efficiently to the body.
The light but strong bones of birds Most birds lay their eggs in nests. A
are hollow, with internal supports for protective shell surrounds the eggs and
strength. The breast bone forms a large prevents the embryos from drying out.
keel-like structure to which the breast In most species the body heat of the
muscles attach. The breast muscles pull adult incubates the eggs. Bird eggs hatch
the wings down to provide upward lift quickly relative to their developmental
during flight. requirements. Offspring of many species
Because sustained flying requires often hatch at an early stage of their de-
huge amounts of energy, birds need a velopment and their parents feed them
highly efficient gas-exchange mechanism. for some time.
Bird lungs are connected to air sacs,

Image omitted due to copyright Image omitted due to copyright Image omitted due to copyright
FIGURE 14.42 Mammals likely evolved from FIGURE 14.43 The shape and size of a FIGURE 14.44 Female mammals
ancestors of reptiles that grew hair. Today, mammal’s teeth offer clues to its diet and the developed mammary glands that
extensive hair or fur covers, insulates, and way it chews its food. produce milk to nourish their young.
protects most mammals.
Class Mammalia There are about 4500 During reproduction, sperm fertilize Investigation
mammal species, including the humans, eggs within the body of the female and Refer to page 479,
Homo sapiens. All share common key the embryos develop within the uterus. Investigation 2
developments, most notably a body cov- Mammary glands in female mammals
ering of hair, a four-chambered heart that produce milk to nourish young, a feeding
allows sustained levels of rapid move- behaviour unique to mammals (Figure
ment, and glands that produce milk to 14.44).
feed the young. Hair covers the body for Biologists divide mammals into three
protection and insulation (Figure 14.42). main groups: monotremes, marsupials,
Mammals also have specialized teeth, and placentals. The most primitive, the
such as molars and canines, which allow monotremes, lay eggs. Only two species
them to eat a wider variety of foods of monotremes, the platypus (Figure
(Figure 14.43). 14.45) and the spiny anteater, survive
Like birds, mammals are endother- today. The marsupials, or pouched mam-
mic. Four chambers divide the mammals, include the kangaroo, opossum,
malian heart and completely separate and koala (Figure 14.46). Young are
oxygenated from deoxygenated blood. born at early stage of development and
This separation allows mammals to de- complete their growth in their mother’s
liver high concentrations of oxygen to pouch. Placental females incubate their
muscle tissues to sustain high levels of young in the uterus. This allows the
extended muscle activity. young of placentals to develop more be-
fore birth than the young of marsupials.

FIGURE 14.45 The platypus, a semi-aquatic FIGURE 14.46 Kangaroos are one of many
monotreme with a ducklike bill and webbed feet, marsupial mammals that abound in Australia.
lives in long winding burrows the female digs in
the banks of rivers or streams.

The gene technology produces a flu- There are those who feel that
orescent marker gene in cells that using biotechnology for these pur-
researchers can see under a special poses causes animals to suffer need-
microscope. Researchers hope to use lessly. Others caution that society
Genetically Modified the technology to introduce a disease must use this technology in ethically
Monkey gene to a GM monkey like ANDi, track responsible ways.
the response of the monkey’s cells, As ANDi raises hopes of acceler-
Researchers have developed the and develop a vaccine for the disease. ating cures for human diseases, these
world’s first genetically modified (GM) Because the genetic make-up of pri- ethical and moral issues will result in
monkey from an egg modified to mates closely resembles our own, the the further regulation and monitor-
include a simple jellyfish gene. The outcomes of disease study on GM ing of biotechnology used in medi-
monkey is called ANDi. Read back- monkeys would relate more closely to cal research.
ward, ANDi stands for inserted DNA. humans than studies on GM mice.
Biologists place the nearly 4000

species of placental mammals into 16
classes based on modified features such
as teeth, limbs, and mode of feeding
(Figure 14.47). Terrestrial mammals
diversified into most land habitats but
some species, including whales,
FIGURE 14.47 Most dolphins, seals, and sea lions, returned
orangutans have a distinctive
to a marine mode of life. Mammals
red-orange hair colour and
spend much of their time in range in size from the pigmy shrew, less
trees. They are placental than 5 cm long, to the giant blue whale,
mammals. about 30 m long.
Section 14.5 Review

Understanding Concepts 8. Analyze Figure 14.31 on page 469 that
shows the phylogenetic tree for chor-
1. List the three basic characteristics that dates. Explain in your own words the
are present in all chordates. What relationship between words on the
other features do chordates possess? diagram such as “teeth” and the groups
2. Describe how representative animals of organisms below (earlier periods)
in the phylum Chordata carry out and above (later periods).
gas exchange, locomotion, reproduc-
tion, and circulation.
Applying Inquiry/
3. Describe the body plan of representa-
tive vertebrates.
4. Explain why reptiles are better adapted 9. Investigate the body plan of a snake to
to life on land than amphibians. determine how its structures make it
well adapted to life in its environment.
5. Describe adaptations of birds to a life
of flight.
6. Name three different kinds of Making Connections
mammals. How has each adapted to 10. Many representative chordates have,
its existence? for various reasons, become extinct.
7. Discuss how the circulatory system has Research several examples and suggest
changed in representative chordate reasons for their demise. How would
classes and how this has impacted on their extinction affect other animals?
their lifestyle.

Defining the Issue
Case Study
Cloning and the Cattle Justifying the Course of Action
Industry
Starbuck II is a product of genetic engineering. He What will the role of cloning be in the future of
is a clone of Starbuck, a prize Holstein bull that died the cattle industry? The current success rate with
in 1998. Through artificial inseminations, the orig- cloning is poor. Out of all current cloning attempts,
inal Starbuck sired over 200 000 calves in 50 coun- only two percent produce healthy offspring. Dolly
tries. His female offspring are better producers of was created after 276 failed attempts. Starbuck II
high-protein milk than other cows, and are able to was created after after 65 attempts. Research in
produce milk over a longer period of time. Starbuck cloning the clones of mice has an even poorer suc-
II was created by the Quebec company that owned cess rate, and cloning has proved to be impossible
Starbuck, in hopes that he would be as valuable com- beyond the sixth generation of clone.
mercially as the original.
Starbuck II is the first mammal
in Canada created from the tissue
cells of a mature animal. In 1996,
Dolly the sheep was the first mam-
mal in the world to be cloned using
this procedure. Dolly’s arrival
started a more public debate about
cloning and the ethical questions it
posed to society. With the ability to
selectively clone certain animals for
their best characteristics, could this
mean that humans may someday
selectively clone other humans for
characteristics like intelligence,
strength, or attractiveness? This po-
tential use of cloning, as well as the
cloning process itself continues to
challenge the ethical and moral val-
ues of society. FIGURE 14.48 These cows are Holsteins, a breed of dairy cattle.
Analyzing the Issue

1. Brainstorm different perspectives on the cloning of 5. After completing your research, do you think contin-
cattle. ued investment in cloning of cattle is merited? Justify
2. Identify the different social attitudes to cloning farm your decision.
animals that are affected by economic, technological, 6. You are working on behalf of a cattle association in
environmental, and ethical considerations. Ontario. You have been asked to provide a cost-benefit
3. Research arguments to support each of the identified analysis on cloning. What perspectives are reflected
perspectives. among members? Prepare a paper for presentation to a
biotechnology company, explaining the members’
4. Identify three possible long-term consequences to bio-
different points of view.
diversity in cloning farm animals like Starbuck. Explain.
477 CHAPTER 1 The Periodic Table C H A PThe

T E ROrigins
1 4 The Animal
of the Kingdom
periodic law 477
Inquiry Skills


Study of a Crayfish Body Plan
The segmented appendages of the crayfish seem to 4. The carapace extends anteriorly and forms a bony
have evolved from a common type, but have become beak, the rostrum. Locate the stalked compound
greatly modified to carry on several different functions. eyes that lie beneath the rostrum. Examine the eyes
The trilobite, an extinct ancestral arthropod, has paired with a hand lens and note the many lenses or
appendages, similar to the swimmerets of the crus- facets that compose a compound eye. What shape
taceans, on every segment of its body. For this reason are they?
the swimmeret is considered the basic type of crus- 5. The most anterior appendages are the branched
tacean appendage. antennules. Locate the antennae attached just pos-
Appendages that are similar in origin and struc- terior to the antennules. Examine the antennules
ture, but which have a different function, are referred and antennae with your hand lens. Describe their
to as homologous structures. (When they occur in re- structure.
peated segments, it is called serial homology.) 6. Turn the specimen over and examine the mouth
and other appendages on the head. Locate the
Problem LAL1
mandibles, or true jaws, which lie just posterior
to the antennae. Examine the first pair of maxillae,
How does the body plan of a crustacean demonstrate which are just posterior to the mandibles, and the
the principles of serial homology and segmentation? second pair of maxillae, which lie posterior to the
first. How do the mouth parts of the crayfish move?
Materials 7. The thorax bears eight pairs of appendages: three
preserved crayfish pair of maxillipeds and five pairs of legs. Locate
dissecting tray and examine the first maxillipeds, which are pos-
hand lens terior to the second maxillae, then the second max-
dissecting probe illipeds, posterior to the first, and the third
scissors maxillipeds, posterior to the second. How do the
white glue first maxillipeds differ from the second and third
stiff white cardboard, 8 1/2 11 inches maxillipeds? How do the second maxillipeds dif-
fer from the third maxillipeds? How do the third
CAUTION: Wear safety glasses and gloves as the maxillipeds differ from a walking leg?
preservative can be an irritant or allergen. 8. The next pair of appendages are the most obvious
structures on the thorax. These are the chelipeds.
Are they alike? Note the well-developed pincers that
Procedure are formed on the chelipeds.
1. Put the preserved crayfish, dorsal side up, in the 9. The next four pairs of legs are called the walking
dissecting tray. Examine the hard chitinous legs. Examine them carefully. In what ways do they
exoskeleton and note that the body is divided into differ from one another?
two distinct regions, the cephalothorax and the 10. The abdominal appendages of the crayfish are
abdomen. The abdomen ends in a reduced called swimmerets. The first pair of swimmerets in
abdominal segment called the telson. Note that the the female are reduced in size. In the male the first
cephalothorax is covered by a single piece of the two pairs are modified for transferring sperm. What
exoskeleton called the carapace. is the sex of your specimen?
2. Locate the cervical groove that marks the division 11. The sixth pair of swimmerets is greatly modified to
between the head and thorax. form the uropods, which, together with the tel-
3. There are 13 segments in the cephalothorax. These son, form the powerful tail fin used in backward
segments are more easily located on the ventral swimming.
surface. How many segments are there in the 12. Locate the anal opening on the ventral side of the
abdomen? telson.

(continued)

13. Label the following on a diagram: rostrum, anten- 2. How does the body plan of a crayfish demonstrate
nule, antenna, compound eye, cephalothorax, the principles of segmentation and serial
cervical groove, cheliped, uropod, telson, walking homology?
leg.
3. How is a crayfish, encased in an exoskeleton, able
14. Carefully dissect out all of the 19 appendages along to grow?
just one side of your specimen. Arrange them in
order as they would appear, and glue them to a
sheet of cardboard for display. Provide labels and
Extending
a function for each appendage. 4. With reference to segmentation and specialization,
how are these arthropods successful in their
environment?
Analyzing and Interpreting 5. Land arthropods (e.g., insects, spiders) don’t have
1. Draw and complete a chart with the following col- gills. How do they exchange gases?
umn headings: Body Region, Appendages, Number
of Parts, Function.
Inquiry Skills

Stream Study Concluding and Communicating
Problem the site. Observe and record any information needed

before returning these organisms to their original
How can environmental awareness be heightened locations.
through the study of biodiversity in a stream or river
ecosystem?
Procedure
Materials Part A: Before the Field Trip
1. Formulate a hypothesis on the numbers and
concave microscope nets (sieve and/or
diversity of aquatic organisms in relation to the
slides plankton nets) location of the stream being studied.
plastic cover slips small plastic
lens paper 2. State your prediction for organisms to be collected.
containers
eyedropper aquatic life 3. Provide a rationale for your hypothesis.
hand lens identification guide 4. Research appropriate procedures for collecting
dissecting microscope clipboard water and soil samples from different locations in
compound microscope hip waders and around the body of water.
paper towels waterproof boots
white plastic dishpan, compass
or enamel pans first aid kit
kitchen strainer Part B: During the Field Trip
1. Locate and identify the aquatic habitat to be stud-
CAUTION: If you have any allergies, such as hay fever, ied on a map provided by your teacher or make a
notify your teacher. Do not touch any unfamiliar objects sketch on a piece of notepaper. Indicate on your
or plant life. map where you are doing your pond study.
2. Choose a safe, shallow, stony-bottomed section of
Note: Respect the outdoor environment. Do not remove the stream.
organisms including animals, plants, or fungus from

3. Observe your chosen site for signs of animal life. 13. Check the area to ensure it’s clean without any
You may see squirrels, birds, insects, snakes or litter.
worms. Look for evidence of other animal life such
as burrows, tracks, animal droppings, beaver tree
shavings, and so on. Record your observations in Analyzing and Interpreting
a table. 1. Brainstorm a list of characteristics needed to clas-
sify various aquatic organisms (e.g., autotrophs or
TABLE 14.1 Stream Bank Observations
heterotrophs) found in the water samples and sur-
Animals or animal evidence observed Location rounding soil.
2. Describe the physical land features of the stream
and the bank.
3. State any other environmental factors associated
with the stream (e.g., temperature, speed of water
4. For collecting organisms on the stream surface, current).
approach the stream quietly with proper water-
proof clothing. Wade into the stream and secure a
good foothold with a sieve or fish net in hand. Concluding and Communicating
5. Run the net across the surface of the water. Any 4. Use the dichotomous classification key provided by
insects, floating plants and surface dwellers could your teacher and keys from other sources to help
be caught. Transfer any materials into a shallow classify the organisms.
dishpan. 5. If you needed to compare polluted and non-polluted
6. Observe the kinds of organisms collected and record sections of a stream for diversity of animal life, why
them. LAL1 would it be important for the same student to do
the sampling and to use the same sampling tech-
7. To collect organisms from the stream bottom, care-
nique each time?
fully kick the stream bed immediately upstream of
the net for exactly one minute to dislodge aquatic 6. Identify other possible sources of error in this sam-
animals. They will drift into the net with the pling technique that might influence the number of
current. aquatic organisms in the sample. Explain how these
errors could be eliminated.
8. Empty your catch into a white-bottomed tray or
basin containing cold, clear stream water. 7. Explain why many aquatic organisms cling to the
undersides of rocks and stones in a stream.
9. Collect any aquatic specimens that you find in small
plastic containers. Properly label each sample with 8. Describe how these organisms are camouflaged
the location and date collected. in their environment.
10. Repeat steps 5 to 9 to collect a second sample
at the same location. Record all findings in Extending
Table 2. 9. Environmental stresses such as habitat destruction,
11. Prepare wet mount slides from your samples to pollution, climate change, and displacement by in-
observe under the compound microscope over the troduced species affect biodiversity. Research the
next several days. Each sampled organism should interdependence between the environment and the
be further categorized and recorded as follows: de- diversity of living things and illustrate this rela-
scription, method of locomotion, labelled drawing, tionship by creating a poster display of one specific
location where sample were taken from, as in example of an environmental stress and its direct
Table 2. impact on biodiversity.
12. When you are finished, gently return the animals
to their stream habitat.
TABLE 14.2 Samples from Stream
Location Type or Name of Organism from:

Sample 1 Sample 2 Other Comments
Stream surface
Stream bottom

Key Terms
abdomen coelom mandible pelvic fin simple development

air sac dorsal fin mantle pharynx skull
antenna ectoderm marsupial placental mammal swim bladder
bilateral symmetry ectotherm medusa planula testes
body plan endoderm mesoderm polyp three-chambered
book lung endotherm metamorphosis radial symmetry heart
bony plate exoskeleton monotreme radula trachea
budding feather moulting scales vertebrates
carapace foot nerve chord scolex visceral mass
cephalization hermaphrodite notochord seminal receptacle
cephalothorax instar ovary sessile
chitin larva parapodia setae
cloaca mammary gland pectoral fin shell
14.1 Simple Animals They have a muscular foot for movement, a soft
Sponges have an asymmetrical body plan, are body that houses the internal organs, and a cover-
always sessile, and lack cell layers. ing called a mantle.
Echinoderms have a calcified internal skeleton, and
Sponges can reproduce either asexually or sexually.
are bilaterally symmetrical as larvae and radially
Cnidarians exhibit radial symmetry and have cells symmetrical as adults.
that are organized into tissues.
Locomotion and gas exchange are controlled by a
Their life cycle has two phases: medusa and polyp. water vascular system.
14.2 Wormlike Animals
Flatworms are the simplest animals to show bilat- 14.4 Joint-Legged Animals
eral symmetry and cephalization. Arthropods are the most diverse organisms on
Earth.
They have tissues organized into organs and
systems. They have jointed appendages, well-developed
nervous systems, and an exoskeleton made of chitin.
Nematodes show bilateral symmetry and are the
simplest animals with a complete digestive system Arthropods include spiders, insects, and crustaceans.
with two openings.
Annelids are bilaterally symmetrical and have 14.5 Animals with Internal Skeletons
bodies that are divided into segments. At an early stage in their development all vertebrates
They have a body plan with a true coelom sepa- have a hollow nerve chord and paired gill slits.
rating internal organs from the outer covering. A subgroup of chordates have a spinal column
14.3 Invertebrate Animals of Increasing Complexity consisting of vertebrae.
Mollusks are bilaterally symmetrical and have three Vertebrates include jawless fish, cartilaginous
distinct tissue layers. fish, body fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and
mammals.
1. Look back at the Checkpoint on page 451 and revisit academic requirements and specific skills needed for pur-
the gathering grid you completed. suing this career path in your post-secondary education.
2. Draw a concept map starting with the word “symmetry.” 4. Summarize how cloning farm animal species affects their
3. Review the careers that relate to this area of biology. biodiversity.
Select one career and do further research on the

Understanding Concepts 11. Name and describe a representative animal from each
of the classes of the phylum Platyhelminthes.
1. “Dorsal” relates to
a) the forward or head end of an animal 12. Explain the differences in body plan related to free-
b) the back or upper surface of the animal living and parasitic worms.
c) the lower side or belly of the animal
d) the tail end or the end away from the head of an 13. Describe the general characteristics of members in the
animal phylum Annelida.
2. In annelids, the successive units that contain similar 14. What are some of the similarities and differences
structures are known as between echinoderms and mollusks?
a) sediments
b) segments 15. Which group from question 14 do you think is more com-
c) sinuses plex? Explain your reasoning.
d) appendages
16. Explain how each of the following is carried out in a
3. Which of the following is not a characteristic of the class chosen representative arthropod: feeding, gas exchange,
Chondrichthyes? locomotion, reproduction, sensory control.
a) cartilage skeleton
b) gill slits near the throat 17. Outline the advantages and disadvantages to an animal
c) live in fresh water in having an exoskeleton.
d) are ovoviviparous
18. Indicate the major development that separates each ver-
4. Members of the phylum Platyhelminthes are considered tebrate class from the next: Agnatha, Chondrichthyes,
to be more complex than those of the phylum Cnidaria Osteichthyes, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves, Mammalia.
because they have
a) flattened bodies and two main layers of cells in the 19. One reason for mollusks’ survival over millions of
body years is their ability to live in conditions with low oxy-
b) segmented body with a circulatory system gen. Few animals can do this. Explain why this ability
c) two main layers of cells in the body and the body is has contributed to their success over the ages.
covered by a shell
d) radial symmetry and stinging cells 20. Draw the life cycle of a cnidarian and the life cycle of a
fern. Create a chart showing how these two life cycles
5. Radial symmetry is to sea stars as bilateral symmetry is are similar and how they are different.
to
a) hydrazoans 21. Sharks were probably the first vertebrates to give birth
b) jellyfish to live young instead of laying eggs. How might this
c) bony fish method of reproduction give their offspring a better
d) sand dollars chance of survival over egg-laying species?
6. Distinguish between radial and bilateral symmetry. 22. Reptiles were the first vertebrates to reproduce with the
help of amniotic eggs. These eggs contain a membrane
7. Make a list of the different phyla of invertebrates ex- that forms a fluid-filled sac around the embryo. How
plored in this chapter. Indicate what type of symmetry might this adaptation be to the advantage of reptiles that
is demonstrated by each phylum. lay their eggs on land?
8. Explain why it is believed that animals evolved from a 23. List characteristics of birds that distinguish them from
colonial protist. reptiles.
9. Explain how feeding and gas exchange are carried out 24. One advantage to living in air is that it is not much good
in a sponge. at conducting heat. As a result, birds can maintain a
large temperature difference between themselves and
10. Describe the structure and functions of cnidarians with their surroundings. How does this ability increase their
respect to feeding, gas exchange, and reproduction. chances of survival?

25. What group of mammals is most similar to birds? Explain 35. Obtain samples of natural and synthetic sponges. Use a
your reasoning. hand lens to examine the surface and pores of each. How
do natural and synthetic sponges compare?
26. Look at the feathers in Figure 14.40 on page 474.
Describe how they are similar and different. 36. While walking in the woods, you discover a small, four-
legged, ectothermic vertebrate. What characteristics
27. How does the structure of a down feather help it to would you look at in order to classify it as a reptile or
perform its function? an amphibian? Explain.
28. The Irish elk was the largest known member of the deer 37. Animal A has hair and lays eggs. Animal B has hair and
family and was abundant about 20 000 years ago dur- bears live young, which then develop in a pouch on the
ing the last ice age. Like all deer, its antlers were formed mother’s body. Animal C has hair and bears live young
from bone and, despite their enormous size of over three but has no pouch. Classify these animals into their cor-
metres, they were grown and shed every year. Speculate rect orders. Give reasons for your classification.
reasons for why this species became extinct based on
the above information. 38. Create a dichotomous classification key that would allow
you to classify an animal into its correct phylum.
29. Barnacles were extensively studied by Charles Darwin
in the 1850s on his travels in the southern hemisphere.
They were originally thought to be mollusks because they
Making Connections
are protected by hard plates that make up a shell.
However, closer study shows that they have tiny jointed
39. Imagine that you are a doctor. Recently a number of your
appendages, a feature not found in mollusks. In what
patients have been infected with Trichinella, a round-
group of animals are barnacles correctly placed based
worm. Describe an action that you would suggest to your
on the above information? Explain your reasoning.
patients to reduce the risk of further development of this
problem in the community.
30. Years ago, biologists loosely described animal species as
being “primitive” or “advanced,” suggesting that some
40. The completion of the St. Lawrence Seaway in the 1950s
have made a better job of evolving than others. Many
accidentally introduced lampreys into the Great Lakes
scientists consider the use of these terms to be mis-
by providing them with a way to bypass natural barri-
leading. Which point of view do you support? Defend
ers. Research the environmental effects that lampreys
your point of view using evidence from examples of
have had on the Great Lakes ecosystem. Create a chart
different phyla in the animal kingdom.
listing species of fish that previously inhabited the Great
Lakes before the arrival of the lampreys and the major
31. Humans have a high opinion of themselves. It has been
fish species that are found there now.
said that we are the most highly evolved and specialized
animal. In what ways is this true or not true?
41. Mammals other than humans have a huge effect on so-
ciety. Create a chart listing 10 different mammals,
32. List the features that all animals have in common.
whether they have a positive or negative effect, and what
that effect is.
Applying Inquiry/ 42. Around the world, zoos are popular attractions. However,
Communication Skills some people think that it is cruel to keep wild animals
in captivity. Create a PMI chart on zoos. Look into their
33. Birds and mammals make up the largest number of economic impact, their treatment of animals, their
animals on display in zoos. Choose an animal that is not efforts at conservation, and their role in education. Decide
native to North America that is kept in zoos. Use the whether zoos should continue or whether they should
Internet and other sources to research the problems of be abolished.
caring for this species in captivity.
43. List the positive and negative effects that insects have
34. Prepare a poster showing the animal you researched on agriculture and forestry.
in question 33 to illustrate the problems of maintaining
this animal’s health outside its native habitat.

EXPLORING CAREERS
Investigating Careers in Biology
The diversity of living things is as- Finding More Career Options

tounding. Almost everywhere scientists
Within any field, there are yet more spe-
look for life on this planet, they find it.
cializations. For example, within “insect
There are species able to survive under
taxonomy” there would be people
the most extreme—and unlikely—con-
specializing in beetles or aquatic insects,
ditions. Some species are found in only
and so on. How does this breakdown
one place, while others seem able to live
into specialties affect your career inves-
almost anywhere.
tigation? First, it can help you identify
The diversity of careers involving the
possible careers of interest that you
study of living things is just as astound-
might not have considered. For exam-
ing. How can you find out about them?
ple, what could a person do in the
A good starting point is to think of bi-
subfield “taxonomy of aquatic insects”?
ology as divided into specialized areas
Taxonomists classify living things. To do
of study, called fields (a specialization
this, they need to be able to identify a
within a field may be called a subfield).
particular organism and know how it is
For example, the study of insects, or en-
related to others.
tomology, is a field within biology. The
diagram shows how this field, in turn,
1. For each of the following situations,
splits into many subfields. Thinking of
how might an aquatic insect tax-
biology this way breaks an immense
onomist be involved?
subject into manageable topics. At the
same time, it more accurately portrays A tropical disease specialist
the world of work within biology,
identifies a person’s sickness as
because careers in biology are typically
due to a rare parasite. Only one
in one or two subfields.
species of mosquito is known to
be a carrier of this parasite.
plant protection
There are several ponds where
entomology mosquitoes are found near this
community. Some of these
urban forensic conservation medical
entomology entomology entomology
ponds may be of concern to
entomology
public safety.
A new canal system will soon
connect two bodies of water that
insect have never been connected
ecology ENTOMOLOGY parasitology
before. Each body of water has
distinct insect populations. The
government intends to monitor
what happens when the canal
population insect is finished.
insect horticulture
biology taxonomy
physiology Aquatic ecologists use the
integrated pest presence of certain insects to
management indicate the quality of a fresh-
FIGURE 1 water environment. A local

fishery is reporting fewer fish in In the future, a decision by the

their nets and suspect lower Supreme Court makes it possible
water quality is to blame. for an individual or company
to “own” chemical agents
2. Look at these situations again. For produced by newly discovered
each, list other subfields of biology beneficial insect species.
that might be involved. Think of as
many as you can. Then, consider This would cause a demand
careers within those subfields. Your for people with
backgrounds in insect phy
ideas about what you could do with siology to work
for investment companies
an interest in biology will become analyzing the
potential of newly discov
wider and wider. ered species.
Seeing the Future The federal government

Another aspect of good career investiga- announces an investment of
tion is considering which careers are $40 million per year for five
likely to be around in the future. While years to clean up the most
it’s impossible to accurately predict the polluted areas in the Great
future of any one career, you can make Lakes.
a reasonable prediction of what may
happen within a field or subfield. For in aquatic
example, the growing public awareness ed fo r pe ople with a background
There would be a
ne area such as
of the importance of maintaining ad di tion al tr aining in a related
o had
insect ecology wh d the long-term
biodiversity is likely to result in more al impa ct, fr es hwater ecology, an
environment
careers in the fields of insect ecology, s on living things.
physiology, taxonomy, and conservation. effects of toxin
Here are some possible changes in
our economy, environment, and society.
Beside each is a sample prediction about 3. Pick a career area within biology
how these changes might affect a career that interests you. Make your own
in insect ecology. predictions in each of the above sit-
uations. If you can, ask someone
The economy is growing and working in this area for his or her
one of the signs is that people opinion as well.
are choosing to buy more ex-
pensive, imported fresh fruit.
Looking Outward
It pays to be aware of the world around
you as you think about your own future.
career
cou ld be more ecologist
s who Watch news broadcasts and documen-
There or in s e c t ct
nities f o prote taries on television. Read a national
opportu od ind ustry t newspaper or magazine as often as you
the fo food fr
om
work in ported can. Get into the habit of asking
trans revent
stored
or
w ell a s to p yourself how each change might affect
pests,
as pecies
insect - in d igenous s people and their careers. You may spot
non
read of
the sp t s. an opportunity you hadn’t imagined.
ipmen
with sh

ACHIEVEMENT TASK
View Rubric
Saving Endangered Species
Until recently, the word “extinction” meant that The San Diego Zoo has collected a bank of
a species had disappeared forever. Now that frozen DNA that includes living cells from 5400
idea might be changing as scientists develop a animals. These cells span more than 400 ani-
wider range of options to help endangered mal species and subspecies. This DNA could act
species survive. For example, biotechnology as a source of cells for cross-species nuclear
companies are developing new assisted repro- transfer.
duction techniques, such as a cross-species Biologists around the world are collaborat-
nuclear-transfer. This technology could help to ing to find ways to save vanishing species.
rescue endangered species and perhaps even The Toronto Zoo, for example, participates with
reverse extinctions. other zoos worldwide in international breeding
In this technique, a female from a non- and conservation programs. In North America,
endangered species acts as a surrogate mother. Species Survival Plans (SSPs) are captive breed-
Cells from an endangered species are inserted ing programs for endangered species. The
into the surrogate’s eggs. The eggs have their Toronto Zoo is involved in 17 SSPs that direct
nuclei removed before the cells are inserted. breeding and management of endangered
Once the cells are in the eggs, a small electric species, as well as research into species’
current is applied to the eggs and the eggs start habitat and nutrition. Most SSPs use more
to divide. One of the resulting embryos is then traditional reproductive technologies such as
implanted into the surrogate mother. artificial insemination and in-vitro fertilization.
With reproductive technologies under test-
ing and development, and programs to promote
the breeding and conservation of endangered
species, the word “extinction” may become
endangered as well.
SCENARIO
You are preparing a position paper about the

role of reproductive technologies in saving
endangered species. Your essay must include
information on the risks and benefits of using
reproductive technologies and should include
FIGURE 1 The Bengal tiger is one of many endangered
species that could benefit from advances in reproductive consideration of the following: habitat, genetic
technologies. variability, social, ethical, and economic impact.

6. Assuming new species could result from the

Part A: Research Biotechnology use of reproductive technologies, propose
a new classification system that would in-
1. Research the different reproductive tech- clude them. Use a diagram to present your
nologies described. Summarize your thinking.
information in a comparison chart. For each
process, research the steps involved, the
success rate, how widespread its use, its
drawbacks, and its cost. Part C: Preparing a Risk/Benefit
2. What impact do reproductive technologies Analysis
have on the fundamental principles of tax-
7. Prepare a risk/benefit analysis on the im-
onomy and phylogeny?
plications of reproductive technologies on
3. Explain how meiosis and variability are af- the biodiversity of endangered species
fected by the application of reproductive based on your research.
technologies.
8. Propose new biodiversity issues that might
arise if reproductive technologies like
cloning become widely accepted and car-
Part B: Impact on Current ried out for all endangered species.
Scientific Knowledge
4. What new controls on population size would Part D: Summary Sheet
have to be considered for animal popula-
tions if species were no longer endangered? 9. In a one-page summary, outline the most
critical factors affecting biodiversity in using
5. How would each reproductive technology
biotechnology to save endangered species.
affect classification techniques that are cur-
rently used? Identify the taxonomic level(s)
that would be most affected. Explain why.
UNIT 4 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts
1. Two fish classified in the same class must also be grouped c) a vascular system
in the same d) seeds
a) phylum
b) family 9. The portion of the flower that receives the pollen is the
c) order a) style
d) genus b) stigma
c) ovary
2. In the six-kingdom system of classification, eukaryotic d) anther
organisms that absorb their nutrients as decomposers
are members of the kingdom 10. Which of the following is often characteristic of bilateral
a) Protista symmetry?
b) Eubacteria a) cephalization
c) Fungi b) none have a mesoderm
d) Plantae c) a lack of true tissues
d) a non-motile lifestyle
3. Multicellular organisms that are heterotrophic are
classified in the kingdom 11. Explain why it is necessary to classify organisms.
a) Archaebacteria
b) Plantae 12. What is the basis of classification systems?
c) Protista
d) Animalia 13. In your own words, define “binomial nomenclature.”
4. E. coli bacteria are shaped like tiny, straight sausages. 14. Explain why the system of binomial nomenclature is a
They are good way to name organism.
a) spirillae
b) bacillae 15. What is the smallest level of taxon? Which is the largest
c) cocci level of taxon?
d) spirochetae
16. Describe the difference between a species and a genus.
5. Bacteria that can convert atmospheric nitrogen into
ammonia are called 17. Suppose every living organism on Earth is known and
a) nitrogen ammoniafiers fully classified as of today. Do you think the study of tax-
b) nitrogen autotrophs onomy will end? Explain.
c) nitrogen heterotrophs
d) nitrogen fixers 18. Explain how the modern classification system takes evo-
lutionary relationships into consideration.
6. Which of the following is a difference between plants
and fungi? 19. Explain the connection between taxonomy and the prin-
a) Plants have diploid and haploid stages in their life ciples of phylogeny.
cycle, and fungi only have haploid stages.
b) Fungi are heterotrophic and plants are autotrophic. 20. List the features that bacteria have in common.
c) Fungi have cell walls.
d) Fungi produce spores. 21. List the ways that bacteria can differ from one another.
7. The diploid generation of a plant life cycle always 22. Bacteria feed in a variety of ways. Classify bacteria by
a) is larger and more conspicuous than the haploid their feeding habits.
stage
b) produces eggs and sperm 23. Explain why conjugation is important to prokaryotes.
c) is called the gametophyte
d) produces spores 24. Substantiate the claim that bacteria survive in an
extraordinary range of habitats with examples and
8. Angiosperms are different from all other plants because descriptions of their niches.
only they have
a) a sporophyte stage 25. Compare and contrast archaebacteria with eubacteria.
b) cones

26. Explain why it was necessary to place archaebacteria 45. How is body symmetry in animals suited to the organ-
and eubacteria into different kingdoms. ism’s lifestyle? Use examples to justify your answer.
27. Explain why sexual reproduction in bacteria provides

resistance to certain antibiotics.
Applying Inquiry/
28. In your own words, define the term biotechnology.
29. Explain what is meant by the term genetic engineering. 46. Create a dichotomous key to classify the following ani-
mals into their correct classes.
30. Why is it difficult to classify organisms as protists? salmon snake
frog shark
31. Draw a life cycle of a protist. bear pigeon
32. Draw the life cycle of a mushroom and identify the 47. Add additional animals to the ones represented above
stages. and test your classification key with these animals.
33. State the function of the following. 48. If one of the diagrams provided was that of a whale, what
spore ovary class of animals would you have concluded that it belongs
frond pollen grain to based on your classification key? What does this tell you
cone fruit about the usefulness of dichotomous classification keys?
34. What environmental condition is necessary for fertiliza- 49. Suggest changes to your classification system so that it
tion in mosses to occur? can be made to accommodate the correct classification
of whales.
35. Explain alternation of generations using terms such as
haploid, diploid, gametophyte, sporophyte, spore, ga- 50. Scientist Stephen J. Gould has suggested that “break-
metes, egg, meiosis. ing of the enormous eukaryotic branch into four
kingdoms and the compression of the two prokaryotic
36. What reasons can you suggest to explain why flower- branches into one kingdom of Bacteria seems fully
ing plants exceed any other group of plants in terms of justified.” What are the implications of his view to
numbers of species? organizing the astonishing diversity of organisms?
37. Explain why you do not usually find ferns growing in dry 51. Research the term “stromatolite.” What is it and where
places, even though they contain vascular tissues. would you find it today? There are fossilized forms in
Canada that are extremely old, about two billion years
38. Compare and contrast the roles of protists and bacteria old. What is their biological significance? Prepare a brief
as decomposers. report on stromatolites.
39. In your own works, define what is meant by the term 52. A research biologist studied a population of tadpoles in
“animal.” a small pond. She looked down at the grey, muddy bot-
tom and estimated about 500 tadpoles. Most were dark,
40. What characteristics do taxonomists use to group ani- but there were 75 albinos among them. The next morn-
mals into phyla? ing she found tracks of a raccoon at the edge of the pond.
Table 1 shows the counts of each type of tadpole over
41. What do the following terms mean? five days.
bilateral and radial symmetry
ectoderm and endoderm
vertebrate and invertebrate TABLE 1 Tadpole Counts over Five Days
Day Number of albino tadpoles Number of regular tadpoles

42. Name two members of the class Aganatha.
1 75 425
43. Explain how a bony fish adjusts its buoyancy to main- 2 49 422
tain its level in the water. 3 27 415
4 9 408
44. Is multicellularity unique to animals? If not, in what other
kingdoms would you find multicellular organisms? 5 7 393
Unit Review 489

Analyze the data in Table 1 to find the percentage of dark 61. What do the following have in common: peat moss, club
tadpoles the raccoon had consumed over the four days. moss, Spanish moss, reindeer moss, Irish moss?
53. Analyze the data in Table 1 to find the percentage of 62. Find a book or field guide that summarizes the local flora
albino tadpoles that had been preyed upon. in your area. Identify local mosses, ferns, gymnosperms,
and flowering plants. Create a local map to show where
54. Using the data in Table 1, plot a graph to show the trends they could be found and conduct a field trip to find them.
in the total tadpole population, the albino population, and
the dark tadpole population over the study period. 63. Research the current literature on the various systems for
classifying organisms: a five-kingdom, six-kingdom, eight-
55. Analyze the graph you created in question 54. What does kingdom, and a three-domain system. Explain why such
it tell you about the raccoon’s predation pattern? a variety of systems have been proposed. Account for the
similarities and differences by constructing a comparison
56. What does the data tell you about the variability within chart that shows the major groups, and explain the
the tadpole population? rationale for grouping organisms in this manner.
57. Predict the composition of the tadpole population in

the pond next summer.
Making Connections
Table 2 shows the results of a survey of a stream polluted by
64. An error in cell division can result in organisms with
sewage waste. Samples were taken at 10-m intervals above
three (3n) and four (4n) sets of chromosomes, a condi-
and below sewage outflow into the stream. Water samples
tion called polyploidy. It is very common in plants and
were taken to count the numbers of bacteria and algae and
contributes to genetic variation in the plant kingdom.
determine the oxygen and nitrate content of the water.
Research and report on polyploidy in ornamental and
TABLE 2 Survey of Polluted Stream crop plants and comment on economic as well as
genetic benefits.
Sample site Bacteria Oxygen Algae Nitrate
in relation (millions/L) Content (thousands (mg/L) 65. Organizing or classifying living things is done by a va-
to pollution (mL O2/ /L) riety of groups, organizations, and government agencies
source 100 mL) for pleasure, profit, or understanding. Garden centres,
10 m above 1 10 6 1 greenhouses, zoos, museums, seed banks, sperm banks,
and other facilities use a system of classification to iden-
10 m below 10 3 3 2
tify and group organisms into meaningful categories.
20 m below 15 2 0 4 Prepare a presentation using audiovisual means on the
30 m below 16 1 3 7 role of a facility in studying organisms, their sources of
40 m below 14 2 6 9 revenues, contribution to society and scientific research.
50 m below 11 4 12 10
66. Comment on the significance of bacterial activities in our
60 m below 8 5 15 8 environment.
70 m below 6 6 18 6
TABLE 3 Diseases Caused by Bacteria
80 m below 5 7 15 4
90 m below 4 8 12 3
Species Disease
100 m below 3 9 10 2
Corynebacterium diphtheriae diphtheria
110 m below 2 10 8 1
Salmonella typhi typhoid fever
Streptococcus pneumoniae pneumonia
58. Using the data from the table, plot graphs showing
a) the levels of bacteria and oxygen Clostridium botulinum botulism
b) algae and nitrate concentrations. Borrelia burgdorferi Lyme disease
Vibrio cholerae cholera
59. What happens to the sewage waste on entering the
stream? How is the oxygen concentration affected? Clostridium tetani tetanus
Streptococcus tonsilae toxic strep throat
60. Explain the relationship between the presence of algae
Chlamydia trachomatis chlamydia
in the water samples relative to the concentration of
nitrates.

67. Table 3 lists several examples of pathogenic bacteria and Cases of

the infectious disease that they cause. For each disease, malaria
research the major symptoms and how each pathogen (millions)
is spread. Create a table in your notebook to show your
findings. 30
68. Identify commonly used antibiotics that you or your 20 Africa

family might take. Discuss the concept of antibiotic re-
10
sistance and the effect the use of antibiotics in medicine Asia
has had on the rapid evolution of antibiotic resistant 1 North America
strains.
TABLE 4 Reported Cases of Whooping Cough 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997
Year
Year Cases of whooping cough
1990 4570 FIGURE 1 Reported cases of malaria in Africa, Asia, and North
1991 2719 America.
1992 4083
1993 6586
1994 4617
73. The mining of peat bogs, logging of forests, or draining
of wetlands for urban growth has economic effects.
69. Table 4 shows the number of reported cases of the Tourism and recreation provide benefits to communities
viral disease whooping cough as reported in Health as well. What measures does Canadian society need to
News, August 1995. There is a vaccine for whooping undertake to balance these competing interests?
cough but the disease resists being eradicated. Why do
you think this disease continues to occur? 74. Botanists estimate that there are between 4200 and 5800
species of vascular plants in Canada. What would
70. List three applications of genetic engineering. Explain account for the range in their estimates?
how each is useful to society.
75. What are some benefits to society of having such a
71. Crops genetically modified to be resistant to insect pests diversity of vascular plants?
are being promoted as a solution to low food yields in
developing countries. A member of the British royal fam- 76. Describe, in general terms, the positive and negative
ily recently spoke out of the “immorality of playing God effects that protists, fungi, and plants have on the
by moving genes between species that could never breed Canadian economy.
naturally.” Construct a PMI chart listing ideas in support
of the proposed solution, ideas against, and interesting 77. Research and report on, in detail, the effect protists,
questions or issues that need further investigation. fungi, and plants have on the management of waste, the
pesticide industry in Canada, or the treatment of
72. The graph in Figure 1 shows the incidence of the dis- municipal water supplies.
ease malaria in Africa, Asia and North America since
1985 as reported by the World Health Organization. Why 78. Sea urchins are collected from wild populations and their
do you think there is such a difference in the reported eggs are exported to Japan where they are considered
cases in Africa relative to the other continents? What do a delicacy. Sea urchins will probably be exterminated if
you think might be the reasons for the recent decline their overfishing is not reduced. Should we look to aqua-
in Africa over the last decade? In 1995 most Asian coun- culture as an alternative to harvesting them from the
tries put in place a limited ban on the use of DDT. Predict wild? Should we stop over-harvesting altogether? Who
what effect this decision might have on the future inci- decides? Explain your answers.
dence of malaria in that region over the next several
years. Why is the incidence of malaria in North America
to date consistently low in relation to other parts of the
world?
Unit Review 491

UNIT
Plants: Anatomy,
5
OVERALL
EXPECTATIONS
Growth, and
Functions
T
you will be able to: he number of products on the market today that come from plants is
truly remarkable. Food, timber, paper, textiles, industrial lubricants,
describe the major processes and plastics, cosmetics, perfume, rubber, fuel, paint, and medicine are just
mechanisms by which plants grow,
a few of the products available. To meet the demand, plant-related industries
develop, and supply various
products, including energy and rely more and more heavily on science and technology. Crops are sprayed
nutrition, needed by other with pesticides and herbicides to protect them from insects and weeds. Produce
organisms is exposed to radiation to increase its shelf life. Fruits and vegetables are
genetically modified to make them bigger and hardier. As these and other
demonstrate an understanding,
based in part on your own technologies become more widespread, the list of new plant-related products
investigations, of the connections will continue to grow.
among the factors that affect the The benefits that plant-related products bring to the world are many.
growth of plants, the uses of However, there are risks as well as benefits associated with these new prod-
plants, and the ways in which ucts. The effects of their cultivation, processing, and manufacture raise many
plants adapt to their environment questions. Is deforestation contributing to global warming? Are pesticides
evaluate how the energy and
nutritional needs of a population
influence the development and use
of plant science and technology
Canola field. To meet the demand, growers increasingly rely on plant science and technology
to help them to produce high yields.
492
poisoning the planet? Then there are the other questions that you have to face
personally, every day. Is the genetically modified tomato you just bit into safe
for you to eat? Is the cosmetic you just put on your face made from non-re-
newable petroleum or from a renewable plant material? These are questions
that can directly or indirectly affect your health or the health of the planet.
As you start your study of plants, you will examine the role plants play
in maintaining biodiversity. Next, you will learn how science and technol-
ogy are revolutionizing the way we grow, harvest, and process plants. After
looking at how plants are used in agriculture, industry, and medicine, you
will investigate the structure and function of the components that comprise
the plant: the root, stem, and leaf. Finally, you will study how nutrients
such as nitrogen affect plant growth.
BIOLOGY HEADLINES
Genetically Modified Super Weeds 1938. Hopes are high for this versatile plant that
has over 25 000 uses. Fuel, textiles, paper prod-
In the first case of its kind, some weeds in Canada
ucts, paint, and ink are just a few of the products
have become resistant to herbicides. The plants
that have been made from hemp.
picked up genes from genetically modified canola
plants. (Canola is a plant grown for the oil in its
seeds.) The canola plants were modified to be re- Study Indicates GM Crops Not As Harmful As Once
sistant to herbicides. This allowed farmers to spray Feared
their fields with herbicides, which kill the weeds
The results of a 10-year British study indicate that
but not the canola. At least that’s the way it is sup-
genetically modified (GM) crops do not “invade”
posed to work. Unfortunately, in this case the weeds
and interbreed with native or non-GM plants. One
cross-pollinated with the canola and the weeds be-
of the concerns about GM crops is they might
came resistant to herbicides.
interbreed with native or non-GM plants, thus
transferring their genetically engineered trait
New Study Says Wonder Herb Does Not Work into the wild plant population, possibly causing
harm to the environment. Another worry is that
One of the most popular herbal supplements on
the GM plants could spread uncontrollably in the
the market today, echinacea, has little effect on the
wild. The study, published in the scientific journal,
common cold, according to a recently published
Nature, showed that for GM potatoes, sugar beets,
study. Echinacea was no better at preventing colds
canola, and maize, neither of these concerns is
than a placebo in a study of 289 people. This
justified.
contradicts other studies in which the herb was
PREVIEW
shown to be effective. ACHIEVEMENT TASK
At the end of the Unit you will demonstrate your learn-

Hemp Returns ing by preparing a research funding proposal. Your pro-
More than 60 years ago, the Canadian government posal will be presented at a world health summit focusing
on the topic of genetically-modified rice and its use in
outlawed hemp (Cannibis sativa) farming due to
developing countries. You will research the science and
the rise of illegal cannibis use. But in 1998, the
the issues surrounding genetically-modified foods and
federal government legalized the farming of 0.3%
evaluate the safety, economic, and environmental im-
THC hemp. (THC is the active chemical in
pacts of genetically-modified rice. Your presentation will
Cannibis.) Within months, farmers across Canada
also include a summary of key points and a bibliogra-
were planting hemp seeds for the first time since phy of your information sources. See page 582.
493
CHAPTER 15
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS The Uses of Plants
illustrate the process of succession
and the role of plants in the
maintenance of diversity and the
survival of organisms (15.1)
describe and explain some of the
food and industrial processes that
depend on plants (15.2, 15.3)
describe and explain some of the
uses of plant extracts in food and
therapeutic products (15.2, 15.4)
compile information about the
chemical products derived from
plants and, either by hand or
computer, display the information in
a variety of formats, including
diagrams, flow charts, tables,
graphs, and scatter plots (15.3, 15.4)
identify various factors that result
in trade-offs in the development of
food technologies (15.2)
describe and explain ways in which
society supports and influences
plant science and technology (15.2)
express opinions supported by your
own research about the case for
funding certain projects in plant
science or technology rather than
others (15.2)
describe how a technology related
to plants functions, and evaluate it
on the basis of identified criteria
such as safety, cost, availability,
and impact on everyday life and
the environment (15.2)
FIGURE 15.1 A few of the thousands of products derived from plants
494
H ave you thanked a plant today? If not, you probably should. Plant sci-
ence and technology are helping humans in many ways. For example,
many of the medicinal drugs taken today are derived from plants. Plant-
produced chemicals are used in industry to manufacture a wide variety of
products. With advances in technology, humans continue to create new syn-
thetic products and many of the raw materials used to manufacture these
products are derived from plants or plant extracts. In this chapter, you will
learn about some of the traditional, current, and future uses of plants and
plant products.
Agriculture is an industry largely devoted to producing plants for you to
eat. Society supports and influences agriculture in many different ways.
One way is by funding research into plant technologies. Over the last 20 years,
there have been dramatic changes in technologies used in agriculture.
Genetically engineered plants continue to have economic, environmental, and
social impacts in our world. These are just a few of the kinds of issues you
will examine in this chapter.
Discovering Biology
What’s the Source?
Look at each of the synthetic items in Figure 15.1.
Identify the material or materials in it that are derived from plants.
Name a specific plant source for as many of these materials as you can.
CHECKPOINT
Brainstorm what you know

about products made from
plants. Use a web, like the
following example, as a
starting point.
Industrial Agricultural
products products
Plants
Medicinal
products
CHAPTER 15 The Uses of Plants 495

15.1 Plants in Nature

Key Understandings
explain the role of plants in the maintenance of diversity and survival of organisms
describe the process of succession
Plants have two main roles in eco- example, a lawn has just one or two
systems. The most important role is to plant species. Only a few invertebrates
capture solar energy and convert it into can live on or below the grass. The
a usable form of energy. Plant leaves and garden beside the lawn, however, may
stems have energy-capturing machinery contain a variety of different plant
in the form of chloroplasts. They convert species including few shrubs and trees.
solar energy into stored chemical energy, This plant diversity can provide habitat
sugars. Plants are in turn consumed by and food for a greater variety of insects,
other organisms and the energy in plants as well as birds, and some small mam-
is passed on to them. Without plants fill- mals.
INFOBIT ing this vital energy-trapping role, most Plant diversity is not the same
other organisms could not exist. around the world. Plant diversity in any
A single tree in the Peruvian Plants also provide habitats for other given region is determined by the cli-
rain forest can provide habitat organisms. The greater the diversity of mate in that region. For example, the
for more than 17 000 species of high arctic has far fewer plant species
plants in an area, the more types of
beetle.
habitat exist for other organisms. For than the tropical rain forests. Earth is
FIGURE 15.2 Tropical rain forest in Costa Rica
496 UNIT 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Functions

resistant. Mahogany has been

brought from Central America and
the Caribbean to Europe and North
America for hundreds of years.
Mahogany Makes a Because of demand for the wood, the
Comeback mahogany forests have been greatly
depleted, accompanied by a decline
in the diversity of other plants and
animals. In the Central American
The hull and deck of the tall ship in country of Belize, efforts are being
Figure 15.3 are made from ma- made to re-establish the mahogany FIGURE 15.3 A tall ship made of
forests. This is being done for eco- mahogany
hogany, a highly-prized tropical hard-
wood used since the 1500s to build nomic as well as ecological reasons.
ships, buildings, and quality furni- The wood is still highly sought after
ture. The wood is strong, beautiful, and so can provide income to people, helps maintain biodiversity in the
easy to work with, and highly water- and by replacing mahogany trees, it country’s rain forests.
divided into biomes, each having a char- TABLE 15.1 The Major Land Biomes
acteristic climate, and vegetation that is
adapted to living in that environment Terrestrial biome Climate Characteristic vegetation
(Table 15.1). The greater the diversity of tundra very cold, long harsh winters, mainly mosses, lichens, grasses,
plants in a biome, the more habitat they short summers, little rain small shrubs and trees
provide for other organisms. (10–20 cm/year)
Tropical rain forests, such as in boreal coniferous cold winters and short coniferous trees such as pine,
Figure 15.2, are found around the globe forest summers, little rain fir, and spruce
in equatorial regions, and they hold (30–50 cm/year)
the largest variety of plant species on temperate mild winters, cool summers, hardwood trees such as oak,
Earth. It is estimated that 40 000 to deciduous forest ample rain (75–125 cm/year) maple, and beech
50 000 different plant species live in the grasslands hot summers, cold winters, variety of grasses, few trees
Amazon rain forest alone. In Costa Rica, moderate rain (30–80 cm/year)
about 300 different tree species can be desert daily extremes of hot and cold, some have no plant life; others
found in one hectare of rain forest. This minimal rain (no more than have cacti, sedges
roughly equals the number of tree 25 cm/year)
species found in all of Canada! The tropical rain warm year-round, high rainfall largest variety of plant life of any
diversity of animal life in the rain forest forest (200–400 cm/year) biome, deciduous evergreen
is a direct result of the rich plant life. trees
Ecological Succession
In any given area, whether in the far sequence of changes that resulted in a
north or at the equator, plant diversity stable, unchanging plant community
can change over time. Ecological known as a climax community. Many
succession is the process whereby a communities, however, do not follow a
community of plants in an area gradu- predictable sequence of changes. For ex-
ally changes over time. Along with each ample, some grassland communities, if
change in the plant life during succes- left undisturbed, remain as grassland
sion, the animal community changes whereas others become forests over
with it. The disturbances that promote time. Communities routinely change and
succession are often in the form of fires seldom remain stable indefinitely.
and severe storms. Ecologists used to However, the concept of climax com-
believe that succession was a predictable munity remains contentious.

Primary Succession Thousands of years in the pioneer stage of succession, in-

ago, most of Canada was covered with sects will be the only animal life present.
glaciers. In some areas, the ice was thou- In time, with the gradual forma-
sands of metres deep. The last glacier tion of more soil, vascular plants replace
retreated from Ontario about 10 000 the mosses. Hardy grasses and weeds,
years ago, leaving behind a barren, which do not need much soil, are
rocky landscape. Now vast forests stand the first to grow. As the plant commu-
on many of the areas that were once nity changes so does the animal
covered by the glaciers. Most of south- community. Animals such as mice and
ern Ontario’s forests were cleared for other small rodents, insects such as
agricultural land in the 1800s. The pro- grasshoppers, and birds such as spar-
cess of changing from bare rock to an rows, can be found in the grass stage of
area with a dominant form of vegetation succession. As even more soil is formed,
is called primary succession. Primary the grasses are gradually replaced by
succession only occurs in an area where larger plants such as shrubs.
no previous community existed. The With each change in the plant life in
barren, rocky land left behind by the succession, the soil and other environ-
retreating glacier develops into a mature mental conditions in the area also
forest over thousands of years. Figure change. For example, once the seeds of
15.5 illustrates primary succession in shrubs germinate and grow in an area
northern Ontario. where previously only grasses grew, the
Lichens (Figure 15.4) are the first mature shrubs block the light reaching
organisms to grow in a barren land- the grasses. The area has been altered
scape. Lichens can grow directly on so that the grasses can no longer sur-
rocks without the presence of soil. They vive. The shrubs create too much shade
are called pioneer species because they for grasses to grow. The presence of
are the first organisms to grow in the shrubs, in turn, creates ideal growth
area. Soil develops gradually as organic conditions for seedlings of certain trees.
matter accumulates from the decom- The trees will eventually take over and
posed remains of lichens. Mosses, which eliminate the shrubs by blocking out the
require minimal soil, start to grow and sunlight that the shrubs need. The ani-
gradually replace the lichens. Mosses se- mals that were found in the previous
crete an acid that accelerates the break- stages of succession move on and are
down of rock into smaller particles. replaced by forest dwellers such as
Organic matter, from dead and decaying squirrels. Subject to the influence of
plants, contributes to the build-up of periodic disturbances, a long-standing
humus, an important component of soil. community such as a forest may develop
At this stage, there is little plant diver- over a lengthy time period.
sity. Because plants provide food and Each land biome is characterized by
habitat for animals, low plant diversity a dominant form of plant life, which is
means low animal diversity. Generally, primarily determined by the climate.
In succession in northern Ontario, the
resulting dominant plant life is usually
a coniferous forest (Figure 15.6a). In
southern Ontario, which has a more
moderate climate, the deciduous forest
Image omitted due to copyright (Figure 15.6b) dominates. In the tundra,
restrictions. lichens and mosses may be the domi-
nant plants in some regions, while
shrubs may dominate in others (Figure
FIGURE 15.4 Lichens are 15.6c).
the first species to appear in
primary succession.

Coniferous trees dominate.
Deciduous trees crowd out shrubs and grasses.
Shrubs appear.
Soil forms; grasses grow.
Mosses grow.
Lichens cover rocks.
Bare rock
FIGURE 15.5 A common succession in a boreal forest biome. These stages overlap one
another as succession progresses.


FIGURE 15.6 Three Ontario biomes
a) Coniferous forest b) Deciduous forest c) Tundra
Discovering Biology Looking into the Future

Observe the playing field in Figure 15.7. List the plant types that might be grow-
ing there. Suppose the playing field is abandoned: no one plays on it and no one
cuts, feeds, or weeds the grass.
■ Predict the plants you might find after 10 years.

■ Predict which plant types might be growing there after 100 years.
FIGURE 15.7 A playing field in southern Ontario
Secondary Succession When an existing mation of a mature forest in about a

natural community, such as a forest, is hundred years.
disturbed by a natural or human-made Secondary succession may occur in
disaster, secondary succession occurs. a vacant city lot. If grass is not cut,
For example, secondary succession com- weeds soon take over, followed by
monly occurs after a forest fire. After all shrubs, and then trees. It also may occur
the surface plant life has been destroyed after farmland is abandoned. A corn-
by fire, new plants start to grow in a rel- field, for example, if left unattended over
atively short time because soil is present. a long period of time, may revert back
Secondary succession can lead to the for- to the forest that it originally was.

TABLE 15.2 Differences between Primary Succession and Secondary Succession
Primary Succession Secondary Succession
Occurs in areas where no previous plant Occurs in areas where plant life was disrupted
life existed or destroyed
Begins with pioneer, spore-producing plants Usually begins with vascular seed-producing
plants
Occurs gradually over thousands of years Occurs more rapidly (within several hundred
years)
Succession and Biodiversity

Each stage of succession changes the en-
vironment. The types of plants growing
in an area determine soil moisture and
composition, the amount of light reach- Image omitted due to copyright
ing the ground, and the humidity near restrictions.
the ground. The plants provide habitat
for animals, fungi, and micro-organisms.
The number and types of plants, in turn,
determine the number and types of other
organisms that live in the area. FIGURE 15.8 Deer feeding on shrubs. Deer do
In a coniferous forest, there may be not thrive in a coniferous forest.
only a few species of trees with slightly
more shrubs and herb species. After a for-
est fire or the harvesting of a section of After commercial logging, however,
forest, biodiversity generally increases the natural secondary succession that
during the resulting secondary succession. follows may be altered by timber man-
Plant species that could not live in the agement authorities because the species
shade of the forest, such as grasses and of trees that arise naturally may not be
goldenrods, thrive in the open “disturbed” the ones the forest company wants to
area created after the trees are removed. harvest. In some cases, herbicides are
While some animal species may decline applied to an area that has been logged
due to the lack of trees, a variety of new to control which plant types grow, to
animal species will move into this area reduce the succession time, and to
because of the increased food supply of improve the growth prospects for the
grasses and other small plants. more commercially desirable trees. In
As the shrub stage of succession such cases, the normal course of succes-
develops, new animals arrive to feed on sion, and the resulting increase in
these new plant species. For example, biodiversity, is disrupted through human
the white-tailed deer population in intervention.
Canada has increased as a result of the The creation of nature and forest
succession occurring after the logging of preserves is a way to maintain biodi-
sections of mature forests. Deer feed on versity. Most countries have set aside
the woody stems and shrubs found in portions of natural areas to help pre-
the shrub stage of succession. serve plant and animal life. One of the
There is a more abundant food sup- goals of Canada’s forest managers, as
ply for the deer in this area than in the adopted in 1996 and approved by the
nearby mature forest. The rabbit and Standards Council of Canada, is to
grouse populations also increase during ensure that both plant and animal
this stage of a succession. diversity is maintained.

Section 15.1 Review

Understanding Concepts Ontario. Explain this observation in
terms of the squirrels’ habitat.
1. In your own words, describe the role
of plants in the maintenance of diver-
sity in ecosystems. Making Connections
2. Define the term ecological succession. 7. Research careers in forestry. What
3. Explain the differences between pri- kinds of decisions are people who work
mary and secondary succession. in forest management making each day
4. In a flow chart, illustrate the stages of about the environment?
succession in a boreal forest. 8. What kinds of information does a
5. Explain the effect of secondary suc- forester need to consider in manag-
cession on biodiversity. ing forests to ensure sustainable yields?
6. Grey squirrels are common in south-
ern Ontario. However, they are not
found at all in the tundra of northern
15.2 Plants in Agriculture

Key Understandings
When you have completed this section you, will be able to:
describe how certain food technologies work
identify factors that cause trade-offs in the development of food technologies
describe how society supports and influences plant technology
express opinions about plant research funding
describe and evaluate technologies related to plants
Humans have been cultivating plants for managed. In fact, only about three per-
thousands of years. In fact, there is ev- cent of Earth’s surface is suitable for food
idence that a type of corn was grown production.
in Mexico over 7000 years ago (Figure In Canada, less than two percent
15.9). Every major variety of plant used of the population supplies the rest of the
for food has been grown for over 2000 country with its food. Farmers must
years. Angiosperms, known as the seed grow increasingly large quantities of high
producers, have been and continue to quality crops at reasonable prices, while
be the major group of plants used for at the same time they must be sensitive
food. Of the 250 000 known species of to environmental concerns, such as
angiosperms, only about 30 species pro- preserving soil quality and minimizing
vide most of the world’s plant food sup- agricultural pollution. Farmers, like
ply. The world’s ever-increasing others in society, have turned to science
population is dependent on how well and technology for help.
land available for food production is


restrictions.
FIGURE 15.10 Wheat field. Canada produces

roughly 25 billion tonnes of wheat each year.
Fifteen percent of Canada’s 293 000 farms are
wheat farms, and wheat contributes $2.5 billion
to Canada’s gross domestic product.
Plants can sometimes be eaten just INFOBIT

as they grow, but many plants or parts
of plants are processed into a variety Chili peppers owe their unique
of different food products. For example, taste to a chemical called
wheat seeds are ground to make flour, capsaicin. Humans taste
chemicals by means of
FIGURE 15.9 This drawing of wild corn is which is used to make bread. Soybeans specialized nerve endings in
based on archaeological samples. are processed to make tofu, soy sauce, the taste buds. Capsaicin,
vegetable protein (used in vegetarian hot however, does not stimulate
dogs and burgers), and soy “milk.” taste buds; it stimulates pain
Edible oils come mainly from the receptors on the tongue and in
the mouth! This may explain
Food Plants soybean, canola seed, corn seed, and why many people cannot
olive fruit. A key ingredient of chocolate, tolerate too much of the spice.
Everything we eat comes directly or
a fat, is produced from the seeds of the
indirectly from plants. Fruits and
cacao plant. Spices are derived from
vegetables obviously come from plants,
sources such as the pepper fruit, cin-
and meat and dairy products come from
namon bark, mustard seed, and ginger
animals that feed on grain or grass.
root. Herbs such as parsley, sage, and
The edible parts of plants can be
thyme leaves and garlic root are culti-
grouped into three broad categories:
vated and used to add to the taste of
parts that grow underground, such as
foods. The world’s supply of sugar comes
potatoes and carrots; parts that grow
from two main sources: the cane plant
above ground, such as lettuce; and,
stem and the root of the sugar beet.
lastly, the seeds and fruits of plants. This
Although most people think that honey
last category is the most significant as a
comes from bees, the bees actually
food source because seeds are high in Investigation
process plant nectar from flowers to
carbohydrates and protein. The cereals, Refer to page 523,
create the honey that is processed for Investigation 1
or grains, provide most of the food sup-
human use.
ply for the world. This group includes
rice, wheat, corn, oats, and barley.
Legumes, a group of specialized fruit-
producing plants, are also a major
source of food. They are the second most
important group of food-producing Image omitted due to copyright
plants after the cereals. Included in this restrictions.
important group of plants are many
types of peas and beans, including soy- FIGURE 15.11 Soybeans are
beans, peanuts, and lentils (Figure processed into many different
15.11). food products.

Old Crop,
New Food
The amaranths, a group of grains,

were grown in Mexico during the
time of the Aztecs. At that time, Image omitted due to copyright restrictions.
they were a major food source.
Amaranth, also known as “pig-
weed” and “African spinach,” has
recently been grown experimen-
tally in Canada and the U.S. with
a view to making it an important
food crop again. It produces
protein-rich seeds, which are used
by a few food manufacturers to
make multigrain cereals and flour.
Its vitamin-rich leaves are used as FIGURE 15.12 Amaranths in flower
animal feed and they can be eaten
by humans, for example, like let-
tuce in a salad.
Discovering Biology Squash Varieties
Look at the drawings in Figure 15.13. ■ How do you think these varieties
All these very different looking fruits were created?
come from the genus Cucurbita. ■ With a partner, brainstorm the pro-
However, none of these fruits are found cess of creating different varieties of
in the wild forms of Cucurbita. a plant.
FIGURE 15.13

Increasing Plant
Productivity
As the population increases, farmers are
under pressure to produce as much food goat grasses
as they can. In addition, they have to
produce it as cheaply as possible so that
once the food reaches the market, it’s
affordable to consumers. Farmers and
plant scientists use a variety of tech-
nologies to increase crop yields.
Selective Breeding Variation is common

within a species. In humans, this
variation is obvious. People differ in
height, weight, hair and skin colour,
complexion, and body shape. Humans
also show variation in athletic ability,
resistance to disease, and many other
characteristics. The same is true of
plants. Growers select individual plants
with desirable traits such as high yield
or drought resistance and use these
seeds to plant the next year’s crop. Over
time, all members of the local plant
population begin to show the same
desirable traits. This process is called
selective breeding, and humans have
used it for centuries in the breeding of
both plants and animals.
Wheat has been greatly altered modern bread wheat
through selective breeding. The wild grass
ancestors of modern wheat had fewer de-
FIGURE 15.14 Goat grasses are the wild ancestors of modern bread wheat.
sirable traits than modern wheat. The The traits of modern bread wheat are the product of both selective breeding and
seeds were smaller and there were fewer hybridization.
of them. They had rough, barbed coats;
and they fell off the plant easily. By se-
lecting seeds for the next season’s crop Hybridization As you have learned, grow-
from plants that produced large, numer- ers selectively breed individual plants to
ous, smooth, and firmly attached seeds, create a new plant variety. Plant vari-
wheat has been gradually modified into eties of the same species or very similar
a better crop (Figure 15.14). For exam- species can each have different desir- Image omitted due to
ple, ancient wheat was susceptible to able characteristics. For example, one copyright restrictions.
diseases such as wheat rust, a fungus. variety of wheat may be frost-resistant,
By selecting individual plants that and another may be disease-resistant.
showed greater resistance to wheat rust Plant breeders use hybridization to
than others, crop losses due to this dis- combine the two varieties. They cross-
ease have gradually been reduced. pollinate two varieties, and the “daughter”
FIGURE 15.15 A drawback
Similarly, selective breeding has been plants grown from the resulting seeds of hybrids is that farmers
used with hundreds of plant species to show both desired characteristics. The must purchase seed from a
improve disease resistance and increase hybrid plants are both disease- and seed company each season.
crop yields. frost-resistant.

Cloning Techniques Some plants are the root is called the stock. At the graft
capable of reproducing asexually to site, the cambium of the stock fuses with
create genetically identical copies of the cambium of the scion (Figure 15.17).
themselves. In some species, entire new The grafted plant grows as one
plants can be grown from a single leaf “new” plant. By grafting, a grower can
of a parent plant. turn one good tree into thousands of ge-
This ability of plants is put to use by netically identical copies. Many varieties
farmers and horticulturalists. Sometimes of apples, plums, grapes, and peaches
Image omitted due to an individual plant has such good are produced by grafting.
copyright restrictions. characteristics that farmers or horticul- The first plant in Canada in which
turalists want to make exact copies of it, the technique of grafting was used was
so they reproduce the plant asexually. the Macintosh apple tree. In 1811, in
The resulting plants are clones, or Dundas County in eastern Ontario, an
genetically identical copies, of the parent unusual apple tree was discovered that
plant. The simplest cloning method is to produced an abundant crop of large, red,
take cuttings. A grower cuts off a piece tasty fruit. This tree, named after its dis-
of the plant that includes a stem. A clump coverer, John Macintosh, was an obvi-
of tissue called a callus develops at the ous choice for artificial selection.
cut end, from which a root forms (Figure Thousands of its seeds were saved and
FIGURE 15.16 A cutting. 15.16). When the cutting that has devel- planted, but the offspring were always
This cutting is growing roots
oped roots is planted, it grows into a new a disappointment. These seedlings pro-
from the base of the stem.
plant, genetically identical to the one the duced mostly inferior apples; none were
cutting came from. The new plant is a as good as the parent tree’s apples.
clone of the parent plant. In 1835, the newly developed tech-
Another widely used method to re- nique of grafting was used to attach
produce crops and ornamental plants with scions from the Macintosh tree to other
desired characteristics is grafting. root stocks. Because all the tissues, in-
Grafting can only work if the plants have cluding the fruit, above the graft are
a tissue called cambium. (Cambium is dis- genetically identical to the Macintosh
cussed in section 16.2.) Not all plant types tree, the resulting trees produced the
have it. A bud from a plant with certain desired Macintosh apples. All Macintosh
desired characteristics is attached, or apples sold today come from grafts of
grafted, to the rooted stem or root of an- that original tree.
other plant, which has other desired Modern technology has sped up the
features. The shoot is called the scion, and process of cloning plants. Whole plants

FIGURE 15.17 The grafting process. The stock and scion have been aligned so that the
cambium of each fuse together.

can now be grown in test tubes from tiny

pieces of tissue or even single cells. The
test tubes contain a growth medium con-
taining nutrients and hormones to help
the cells grow and differentiate into
seedlings. These seedlings can then be
transferred to soil. A single plant can be Image omitted due to copyright
restrictions.
cloned into thousands of copies by sub-
dividing the cultured tissue as it grows.
Control of
Agricultural Pests
In addition to increasing yields through
plant breeding techniques, yields can be FIGURE 15.18 Cloning of carrots. Leaves,
stems, and roots are starting to form from a
increased by removing weeds that com-
small amount of tissue that was placed in the
pete with plant crops, as well as by re- Petri dish.
moving insects and other organisms that
feed on the plants. There are different
countries because it is inexpensive yet
methods of doing this.
very effective.
Chemical Control Agricultural pesticides
are chemicals that kill organisms that Biological Control Using natural para-
eat, infect, or compete with crops. sites or predators to control or eliminate
Insecticides kill insects, fungicides kill agricultural pests is called biological
fungi, and herbicides kill certain plants. control. This also includes the use of
Most food crops could not be grown plants selected to keep agricultural pests
successfully without the use of these away from crops. Knowing that certain
chemicals. But pesticides are expensive. plants produce chemicals that have a
Canadian farmers spend more than bad taste or are toxic to insects, farm-
$750 million a year on pesticides. Even ers grow these plants in fields alongside
with extensive use of pesticides, it is es- their crops. Insects are less likely to
timated that over one-third of the world’s destroy a crop if there are plants nearby
crops are still destroyed by pests. that they avoid.
Unfortunately, most chemical pesticides Natural parasites of insect pests are
kill a variety of organisms in addition to used by farmers to reduce the need for
the intended target organism. This can chemical pesticides. Alfalfa is an eco-
have a negative affect on local biodiver- nomically important crop grown widely
sity. These toxic chemicals can remain in Canada and the U.S. mainly as ani-
in the environment and can harm mal feed. It was brought to North
animals and humans. A well-known America from the Middle East and Asia.
example of a toxic chemical is DDT, Not long after alfalfa became a common
Image omitted
which is a very effective pesticide and crop in North America, an insect called
due to
was widely used for many years. It was the alfalfa weevil started to eat the copyright
discovered that this chemical did not alfalfa plants. The alfalfa weevil is par- restrictions.
break down and so remained in the ticularly harmful, since both the larvae
environment. It was harmful to many and the adults feed on alfalfa. Since the
animals. In particular, it interfered with plant is a perennial, the weevil has a
reproduction in the peregrine falcon and yearly food supply. The insect is also
pushed the species to the verge of difficult to control with pesticides.
extinction. DDT was banned in Canada To battle the weevil, a species of FIGURE 15.19 Alfalfa
in 1969, but it is still used in developing wasp was introduced into alfalfa fields. weevils

WEBLINK The wasp lays its eggs in the weevil doses of radiation in order to kill harm-
larva, killing it as the wasp larvae feed ful insects, fungi, and bacteria.
Today, farmers use a system and develop. The weevil population was Irradiation also slows the ripening of
known as integrated pest controlled by the wasps. Farmers also certain fruits and vegetables, thus in-
management (IPM) to combat
insect and fungal pests. allow weeds to grow in the fields with creasing their storage life. The foods
Research how IPM works and the alfalfa because they provide nectar are exposed to radioactive cobalt and
what sort of biology knowledge for the adult wasps. By encouraging a cesium, which emit highly energized
farmers need. Prepare a natural parasite population to become particles. These radioactive emissions
brief written report on IPM. established, alfalfa farmers have damage the DNA of the organisms liv-
Begin your research at
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11. dramatically reduced the need for ing in or on the food, thus killing them.
chemical pesticides to control the alfalfa In Canada, wheat flour is irradiated
weevil. This has reduced the cost of to kill insects, and ground spices are
producing alfalfa. irradiated to kill fungi and bacteria.
Biological controls don’t always Potatoes and onions are irradiated to
have their intended effect. A thorough prevent sprouting.
understanding of the complex relation-
ships between the organisms involved
Genetically Modified
in the biological control of pests is es-
sential. In 1935, the cane or giant toad,
(GM) Plants
native to Central and South America, Whenever plant breeders do selective
was introduced to sugar-cane fields in breeding or hybridization, they are mod-
Australia to control a parasitic beetle. ifying the genetic makeup of the plants
The toads ate some beetles, but also ate to produce the desired characteristics.
bees and other beneficial insects. The With these techniques, breeders manip-
toads eat just about anything they can ulate genes that occur naturally in the
get into their mouths. They also have plant. With the rise of recombinant DNA
no predators in Australia. The cane technology, scientists can now add spe-
toads have now spread to vast areas of cific genes from other plant species, or
Australia. So far, no effective way of even animal species, to a plant. These
getting rid of them has been found. genes will produce a desired charac-
teristic in the new plant.
Food Irradiation A technology used to
preserve food is food irradiation. Fruits,
vegetables, and grains are examples of
foods that are subjected to measured
FIGURE 15.21 Pesticides being applied to a

farmer’s field. Pesticides protect against crop
FIGURE 15.20 Onions and potatoes are losses, but are costly to use and may have
irradiated to stop them from sprouting. environmental and health consequences.

Defining the Issue
Case Study
Canada’s Laws on Justifying the Course of Action
Pesticide Use
The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) recently announced

the introduction of its own “ecological” brand of pro-
duce. Farmers from Ontario, P.E.I., New Brunswick,
and Alberta formed a partnership with the WWF
and agreed to grow apples and potatoes using fewer
pesticides.
This is causing debate among different groups
affected by the farm produce industry. Some envi-
ronmentalists argue that using fewer pesticides in
growing some crops does not mean those crops can
be given an “organic foods” label. The “ecological”
brand misleads the public into believing the food
has had no exposure to harmful chemicals. In re- Image omitted due to copyright restrictions.
ality, pesticides are still present in those foods. Many
consumers also share this view.
Farmers in the agricultural sector want to
continue to use pesticides in growing food crops. It
has been a successful method of preventing de-
struction of crops by insects and disease. If they stop
using pesticides, their livelihoods could be at stake.
Critics of the WWF suggest that the organiza-
tion should be spending its money on educating the
public about the risks of pesticides and lobbying the
government to make changes to the Pest Control
Products Act. They believe public awareness is the
key to changing current practices. As long as pes-
ticides remain legally acceptable, they say, the use FIGURE 15.22 Potato field being sprayed in Prince Edward
of pesticides will not stop. Island. The WWF’s goal is to reduce pesticide use.
Analyzing the Issue

1. In a web diagram, show who the principal stake- 3. The shift to reducing use of pesticides is seen as in-
holders are for this issue, and identify the perspec- sufficient by critics of the WWF. In your opinion, how
tives they may hold. does this affect what the WWF partnership repre-
2. Research organic foods, and identify one widely held sents?
assumption about organic foods that may be 4. Write a Letter to the Editor expressing your personal
challenged by your research and explain why an point of view on the issue. Do additional research to
assumption like this may exist. support your position.

INFOBIT The resulting plant is a transgenic plant in minute quantities in the leaves and
because it contains genes from a com- pollen of the plant. The borer eats the
The first GM crops developed pletely different species. It is also known leaves and dies. Another Bt protein from
in North America were as a genetically modified (GM) plant. a different strain of this bacterium has
tomatoes genetically
engineered to produce less A common method of introducing been placed into a variety of potato
of an enzyme that causes the “new” DNA into a plant cell is by using plant. Bt kills the Colorado potato
fruit to ripen. These tomatoes bacteria called Agrobacterium tumefa- beetle once the insect eats the leaves.
can be stored longer and can ciens. This bacterium causes a tumour The GM potato, called Newleaf™, was
resist spoilage. However, called crown gall disease in some plants. approved for commercial use by
because consumers were wary
of GM foods, these tomatoes In this technique, a non-harmful strain Agriculture Canada in 1997.
did not sell very well. of the bacteria is used. The desired gene Similar to insect resistance, crops
is inserted into the plasmid of the are also being genetically engineered
bacterium using recombinant DNA tech- to resist infection by disease-causing
nology. (See Chapter 12 for details of this viruses, fungi, and bacteria.
process.) The bacteria containing the new Environmental conditions can also
gene infect the plant cell and the gene lower crop yields, or even prevent cer-
gets incorporated. The cell is then grown, tain crops from being grown at all. Some
in culture, and forms into a callus and areas get very little rain, or have very
then into a tiny plant. It is then cloned, saline soil. Research is under way to en-
and these genetically modified plants are gineer drought- and salt-resistant crops
planted as crops. Each plant is identical so that areas previously unusable as
and shows the desired characteristics farmland can be used to grow food.
produced by the introduced gene. Plants have also been genetically en-
GM plants are tested to ensure they gineered to increase their nutritional
will not have any adverse effects on hu- content. For example, Swiss researchers
mans before they are allowed on the have engineered a strain of rice that
marketplace. However, long-term possi- contains beta-carotene, the precursor to
ble effects are unknown. vitamin A. Vitamin A deficiency is a
The main goal of genetically engi- common problem in many developing
neering crop plants is to increase crop countries. Similar research is under way
yields to meet the nutritional demands
of a steadily growing population. This
goal can be met in a number of ways,
for example, by engineering crops that
will not be affected by weed killers.
A major problem for farmers has always
been to control weeds that compete with,
and sometimes destroy, crops. The cost
of growing crops, and thus the cost of restrictions.
food to consumers, could be reduced if
fewer herbicides had to be used.
Other genetically modified crops
have been engineered to make them
insect-resistant. Two examples of such
plants grown in Canada are corn and
potatoes. A certain variety of corn that
is susceptible to an insect called the
European core borer has been geneti- FIGURE 15.23 In 1999, scientists at the
cally modified so that it now contains a University of Victoria created a genetically
modified potato plant that is resistant to both
gene from a bacterium, B. thuringiensis
bacteria and fungi. However, in late 2000,
(Bt). This gene produces a protein that consumer demand for GM potatoes was so low
kills the insect. The protein is found only that few farmers were planting them.

to produce an iron-rich rice. Also, plants, canola and potatoes. Since 1996, the
such as alfalfa, could be engineered to global number of hectares of GM crops
produce more protein. The animals that has risen from 1.7 million hectares in
eat the alfalfa, such as sheep, obtain 1996 to 41.2 million hectares in 2000—
an increased amount of protein in their a 25-fold increase.
diet as a result. However, those plant va- In spite of the potential of GM crops,
rieties that produce more protein require this technology remains controversial.
large amounts of nitrogen compounds Many people have concerns about the
in the soil. Therefore they require ad- safety of these plants and the impact
ditional fertilizer. they might have on the environment and
Nitrogen compounds must normally on human health. The potential benefits
be added to the soil in the form of fer- of using GM crops may or may not out-
tilizers. Legumes, such as beans, peas, weigh the risks. Farmers and scientists
and alfalfa are able to convert atmo- are not the only ones who need to
spheric nitrogen into nitrogen be aware of the risks and benefits.
compounds the plants are able to use. An informed public is essential to make
They do this by means of nitrogen-fix- certain that governments make the
ing bacteria in their roots. A major ef- best choices for society and for the
fort is being made to genetically alter the environment.
ability of these bacteria to fix more ni-
trogen so that less fertilizer is required 100
for the high-protein producing legumes.
Efforts are also being made to develop
nitrogen-fixing bacteria that can live in 80
the tissues of plants other than legumes,
Total GM crops (%)
thus reducing the need for fertilizers for

60
these plants. Scientists are also trying to
develop plants that can fix atmospheric
nitrogen themselves without the need for 40
the specialized symbiotic bacteria.
Most of these applications of
20
genetic engineering are either in the
research stage, or in very limited use.
Most of the GM crops currently grown are 0
herbicide insect herbicide & pest
either herbicide- or insect-resistant resistance resistance resistance
(Figure 15.24). Currently, Canada pro-
duces seven percent of the world’s GM FIGURE 15.24 Traits of GM crops as of 2000
crops. GM soybeans and corn are the Source: International Service for the Acquisition of
most commonly grown, followed by Agri-biotech Applications
introduced. Some of these food prod- as “a food that is derived from a plant,
ucts contain genetically modified animal, or micro-organism that has
plant material or are manufactured been genetically modified such that
using gene modification techniques. … the plant … exhibits characteristics
New Food or If the food product contains GM plant that were not previously observed in
Novel Food? matter, it is known as a novel food. that plant …” Usually, one or two
There are over 40 such foods cur- novel genes have been added to the
New food products appear on the rently on the market in Canada. Two plant. One codes for the desired trait
grocer’s shelf every year. New break- examples are foods containing pro- and the other acts as a marker so that
fast cereals, snack foods, soft drinks, tein from GM corn and GM potatoes. scientists can readily identify these
and a host of other products are Health Canada defines a novel food genetically modified plants.

Preserving Old Plant

Varieties
Once a plant has been developed with
desirable characteristics, it is planted in
large numbers. The growing of one va-
riety of a crop in a large area is known
as monoculture (Figure 15.25). Although Image omitted due to copyright restrictions.
the plants may be highly resistant to
drought, or may all bear fruit at the
same time, for example, there are draw-
backs. Planting a single variety of crop
may prove disastrous because these ge-
netically identical plants may not be able
to resist a particular fungal or bacterial
disease. In this situation, an entire crop
could be wiped out. In 1846, the entire FIGURE 15.26 Seeds of many varieties of
wheat (Triticum sp.), some close to extinction,
potato crop in Ireland was wiped out by
are kept in cold storage in this seed bank for
a mould (blight). The potato variety de- future use.
stroyed by this fungus had been selected
as the most desirable after hundreds of
years of cultivating potatoes. Nearly 10 available, then a disease-resistant vari-
percent of the Irish population died as a ety could be grown after the disaster.
result of the potato famine. Also, wild relatives of crop plants often
Around the world, agricultural seeds are an excellent source of resistance
of all varieties are stored in seed banks when new or stronger strains of diseases
(Figure 15.26). Seeds of both cultivated appear. If a plant variety were to become
and wild varieties are stored. These seed extinct, scientists could then re-intro-
banks are important for several reasons. duce the plant using the stored seeds.
First, the genes of a large number of va- Finally, seeds of plants no longer in agri-
rieties of an agricultural plant must be cultural use will be available for research
saved in case disasters like the Irish purposes. With new technologies, sci-
potato blight were to wipe out a crop. entists may be able to develop improved
If a number of varieties of the plant are varieties from the stored seeds.
FIGURE 15.25 A monoculture of corn. Monocultures are risky because if the variety that has
been planted cannot resist a certain disease, the whole crop can be wiped out.

Plant Technology Trade-offs Farmers have to decide which vari-

eties of crops to grow. If a farmer grows
Many factors affect the development and
a variety that produces tomatoes that
use of plant technologies. One of these
are very tasty but bruise easily, the su-
is the cost of developing the technol-
permarket might not buy them. To avoid
ogy. The cost is reflected in the price of
this risk, the farmer might decide to
the product. For example, when a
grow a hardier but less flavourful vari-
biotech company develops a GM crop,
ety to be certain of selling his or her
they have to consider whether the cost
crop.
of the end product is reasonable.
Finally, consumer preferences also
There are also safety factors to
determine what plant technologies are
consider when developing a new plant
developed and used. For example, con-
technology. For example, a proposal to
sumers want the cheapest food possible,
genetically engineer a brazil nut gene into
but they also want food that looks and
a soybean plant was abandoned because
tastes good. They might also be con-
of the possible effects on people with nut
cerned about the environment, and may
allergies. It was thought that the poten-
prefer more costly organic foods.
tial health risks outweighed the benefits.
Section 15.2 Review

Understanding Concepts 9. With the known dangers of DDT, why
would this pesticide still be in wide use
1. Name two groups of plants that pro- in developing countries?
vide major sources of food for humans.
10. Genetically modified foods continue to
2. In your own words, define be controversial. What impact does this
a) selective breeding issue have on the traditional farmer in
b) hybridization society?
c) cloning
11. How have farming careers changed
3. In a chart, compare two plant tech- with the increasing uses of biotech-
nologies and indicate the advantages nology?
and disadvantages to using each one.
12. Explain why it is important to society
4. Outline the potential risks and benefits that farmers have techniques for in-
of developing genetically modified creasing plant yields.
crops.
13. Should money be spent on improving
5. How might scientists safeguard against organic farming techniques or should it
potential problems associated with be spent on developing GM plants?
growing one variety of GM crops? Research organic farming and GM crops
6. Create a web to show the different and list the positive and negative effects
components of food plants and the of each on producers and consumers,
products that are developed from them. on the environment, and on society as
7. In a field of corn, all the plants on some a whole. Based on your research, eval-
rows are growing healthy corn cobs. uate the relative merits of funding
All the plants in other rows have been research in each area.
eaten by insects. Propose a possible 14. Explain why vegetable producers might
explanation for these observations. prefer to grow varieties that don’t spoil
easily over varieties that have better
flavour or nutritional value. Examine
Making Connections
the producers’ choice in terms of cost,
8. Canadian consumers want fresh environmental impact, and consumers’
produce year round at affordable preferences.
prices. In what ways does this
influence plant science and technology?

15.3 Plants in Industry

Key Understandings
When you have completed this section you will be able to:
identify products made from plant fibres, plant extracts, and wood pulp
describe and explain some of the food and industrial processes that depend on plants
describe and explain some of the uses of plant extracts in food products
In addition to supplying heterotrophic largest supplier of newsprint to coun-

organisms with their food supply, plants tries around the world. The Canadian
are used by humans to create a vast pulp and paper industry is the largest
array of important products (Figure employer in the country. Over 250 000
15.27). Trees are the source of wood for people work directly in the industry.
building a variety of items, from musi- Indirect employment in the pulp and
cal instruments to the frames of houses. paper industry across the country is
Plants also supply us with many other estimated to be about 760 000.
substances including a wide variety of To make paper products from wood,
fibres and chemicals. They also serve as the first step is to make pulp. The bark
a major source of fuel. is removed from the log and the logs are
then ground up into chips. The chips are
either ground even finer, or mixed with
Products from Wood chemicals to separate the individual fi-
The forest products industry is Canada’s bres from one another. The pulp is
leading manufacturing sector. Wood washed and then passed through a
products include lumber, plywood, screen. It is then thickened by removing
newsprint, fine papers, and paperboard water from the pulp mixture. If the pulp
or cardboard. Hardwoods such as maple is to be used to make white paper or di-
and oak are used to make furniture, apers, the pulp is bleached.
flooring, mouldings, cabinets, plywood, To make paper from pulp, water is
and charcoal, as well as products rang- added so that the individual fibres be-
ing from sponges to baseball bats. come separated and saturated with water.
Softwoods such as pine and cedar This mixture is then filtered through a
are used to make paper and paper prod- screen, and the substance left on the
ucts because their cellulose fibres are screen forms a matted sheet of cellulose
longer than hardwood. Longer fibres add fibre. This sheet is passed through a roller
strength to the paper. to squeeze out the water. The resulting
In 1999, over 30 billion tonnes of sheet of paper is then left to dry. Canada
paper and cardboard products were produces a variety of paper products from
produced in Canada. Canada is the writing paper to facial tissue.
Discovering Biology A Closer Look at Paper

In this activity, you will be investigating paper fibres. Obtain several samples
of paper from your teacher. Set up a dissecting microscope at 50 X or 60 X
magnification.
■ Observe each of the samples using sub-stage illumination.
■ Describe any differences you see in the fibres of each of the paper samples.
■ Form conclusions as to whether there is a relationship between the structure
of paper and its use. Explain your reasoning.

cork oak tree

(bulletin board)
balsam fir
(particle board)
cotton plant
(T-shirt)
rubber tree
(eraser)
FIGURE 15.27 We use a variety of plant products in our daily lives. flax plant
(linen pants)
oil contains a mixture of plant chem- Plant sterols are complex molecules
icals. Traditionally, chemicals in tall found naturally in many plants. The
oil have been used to manufacture drug, known as Phytrol TM is being
soaps, paints, and lubricants. used as an ingredient of food prod-
A New Use for Recently, a Canadian company has ucts such as cereal, soy beverages,
found a new use for some of these and milk. The drug has been shown
Wood Pulp chemicals. They have extracted a to reduce the levels of “bad” choles-
group of chemicals called phytosterols terol. High cholesterol levels are
(plant sterols) from the tall oil and associated with heart disease and
In the pulp manufacturing process, a used them to create a drug that low- circulatory problems.
frothy layer called tall oil forms. Tall ers cholesterol levels in humans.

WEBLINK Products from Plant Fibres Oils from olives, coconuts, yuccas,
jojoba, among others, are used to make
Most fabrics are made from plant fibres.
For centuries, the hemp plant, soaps, shampoos, and skin softeners.
Cannibis sativa, has been Cotton, used for fabrics for centuries,
The other ingredients mixed in with
grown because it can be used is just one of the important fibres de-
these oils affect the type of end product.
to make many useful products. rived from plants. Other plants used
However, with the rise of the For example, olive oil is used to make
for fibres include flax, used to make
illegal cannabis use, the soap, shampoo, moisturizer, or bath oil.
linen; jute and sisal, used to make rope;
cultivation of hemp has been Linseed oil is extracted from the seeds of
outlawed. Investigate the legal and kapok, used as a filling in mattresses
the flax plant. It is a popular finish for
cultivation and use of low-THC and upholstered furniture. Cellulose fi-
furniture because it gives dry wood a
hemp. Look at hemp production bres, mainly from cotton and wood, are
in terms of ease of cultivation, pleasing colour and protects it against
used in countless products, from the
cost to cultivate it, and possible moisture damage.
kitchen “sponge” to the film in your cam-
legal and societal implications.
Create a P-M-I chart to record era. Cellulose is also used to manufac-
the pluses and minuses of ture rayon, a fibre that is woven into
hemp cultivation. Begin your fabric used in clothing.
research at
Plant Extracts
A plant extract is any substance that is
produced by processing a plant or part
Investigation of a plant. Cooking oils are extracts from
Refer to page 524, seeds such as sunflower, safflower, corn,
Investigation 2 olive, and canola. Seed oils are used in
. the production of processed foods such
as margarine, ice cream, peanut butter,
and salad dressings. Most seed oils are
unsaturated and are liquid at room tem-
perature. Interestingly, oils such as canola
and corn oils have to be hydrogenated in FIGURE 15.29 Linseed oil is added to oil-based
order to be used as an ingredient in mar- paints to give them a good consistency and to
increase the gloss of the paint.
garine. Hydrogenation makes them more
solid at room temperature, which makes
the margarine solid enough to spread.
However, hydrogenated oils may be less Seed oils have a variety of other in-
healthy than unsaturated oils. dustrial uses. Many paint bases, some
lubricants, and even the oil for high-pow-
ered microscope objectives all come from
seeds. Castor bean oil, which is extracted
from seeds of the castor bean plant,
has long been known for its ability to
withstand high temperatures and pres-
sures, and is used in hydraulic systems
Image omitted due to copyright in industrial machinery. The oil is also
restrictions. used as an ingredient in motor oils
(Figure 15.28) for high-performance au-
tomobile engines. It clings to the very hot
moving metal parts and protects them
from the harmful effects of friction.
Essential oils are extracted from the
flowers of plants such as jasmine, lilac,
and the rose, and used in the manufac-
FIGURE 15.28 Castor bean oil is an ingredient
ture of perfumes. The formulas for
of some motor oils.

perfumes are carefully guarded by

manufacturers.
Rubber is manufactured from the
milky liquid called latex, which is pro-
duced from several types of rubber trees.
Rubber trees are tropical plants grown
in South America and Southeast Asia.
Once collected, excess water in the Image omitted due to copyright
restrictions.
latex is removed by evaporation and crude
rubber is left. Crude rubber tends to melt
or become brittle in extreme temperatures
so it has to be vulcanized. In the vulcan-
ization process, sulfur and carbon are
added to the rubber. Once vulcanized rub-
ber is much more pliable, it can be used
to make a variety of products such as bi-
cycle inner tubes and tires. FIGURE 15.31 Latex from a rubber tree is
Plants have supplied the raw mate- collected by cutting small slits in the bark of the
tree.
rials for dyes used on fabrics over the
centuries. Roots, berries, flowers, and
wood are all sources of dye. One of the of dye for decorating the human body. INFOBIT
oldest known sources of dye is a group In India, it is called mehndi, and in a tra-
of tropical shrub-like plants commonly ditional wedding ceremony, the bride The ancient Greeks and
usually has her hands and feet covered Romans used olive oil as a
called indigo plants. The plant was used
soap. They rubbed oil on
in ancient Egypt, Rome, and India to dye with beautiful henna designs (Figure their skin to loosen natural
fabrics various shades of blue. The 15.32). The plant, also called Egyptian secretions and dirt. This dirty
chemical indican, produced by the plant, privet, is native to North Africa and oil was scraped off, leaving
reacts with oxygen in the air to produce India, and can grow to heights of six the skin soft and clean, but oily
metres. Orange, red, or brown dye is by our modern standards. The
the intense blue colour.
olive scent was undoubtedly
The henna plant has been used extracted from its crushed leaves. Henna preferable to the odour of an
since ancient Egyptian times as a source is also used for colouring hair. unwashed body.

FIGURE 15.30 The manufacture of perfumes FIGURE 15.32 Hands decorated with henna.
depends on plant extracts. The dye usually wears off after several weeks.

INFOBIT Plant protein, which is found mainly warmth. In many developing nations,
in the seeds of plants, is used to manu- wood and charcoal are still the pri-
What do tapioca and nail facture food products such as tofu. The mary fuel sources.
polish remover have in soya bean is high in protein and is used In industrialized countries, plants
common? They are made from
substances produced by the
extensively in meatless products such are the major energy source. Coal, oil,
cassava plant. Acetone, the as vegetarian burgers and soy hot dogs. and natural gas are all combustible ma-
solvent in nail polish remover Products such as these are important terials that are produced from ancient,
and many other industrial sources of protein for vegetarians. fossilized plants. These important fuel
chemicals, is obtained from A recently developed snack food that sources are used around the world
fermenting parts of the cassava
plant. Tapioca comes from
looks like peanuts but is made from soya for heating, transportation, many in-
starch in the roots. beans, can be enjoyed by people with an dustrial processes, and the generation
allergy to peanut products. Soy drink or of electricity.
soy “milk” is a common substitute for As oil and gas resources become
cow’s milk for people who are lactose scarcer and more expensive, we turn to
intolerant. plants to find new ways to supply fuels
for energy, especially for transportation.
Gasohol is a fuel made by combining
Energy from Plants
gasoline with ethanol. Ethanol is formed
Until the industrial revolution, wood was by the fermentation of wastes from crops
the major source of fuel for cooking and such as corn and potatoes. Gasohol re-
duces the dependence on petroleum but
also reduces the number of pollutants
produced by the automobile engine.
Currently, gasohol can contain only about
10 percent ethanol. Higher ethanol
content can damage some components
Image omitted due to copyright of the engine. Gasohol is also expensive
restrictions. to produce. Until cheaper production
FIGURE 15.33 Average methods are developed, gasohol will not
global fuelwood production is become as common a fuel as was
roughly 1.7 million cubic originally hoped. Currently, 250 million
metres. This wood is used for
cooking, heating, and power
litres are sold in Canada each year. In
production. Canada produces Ontario, there are 520 gas stations that
roughly 5000 cubic metres. sell gasohol.
Section 15.3 Review

Understanding Concepts provide the vast majority of all sources
of energy used by society?
1. What is the most important industry in
Canada that uses plants?
2. In a flow chart, illustrate the process Making Connections
of making paper. 6. What are the advantages and disad-
3. Vanilla is a common extract found in vantages of using gasohol?
the kitchen. In your own words, ex- 7. Based on the importance of plants to
plain what a plant extract is. List two the well-being of society, what actions
different types of extracts that are used could industry take to ensure biologi-
in the food industry. cal diversity?
4. Explain some of the ways that food and 8. Research careers directly and indirectly
industrial processes depend on plants. affiliated with the logging industry.
5. Why can it be said that plants Record your findings in a concept map.

15.4 Plants in Medicine

Key Understandings
When you have completed this section you will be able to:
describe some of the uses of plant extracts in therapeutic products
compile information about chemicals derived from plants
Plants produce thousands of chemical the Shanidar Cave, along with pollen
substances. Most of these chemicals have from prehistoric plants that lived an es-
nothing to do with the plant’s most timated 60 000 years ago. The pollen of
important process, photosynthesis. seven flowering plants was found in clus-
Because plants cannot move, they have ters, leading scientists to believe that the
developed adaptations to ensure that flowers were arranged in a wreath worn
sexual reproduction takes place. Plants, by a prehistoric man or woman who was
for example, lure bees to flowers by sick. The pollen was identified, and it
producing chemicals in nectar. The turns out that each of the flowering Image omitted due to
chemicals produced also protect the plants from the cluster is used today for copyright restrictions.
plants from animals and a host of medicinal purposes. One of the plants
parasites. For example, mustard plants was a hollyhock, which is a common
produce a number of chemicals with Ontario garden plant. It has been used
strong odours that deter most insects over the centuries as a herbal remedy
from eating them. Humans discovered for its pain-killing properties.
therapeutic uses of plants thousands of years Over 5000 years ago, the Sumerians
ago and have been using plants and their recorded the use of plants for healing
extracts for these purposees ever since. purposes. There are also many refer-
ences to the medicinal use of plants in
FIGURE 15.35 The cover of
the Bible. One of the oldest records of
Plants in Medicine in the Past Herball.
the medicinal use of plants comes from
The earliest evidence of plant use in China. Around 2800 B.C., a list of hun-
medicine was found in Iraq in the 1950s. dreds of medicinal plants was compiled,
Neanderthal remains were found in many of which are still in use. A com-
prehensive list of herbal remedies, made
in 200 B.C., documents thousands of
years of use in China. Doctors tested
plant remedies on commoners who
showed similar symptoms to the sick
emperor. If the remedy cured the com-
Image omitted due moner, it was given to the emperor. The
to copyright symptoms and appropriate herbal treat-
restrictions. ments were then recorded. There are
over a thousand plant drugs still used by
doctors in China today. The last 30 years
have seen a much greater interest in
North America in ancient Chinese herbal
medicines.
In 1597, the book Herball, published
in England, listed the medicinal uses of
FIGURE 15.34 A page from the 13th-century
Arabic manuscript Treatise of the Theriac, hundreds of plants (Figure 15.35). One
showing six herbs used to make theriacs, of the treatments in this book was for
antidotes to poisons. disorders of the “inward parts” of the

body, including the liver. A remedy using the world noticed an increase in resis-
the leaves of the foxglove plant (Figure tance of the parasite to these drugs. New
15.36) was prescribed. It was eventually drugs had to be developed. A relatively
discovered that the powerful heart drug, new drug that is now used to combat
digitalis, is produced by this plant. some of the resistant forms of malaria
In the late sixteenth century, during is called mefloquine. Unfortunately, it has
Image omitted
the Spanish conquest of Peru, the serious side effects in some people.
due to
Spaniards discovered that the native For centuries, a mixture contain-
copyright
restrictions. Peruvians used the bark of a tree known ing the leaves of the white willow tree
as the “fever tree” to treat the mosquito- had been used as a remedy for all types
borne disease, malaria. Several hundred of pain. It was eventually discovered that
years later, the chemical quinine was iso- the bark of the willow tree produces the
lated from the bark of the yellowbark chemical, salicylic acid. Another small
cinchona plant, the “fever tree.” The plant called queen of the meadow also
drug was used for many years as a ther- produces this chemical. At the end of the
FIGURE 15.36 Foxglove
apeutic product to prevent and cure this nineteenth century, German scientists
plants deadly disease. had isolated and finally prepared the ac-
tive pain-killing substance, acetylsalicylic
acid (ASA), which they named Aspirin.
ASA is probably the most familiar drug
in the world.
Medicinal Chemicals
from Plants
The medicinal value of plants is due to
chemicals found in the leaves, stems,
roots, seeds, flowers, fruits, bark, or
wood. The sugars that plants produce
through photosynthesis are converted by
the plant to many other substances. So
far, over 10 000 different plant chemicals
have been identified. The function of large
numbers of these substances is still un-
known.
Plant chemicals can have stimulat-
ing, soothing, or relaxing effects, or even
kill invading micro-organisms. Practically
FIGURE 15.37 A small Today, malaria still affects close to all of the drugs considered as “recre-
section of a fresco in Mexico 500 million people and kills over two ational” come from plants. These include
City’s Hospital de la Raza, caffeine, nicotine, the chemicals in choco-
million people a year. Because the
showing an Aztec healer and
Anopheles mosquito lives in the tropics, late, and marijuana. One-quarter of all
some of the medicinal plants
the Aztecs used. Canadians have largely been unaffected prescription drugs used today contain
by the disease. However, with an in- plant-produced chemicals.
crease in travel to tropical countries, the Two of the most important groups
incidence of malaria in this country has of plant chemicals used in medicine are
also increased. the alkaloids and the glycosides. The al-
Quinine was replaced in the 1940s kaloids include drugs such as morphine,
with synthetic forms of the drug. nicotine, cocaine, and quinine. Opium,
Scientists used the molecular structure of the source of the powerful pain killer,
quinine to make these new drugs. In morphine, is obtained from the dried
the 1960s, doctors and scientists around latex of the poppy fruit (Figure 15.38).

Digitalis, a glycoside, is a crude form WEBLINK

of a heart drug from the foxglove plant.
Two other powerful heart drugs, digi- Naturopathic medicines have
become increasingly popular in
toxin and digoxin, are also extracted
recent years. One of the most
from digitalis. These drugs cause a dis- popular is Echinacea. Find out
eased heart to beat more strongly and Image omitted due to copyright
whether there is scientific
restrictions.
with a more regular rhythm. The glyco- evidence to support whether
sides alone have saved thousands of lives Echinacea is effective and
decide whether you would use
over the years.
Echinacea. Write a paragraph
Antioxidants are chemicals that are to support your decision.
believed to help normal animal cells Begin your research at
resist diseases like cancer. Many of these www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
chemicals are produced by plants. Dark- FIGURE 15.38 Seed pods of the poppy plant
green vegetables such as broccoli,
cauliflower, and cabbage, legumes such
as beans, and citrus fruits produce
antioxidants. There is evidence that
people who eat these foods regularly are The Search for
less likely to get cancers of the colon, New Plant Drugs
stomach, and esophagus. Researchers Pharmaceutical companies have been INFOBIT
are currently exploring the possibility putting most of their research efforts into
that these chemicals may also help slow finding drugs produced by bacteria Researchers are testing
the aging process. and fungi. With modern recombinant several varieties of broccoli
The drops that the eye doctor or the DNA techniques, it is relatively inex- to see whether levels of an
antioxidant called sulforaphane
optometrist puts in your eyes to dilate pensive to produce large quantities of differ among the varieties.
your pupils when you have your eyes ex- the type of micro-organisms desired for If sulforaphane levels are
amined contains a drug called atropine. the research and development of new genetically controlled, new
It comes from the belladonna plant. drugs. In order to investigate a plant varieties could be developed
Codeine and antihistamines, found in as a potential drug source, many of the with higher levels of this
antioxidant.
cold remedies, also come from plants. plants are needed. One of the difficulties
Steroids are also produced by plants. In is in obtaining enough plants, especially
fact, a major source of estrogen for the if the plant is rare and grows in an in-
production of birth control pills is the accessible area such as the Amazon
yam. Two powerful drugs have been iso- jungle. It often takes a large quantity of
lated from the rosy periwinkle, a rare plant material to produce a small
plant found in the rain forest of amount of the drug. In the case of the
Madagascar. One is very effective in medicinal chemicals produced by the
treating a form of cancer called rosy periwinkle, about 500 kg of leaves
Hodgkin’s disease, while the other is are required to produce one gram of
used to treat some types of leukemia. each drug. Drug research in plants is not
Therapeutic chemicals extracted from being carried out on a wide scale. It is
plants are generally less expensive to difficult to know which of the 300 000
obtain than chemicals synthesized in species of plants to investigate. All plants
laboratories. Some of the molecules in the produce chemicals. Which ones might
compounds produced by plants are so be useful to humans?
complex that they either cannot be Should scientists investigate all
artificially manufactured, or the cost of plants for drug-producing abilities? Even
making them would be very high. As a if scientists examine plant groups with
result, the cost of the medication for those known medicinal functions, the task is
who need it would be high. huge, since these plants produce

hundreds of blood from coming together to form clots.

chemicals. Even Clots are particularly harmful in patients
plant-derived with advanced heart disease because
drugs that have their narrowed vessels may become com-
been used for pletely blocked. In the last decade, thou-
many years for a sands of people have taken ASA
particular ailment regularly to protect themselves against
could have a bene- a second heart attack or stroke.
Image omitted due to copyright ficial effect on The search for anti-cancer drugs
restrictions. some completely from plants is perhaps more difficult
unrelated disease. than for other drugs. In many cases,
A good example is drugs have been “discovered” that were
the case of ASA. used for centuries by the local inhabi-
ASA has been tants for a particular ailment. The use
used for about 100 of quinine by Peruvians to treat malaria
years as an effec- is a good example. In the case of cancer,
tive pain reliever however, descriptions of the disease in
and to reduce local folklore and traditional medicine
FIGURE 15.39 Though ASA
fever. ASA hinders the production of a are vague.
is an effective pain reliever, it group of hormones called prostaglandins. Because scientists cannot predict
causes stomach irritation in When these hormones are released by which plants will produce useful drugs,
some people. human tissue, they cause fever, pain, and as many plants as possible must be pre-
inflammation. However, in the late served in their natural habitat.
1980s, researchers found that taking Biodiversity must be maintained if
ASA could reduce the chances of some- society hopes to continue using plant
one having a second heart attack or chemicals that nature has provided to
stroke. ASA prevents platelets in the cure diseases.
Section 15.4 Review

1. Give two reasons why plants produce 7. There is a large tract of tropical rain
so many chemicals. forest that farmers want to clear so that
2. Create a web to show the different they can grow food and graze livestock
chemicals that come from plants. to feed their families. However, the
plants in the area have never been sur-
3. In a table, list the chemicals produced
veyed by scientists as possible sources
by plants listed in the text and describe
of life-saving chemicals. Identify the so-
their therapeutic role.
cial groups who have a stake in the
4. Malaria has been a dangerous disease area. Propose a course of action for this
throughout history. Describe how the rain forest and justify your plan by
drugs used to treat malaria have explaining how each group would be
changed over time. affected by it.
5. Research antioxidants and, in a chart, 8. Should plant research be more
record the effects they may have on widespread? In a paragraph, support
disease. your opinion.
Applying Inquiry/
6. Hypothesize why plants have been a
source of medicines through history.

Inquiry Skills

A Test for Protein in Seeds Concluding and Communicating
Problem 6. Place several layers of cheesecloth in a clean funnel

inserted in a clean, labelled test tube. Filter the con-
Seeds supply energy and nutrition. In this investiga- tents of your first sample through the cheesecloth.
tion, you will determine whether various seeds contain
7. Repeat step 6 for each of the remaining samples,
protein.
washing the funnel between samples. Use a
separate test tube and fresh cheesecloth for each
Materials filtration. Discard the cheesecloth and its contents
For each group of students: after each filtration.
dry navy, white, pinto, cheesecloth 8. Adjust the volume of each extract to approximately
or kidney beans* mortar and pestle 5 mL (thumb width).
flax seeds funnel 9. Treat each extract as follows: add 10 drops of 10%
soft wheat kernels 10 20-mL test tubes NaOH and 7 drops of the Biuret reagent. Mix con-
dried, chopped chest- Biuret reagent tents by gently “flicking” the bottom of the test tube
nut “meats”** 10% NaOH while holding the top securely.
gelatin powder filter paper 10. Observe each test tube. Record any colour changes
distilled water balance for each of the samples after the Biuret reagent
has been added.
* beans may require soaking overnight in room-temperature water
before grinding
** chestnut preparation: prior to investigation, remove wall of chest-
nuts, chop into pieces no larger than 5 mm, and dry overnight in a 1. Construct a chart with the following headings:
warming oven Extract, Colour, Colour after Biuret Test.
2. Record your observations for each sample in your
CAUTION: If you have an allergy to nuts, do not do this
chart.
investigation. Biuret reagent is toxic and 10% NaOH is very
corrosive. Avoid contact with skin. Wear eye protection. 3. Interpret each of your observations after testing for
the presence of protein.
Procedure 4. Gelatin powder is pure protein. Explain why it is
used and how it helps you to interpret your ob-
1. Using a mortar and pestle, thoroughly grind a few servations.
pinches of seeds (of the same type) at a time. A
1-g sample of ground seeds is required for each
type of seed. Concluding and Communicating
2. Weigh the ground seeds on filter paper. (Adjust the 5. According to your observations, which seeds con-
balance to compensate for the mass of the paper.) tain protein?
Measure 1 g of ground seeds for each type. Wipe the 6. In what occupations might this information be
mortar thoroughly each time with paper towels be- needed? Explain.
fore grinding the next seed type. It is not necessary
to wash the mortar if you wipe it clean each time.
3. Weigh 1 g of dry gelatin powder. Extending
4. Place each ground-seed sample in a clean, dry, and 7. What other chemical tests could be run on the ex-
labelled 20-mL test tube. Place the gelatin in a fifth tracts of these and other seeds? The testing done
test tube. in this investigation is a qualitative test. Explain
5. Add 10 mL of distilled water to each test tube. Using how another type of test might be more valuable
your thumb as a stopper, shake each one vigorously for testing nutrient contents in seeds.
for 30 s. 8. Find out what percentage of seed mass is protein
for each type of seed.

Inquiry Skills

Eucalyptus Oil and Dust Mites Concluding and Communicating
Dust mites are tiny relatives of spiders and live in car- Decide how you will measure the results of your
pets, bedding, upholstered furniture, and stuffed experiment.
toys. Their diet consists of dead skin cells from humans
and pets. The mites’ droppings are an allergen for many Analyzing and Interpreting
people and can cause sneezing , runny nose, and
asthma. It is very difficult to get rid of these tiny pests. 1. Present your observations in a data table.
Eucalyptus oil is an extract of the eucalyptus tree, 2. How did the concentration of eucalyptus oil affect
a tree native to Australia. Preliminary evidence has your results?
shown that eucalyptus oil may kill dust mites. 3. Prepare a lab report to summarize your findings.
Question Concluding and Communicating

Will eucalyptus oil kill dust mites?
4. Was eucalyptus oil effective in killing dust mites?
5. Would removing dust mites result in increasing
Hypothesis/Prediction other allergens or affect other homebound in-
Develop a hypothesis for your experiment. sects, i.e., affect the food chain in the dust mites’
ecosystem?
Materials 6. Prepare a written lab report to summarize your
dust mites investigation.
cloth
plastic bag
dissecting microscope
Extending
eucalyptus oil 7. Research other possible uses there might be for
plant extracts such as eucalyptus oil.
CAUTION: Students with allergies to dust should not be 8. Could any other plant extract be used on dust mites
involved in collection of the dust. instead of eucalyptus oil? Develop a procedure to
test your idea.
Experimental Design
To begin the experiment, collect dust mites by plac-
ing a smooth, dark-coloured cloth on the floor and
sweeping house dust onto the cloth. After several
days, gently shake off the dust, place the cloth in a
clean plastic bag, and bring it to your science class.
Place the cloth under the microscope and check
for dust mites. Use Figure 15.40 as a guide. Make Image omitted due to copyright restrictions.
sure that you view the cloth at 50 X magnification.
Develop a scientific investigation to show the effects
of eucalyptus oil on dust mites.
Select the variables you can manipulate to test eu-
calyptus oil’s effectiveness in killing dust mites.
Select which variables you will control in your
experiment.
Design a procedure to test the variable you have
selected.
Have the teacher review your experiment before you FIGURE 15.40 House dust mite (magnification 245)
carry out the plan.

Key Terms
biological control ecological succession grafting primary succession

clone (succession) hybridization secondary succession
cutting genetically modified (GM) monoculture selective breeding
15.1 Plants in Nature Although a monoculture allows for high yields of a

Plants supply usable energy to other organisms. desired crop, it is risky because the entire crop could
They also provide habitat. be destroyed by disease or insects.
Increased plant diversity leads to increased ani-
mal diversity. 15.3 Plants in Industry
The diversity of a plant community changes over Many important industrial products are made from
time through the process of succession. plant fibres, extracts, and plant proteins.
Primary succession happens in places where no Industrial processes such as papermaking and tire
plant life existed previously; secondary succession manufacturing depend on plants.
occurs after disturbances in existing communities. Although plants are an important fuel source in de-
veloping countries, new fuel sources from plants,
15.2 Plants in Agriculture such as gasohol, are being developed.
The most important food crops for humans are
the grains or cereals and the legumes. 15.4 Plants in Medicine
Sources of food come from roots, stems, leaves, Plants have been used for medicinal purposes for
fruits, and seeds. thousands of years.
Growers use a variety of techniques to increase Quinine and salicylic acid are two of the oldest
yields to provide affordable food to an expanding and most well-known plant extracts used as medic-
population. inal drugs.
Yields from agricultural plants have been continu- Only a small number of plant chemicals have been
ously improved over the centuries by selective identified and only a few of these have been re-
breeding, grafting and, more recently, by cloning. searched for medical uses.
Cuttings, grafts, and test-tube cloning allow for the Finding new drugs from plants is time-consuming
production of agricultural plants that are genetically and difficult. Plant biodiversity must be preserved
identical. in order to give scientists the time to discover new
Hybridization and recombinant DNA techniques are drugs from plants.
used to produce genetically modified plants with a
variety of desired characteristics.
1. Refer to the Checkpoint activity on page 495 and review 3. There are a wide variety of career choices in plant sci-
the web you used to brainstorm products derived from ence relating to industry, agriculture, and medicine.
plants. Revise the web diagram based on what you have Research a career in one of these categories and describe
learned in the chapter. the skills you would need to succeed in that career.
2. Draw a concept map to summarize what you have 4. Reflect on your learning. When you research on the
learned about the uses of plants in agriculture using the Internet, what are the criteria you use to evaluate the
following key terms: selective breeding, hybridization, information on the sites that you explore?
clone, genetically modified, monoculture.

Understanding Concepts 12. Explain how the rotation of crops reduces the need for
applying a pesticide to control an insect pest.
1. The pollination of a plant possessing a desired trait with
another variety of the same species is known as 13. Make a chart showing the categories of edible plant parts
a) self-pollination and common foods from each category. Give two ex-
b) grafting amples for each.
c) cloning
d) hybridization 14. Identify the agricultural technique used to produce many
identical plants without planting seeds. List four com-
2. Aspirin is used mon crops produced in this manner.
a) as a painkiller and heart stimulant
b) to reduce fever and prevent blood clots from 15. Explain why the tropical rain forest biome supports a
forming wider diversity of animal life than the boreal conifer-
c) to reduce fever and prevent malaria ous forest.
d) to reduce fever and treat certain cancers
16. Compare secondary succession in the temperate decid-
3. Legumes have an advantage over other types of plants uous forest to that in the boreal forest.
in that they require
a) less fertilizer 17. a) Provide two specific examples of genetically modi-
b) more protein fied crops grown in North America.
c) genetic modification b) Outline the reason(s) why these crops were developed
d) more fertilizer and the benefit(s) derived from growing them.
4. The bacteria that cause crown gall disease are impor- 18. Copy Table 15.3 into your notebook. Complete all sec-
tant in agriculture because they tions with a suitable word or phrase.
a) do not affect plants
b) can transmit a desired gene to a plant TABLE 15.3 Plants and Their Uses
c) cause cloned plants to reproduce
d) can be cloned Plant extract Source Commercial use
5. A major use of genetic modification of plants has been latex

the development of crops that
a) absorb nitrogen directly from the atmosphere
b) survive freezing temperatures flax seeds
c) resist the effects of weed killers
d) do not require light to grow
peanut butter
6. Explain why both grafting and cloning are considered to
be asexual reproduction. castor oil
7. Describe how the technique of selective breeding works.

henna leaves
8. Explain why selective breeding is an important agricul-
tural technique.
indigo dye
9. Describe how and why one plant extract is used in the
auto industry.
10. a) Name some processed foods derived from plants.

b) Identify the plant(s) that are used in a). 19. Describe how food irradiation works.
11. Explain why an occurrence such as the Irish potato blight, 20. Provide three examples of plant extracts that are used
in which most of the potato crop was lost, is unlikely to in industries that are not connected to the food indus-
happen today in most countries. try. Describe how they are used.

Applying Inquiry/ 27. Prepare a report explaining how either of the following
Communication Skills is manufactured:
a) cardboard
b) kraft paper
TABLE 15.4 The number of species growing in a field near
Windsor, Ontario, that was abandoned 40 years ago. Data were 28. Write a report on the efforts currently being made to
collected periodically over the 40 years. conserve biodiversity in Canadian forests.
Vegetation Years after abandonment that the field 29. Describe how society affects plant science and technology.
type was sampled
30. Investigate the current protective measures recom-
1 5 15 25 40
mended for travellers to malaria-infested areas of the
grasses 31 27 23 31 34 world. Include in your brief report, a discussion of the
treatment for travellers returning to Canada who have
shrubs 0 4 5 7 17 contracted malaria.
trees 0 0 0 14 23
31. Irradiation is used to prevent foods from spoiling and it
total species 31 31 28 52 74
extends their shelf life. Bacteria, fungi, and insects are
killed by this process. Even though irradiation has been
shown to be effective in preventing human disease, there
21. Analyze the data in Table 15.4. What do you conclude is opposition to the use of this technology. Prepare a brief
about the plant diversity in the field and explain how the report on the pros and cons of food irradiation.
data supports your conclusion.
32. In the late 1980s and early 90s, a chemical called Alar
22. Analyze the data in Table 15.4 and conclude whether was applied to apple orchards to ensure all the fruit
these data provide evidence of succession and explain ripened at the same time. There were reports in the
how the data support your conclusion. media at the time that this chemical might be harmful
to humans. In fact, some Hollywood celebrities supported
23. Given the trends in the data, predict what the data might a public outcry against the use of Alar. Research the con-
be for each vegetation type after another 25 years. troversy over the use of this chemical and prepare a brief
report about what happened. Include the role of the
24. In Discovering Biology on page 500, you predicted what media in the controversy as well as the research find-
an abandoned playing field would look like after 10 and ings about the effects of Alar.
100 years. Suppose you were asked to test your predic-
tions, but you were given only a few weeks to do it,
33. Food additives are put into processed foods for a vari-
and you could only examine natural areas near where
ety of reasons. There are many consumers who are
you live. Design an experimental procedure to test your
against the use of such additives. Identify a number of
hypothesis. What would you use as a control for this
additives from labels of a variety of processed foods. Find
investigation?
out what effect each has and why it is added to the food.
34. Some people in society do not support the use of genet-

Making Connections ically modified food. Research what concerns they
have and decide whether these concerns are valid.
25. All Koster blue spruce trees are sterile (unable to re- Provide evidence to support your decision.
produce). However, many of these trees are grown in
residential areas throughout the country as ornamen-
35. There is increasing interest in natural remedies and
tal or decorative trees. Explain how these trees are
plant-derived products for internal and external use.
obtained.
Gingko, aloe vera, Saint John’s wort, slippery elm
bark, and many other plants are now available as herbal
26. Explain how it was possible for the Macintosh apple to
remedies. Research the use of herbs in treatments for
become an important agricultural product.
ailments, as supplements, or as skin creams.

CHAPTER 16
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS Plant Structure and
describe the structure and function
Function
of the components of each of the
leaf, the stem, and the root of a
representative vascular plant (16.1,
16.2, 16.3)
differentiate between monocot and
dicot plants by observing and com-
paring the structure of their seeds
and identifying vascular differences
between plants (16.1, 16.2,
Investigation 1)
identify, using a microscope and
models, the plant tissues in roots,
stems, and leaves (16.2,
Investigation 2)
explain how non-vascular plants
function without a vascular system
(16.3)
[CATCH: P2 colour enhanced

scanning electron micrograph
of a cross section of the root of
a corn plant. 1/3-1/2 page]
Caption:
FIGURE 16.1 This micrograph shows the intricate structure of the root of a corn plant.
528
E ver since land plants evolved from green algae millions of years ago, they
have evolved specialized structures that have enabled them to spread out
into different ecosystems and survive in diverse environments. The pho-
tomicrograph in Figure 16.1 shows the intricate, organized, and complex
structural characteristics of plants. The root, stem, and leaf are basic
structures of plants. Various cells and tissues in these structures perform
specialized functions and work together to sustain the life of the plant.
Plants have several types of tissue that perform different functions. In
order for plants to survive, they need nutrients and they need to be able to
move these nutrients to every cell. Roots absorb minerals and water from the
soil, and specialized transport tissues conduct the water and minerals from
the roots, through the stem, to the leaves. Cells in the leaves use the water,
along with carbon dioxide, to create sugars through photosynthesis. Another
specialized transport tissue moves these sugars to all the other cells of the
plant where they are used as an energy source. Another tissue protects the
plant structures to ensure they function effectively. Yet another tissue has var-
ious specialized cells that provide the plant with support and allow the
plant to grow and develop.
The movement of water and nutrients is critical to the survival of
plants. The mechanisms and processes by which plants supply themselves
with water and nutrients are extremely complex. This chapter examines the
structure of green plants and explains how structure is directly related to the
many functions carried out in plants.
Discovering Biology
Determining the Age of a Tree
Examine a cross section of tree
trunk provided by your teacher
in which the annual rings are
clearly visible. Each ring repre-
sents one year in the life of the
tree. Determine the age of the
tree used in class or the one in
the photo. In your group, hy- CHECKPOINT
pothesize how these rings are
produced each year. Make a T-chart that lists the
structures and functions of
the different parts of the
plant.
Structure Function
FIGURE 16.2 Cross section of a tree trunk

16.1 Root, Stem, Leaf: Structure and Function

Key Understandings
describe the structure and function of the roots, stems, and leaves of vascular plants
identify some vascular differences between monocot and dicot plants
compare the seed structures of monocots and dicots
A plant is organized into roots and plants, photosynthesis. The primary

shoots (Figure 16.3). The root system function of the stem is to support the
is below ground and the shoot system is leaves. Stems also transport water and
above ground. minerals to the leaves and sugars from
Roots serve at least three important the leaves. There are also stems that
functions in plants: they act as anchors store food.
to hold the plant in the soil, they absorb
water and minerals, and they trans-
Monocots and Dicots
port water and minerals to the stem
for distribution to the rest of the plant. Angiosperms are a class of plants, the
In some plants, the roots also serve an Angiospermae, that produce flowers.
important food-storage function. Angiosperms can be further divided into
The leaves and the stem make up two subclasses: the Monocotyledoneae
the shoot system. The primary role of and the Dicotyledoneae, commonly
the leaf is to serve as the main location called monocots and dicots. There are
for the food-making process of green over 200 000 different species of dicots
and more than 50 000 types of mono-
cots. Monocots include the grains and
terminal grasses, while the dicots include such
flower bud common plants as the daisy, tomato, and
maple tree. The names of the two sub-
groups are based on the structure of
leaf
their seeds. A seed is made up of a seed
coat, embyro, and endosperm. All
bud
angiosperm seeds have at least one seed
shoot
leaf, or cotyledon. Monocots have only
one cotyledon. Dicots have two
cotyledons and these store nutrients that
nourish the embryo as it develops. In
monocots, the cotyledon does not
provided nourishment to the embryo;
the nourishment comes from the
endosperm. Table 16.1 shows the major
differences in structure between
root root monocots and dicots.
hairs
Roots
There are two main types of roots found
in plants: taproots and fibrous roots
FIGURE 16.3 The two parts of plants. (Figure 16.4). The primary root emerges
Although flowering plants vary widely in shape, from the germinating seed and develops
they all have the features labelled here.

TABLE 16.1 Differences in Structure between Monocots and Dicots
Many differences result from whether a plant is a monocot (has one seed leaf) or a dicot (has two seed
leaves).
Monocots Dicots
Vascular bundles
scattered arranged
throughout in ring in
stem stem
Seed leaves one two

cotyledon cotyledons
Flower parts multiples multiples

of three of four or
five
Image omitted
parallel branching due to
veins veins
narrow broad copyright
Mature leaves leaves leaves restrictions.
fibrous tap root

root system
Roots system
orchids, wheat, rice, bananas oak and maple trees, cacti,

Examples Image omitted
sunflowers
due to
copyright
into a long, thick root called a taproot. in the soil, that piece of root will grow restrictions.
Branch roots, called secondary roots, new shoots, resulting in a new plant.
emerge from the taproot as the plant Although a dandelion root might be long,
grows. Dicots have taproots. Common a mature oak tree’s taproot can grow
plants with taproots include carrots, to a depth of four metres.
beets, and dandelions. Dandelions are a Monocots, such as the grains and
FIGURE 16.4 A taproot of a
problem to remove from lawns because grasses, possess fibrous root systems. In dandelion (top), and the
of their long taproots. If you pull out the this system, there are many main roots fibrous root of a blue lace
plant but leave some of the taproot of about the same size, and thousands flower (bottom)

of secondary and tertiary roots. Often,

Discovering Biology Monocot and Dicot Seeds the roots of such plants extend laterally
You will be provided with dried peas, dates, corn seeds, oat seeds,
over a great area. The total length of
pumpkin seeds, and sunflower seeds. Remove date seeds from all the roots in the fibrous root system
their fruit and remove the “shells” from the pumpkin and sun- of the rye plant has been estimated to
flower seeds. be over 500 km! In some plants, roots
Observe each type of seed carefully with a hand lens. known as adventitious roots develop.
Determine whether the seed consists of one cotyledon or two.
These emerge from tissues other than
Categorize each seed as a monocot or dicot.
roots, such as the stem and leaf. The
Present your results in a table.
corn plant grows adventitious “prop”
roots from its stem to help support the
CAUTION: Do not eat any of the seeds. Do not do the activity if you
have a nut allergy.
plant (Figure 16.5).
There are several different types of
tissues found in the root. These can be
seen in the cross sections of the mono-
cot and dicot roots shown in Figure 16.6.
The epidermis is one cell layer thick
and is the outermost layer of the root.
In addition to protecting the inner cells
of the root, the epidermis absorbs water
and minerals from the soil. Specialized
Image omitted due to copyright epidermal cells form root hairs, which
restrictions.
act as sites of water and mineral ab-
sorption. Root hairs greatly increase the
surface area of the root, allowing this
absorption to occur faster.
The cortex is a layer of cells found
FIGURE 16.5 Prop roots growing from a stem just below the epidermis (Figure 16.6)
of a corn plant and consists of cells that store molecules
epidermis
cortex
endodermis
vascular
vascular cylinder
cylinder
xylem
phloem
a) monocot root b) dicot root
FIGURE 16.6 Cross sections of roots

endodermal cell endodermis
root hair
cell Casparian strip
wall
epidermis
xylem
cell
membrane
phloem
vascular
cylinder
cortex
FIGURE 16.7 The Casparian strip is like a series of rubber bands placed around each cell of
the endodermis.
such as starch. These cells also help minerals is being exploited by scientists INFOBIT
transport water and minerals from the in an effort to clean up the environment.
epidermal cells to the centre of the root. Phytoremediation is the use of plants Scientists have estimated that
Water moves by osmosis through these to extract toxic substances from soil and the total surface area available
for water absorption in the rye
cells. The inner layer of cortex is a spe- water. Contaminants such as lead, ar- plant is about the same as the
cialized wax-coated cell layer called senic, and uranium are absorbed by the floor space of a very large
the endodermis. The Casparian strip, roots. These substances are concentrated (400 m2) house.
which surrounds the endodermal cells in the roots and shoots of the plants. The
(Figure 16.7), prevents water from mov- plants can either be recycled or the en-
ing around them. Water must move tire plant can be safely disposed of.
through the endodermal cells into the Plants currently being used for phytore-
vascular cylinder by osmosis, and min- mediation are the mustard plant, the
erals are pumped through them by sunflower, aspen, and cattail.
active transport. This layer controls
the movement of water and minerals
into the central area of the root known
as the vascular cylinder. The vascular
cylinder contains the plant’s conducting
tissues, the xylem and phloem. Once the
water and minerals have entered the
cylinder, they are not able to move back
into the cortex cells. The role of the
xylem is to conduct water and miner-
als to the leaves and the role of the
phloem is to transport sugars from the
leaves to other parts of the plant. The
details of how these tissues function are
found in section 16.2. FIGURE 16.8 Sunflower plants have been used
The fact that roots are so effective in the phytoremediation of radioactive material
in absorbing not only water but also from contaminated water in Chernobyl, Ukraine.

WORD ORIGIN Stems the bundles are arranged in a ring. In

dicots, there is a thin layer of tissue
There is a huge variety in shapes and
xylem from the Greek word called the vascular cambium in between
xulon, meaning “wood.” sizes of stems in different plant species.
the xylem and phloem. Many herbaceous
Whatever the shape of the stem, its main
dicots, such as buttercup or Ranunculus,
phloem from the Greek word functions are to hold leaves up to the
phloios, meaning “bark.” have a hollow stem.
sunlight and to conduct various sub-
stances between the roots and the
leaves. There are two main types of Woody Stems The most complex stem is
stems. Herbaceous stems are green and the woody stem. All trees have woody
usually soft. These stems do not survive stems. Its major components are shown
the winter and are regrown each year. in Figure 16.10. Woody stems are able
Woody stems contain tough, hard tis- to grow thicker over time. This is due to
sues commonly called wood. Trees and its vascular cambium (Figure 16.11). The
shrubs, such as the lilac, are examples cambium makes so much new xylem
of plants with woody stems. These stems and phloem that the individual vascular
survive the winter. bundles are jammed together and are
difficult to distinguish. Each year, cam-
Investigation Herbaceous Stems Vascular bundles are bium produces a layer of new xylem
Refer to page 551,
collections of xylem, phloem, and asso- (and phloem). Sapwood is younger
Investigation 1 ciated tissues. In the vascular bundles, xylem, which conducts water and min-
the xylem is always closer to the centre erals. As new xylem is formed each year,
of the stem and the phloem is closer to the older xylem created in previous years
the outside of the stem. The vascular fills with resins, oils, and other complex
bundles are surrounded by supporting chemicals and becomes heartwood. The
tissues. The vascular bundles of herba- chemicals resist decay and may also give
ceous monocots, such as corn, are the heartwood a different colour.
scattered throughout the stem (Figure 16.9 Heartwood is no longer able to conduct
a). In herbaceous dicots (Figure 16.9 b), fluids. As the tree grows each year, more
pith
vascular cortex
bundle
epidermis
fundamental xylem
or ground
tissue phloem
a) monocot stem b) dicot stem
FIGURE 16.9 Herbaceous stems

heartwood
cork phloem
bark
vascular sapwood
cambium
FIGURE 16.10 Layers of a woody stem
wood is added, and the trunk widens. the outer cork layer often cracks or peels
The growth of new xylem each spring off in strips as the wood grows.
results in a new layer of sapwood or
annual ring being formed. Specialized Stems The stems of cacti
By counting the number of annual (Figure 16.12) are herbaceous but are
rings, a person can determine the age very different in structure and function
of the tree when it is cut down. By from plants found in Canada. In deserts, summer spring
carefully examining the xylem within the water is briefly available only at wood wood
annual ring, one can also determine the
weather during the year that the xylem
was produced. Spring growth is rapid.
Many large xylem cells (spring wood) are
formed by the cambium. Summer growth
is slower and smaller cells are produced
(summer wood). The difference in spring
and summer xylem can be seen in Figure
16.11. Cambium activity stops in late
summer and resumes the following
spring. A wide annual ring indicates a
long growing season and a narrow ring
indicates a short one.
The outer part of the woody stem is
the bark. Bark is a protective tissue that
phloem vascular
consists of the phloem and cork tissue. annual
cambium
The outer cork cells are dead and con- ring
tain fats, oils, and waxes, which help
prevent water loss. As the stem widens, FIGURE 16.11 A cross section of a woody dicot stem

certain times of the year. Cacti must be grow on or just below the soil’s surface.
able to store the water they absorb dur- Rhizomes develop roots and can survive
ing those periods. Most cacti have stems winter. In the spring, buds develop from
that are adapted to store water, so they the rhizomes. Many familiar garden
have a constant supply for photosynthesis plants, such as irises and canna lilies, and
throughout the year. many species of grass develop rhizomes.
Stems can also be used to store food, Tubers are another form of special-
to help the plant survive the winter and ized stems. Even though tubers are
spring. The plant uses the stored food stems, they grow underground. They be-
until it has grown new leaves that can come so enlarged with stored food that
make food. There are several different they don’t resemble stems at all. Tubers
types of modified stems (Figure 16.13). have “eyes,” which are actually buds.
Rhizomes are thick, fleshy stems that These buds grow into new shoots above
the ground. Potatoes are common tubers.
Bulbs are also underground stems.
The actual stem, though, is quite small. It
is surrounded by layers of modified leaves.
These leaves are short and very thick.
Tulips, onions, and daffodils develop
bulbs.
Leaves
The leaf not only makes sugars for the
Image omitted due to copyright plant but also supplies all living organ-
restrictions. isms with their source of food and oxy-
gen. The photosynthetic machinery of
plants, the chloroplasts, is located pri-
marily in the leaves of green plants.
There are many different types of leaves
but most are designed to provide the
maximum exposure to sunlight. Figure
16.14 shows the difference between a
simple leaf and a compound leaf, as well
as some highly modified leaves. The typ-
ical leaf, as seen in cross section in
FIGURE 16.12 A giant saguaro cactus. All that Figure 16.15, contains a number of spe-
is seen in the photo is stem. The leaves are tiny cialized tissues.
needles that are not visible in this photo.
Image omitted due to Image omitted due to Image omitted due to copyright
copyright restrictions. copyright restrictions. restrictions.
a) Iris rhizomes b) Potatoes are tubers. c) Tulips form bulbs.
FIGURE 16.13 Specialized stems

Most leaves are covered by a waxy compound

leaves
substance known as cuticle, which is
produced by the epidermis. As in the
root and stem, the epidermis forms the
outer cell layer of the plant. The
epidermis and cuticle provide water-
proofing for the leaf, as well as a
protective barrier for the tissues inside
the leaf. However, water vapour, oxygen,
and carbon dioxide must be able to
move into and out of the leaf. The pas-
sage of these gases happens through the
stomata (singular: stoma). In land
plants, most of the stomata are located
on the underside of the leaves. Woody simple
plants, such as the oak and apple, have leaves
no stomata on the upper leaf surface,
while the leaves of herbaceous plants,
such as corn, have significant numbers
on their upper surfaces.
Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
is one of the raw materials used by the
chloroplasts to manufacture sugars. In
general, the stomata are open during
daylight hours to allow in the carbon
dioxide needed for photosynthesis and to
allow water vapour out. Oxygen, a by-
product of photosynthesis, is also released
through the open stomata into the at-
leaves modified leaves modified
mosphere. Since photosynthesis can’t as spines as tendrils
happen at night, carbon dioxide is not
needed, so the stomata are usually closed FIGURE 16.14 Leaves come in many different shapes. Simple leaves have just one
at night to prevent excess water loss. blade, but compound leaves are divided into smaller leaflets.
vein
cuticle
epidermis
palisade layer

mesophyll restrictions.
spongy layer
stoma
epidermis
guard cells xylem phloem air spaces
FIGURE 16.15 Leaves are the site of photosynthesis. The chloroplasts in the
mesophyll cells use sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates.

INFOBIT Plants are also able to close their stomata The cells within the leaf are known
during the day, depending on environ- as mesophyll cells (Figure 16.15). These
Scientists have estimated that mental conditions. When it’s too hot, or thin-walled cells contain numerous
the total surface area of the when there is a lack of water in the soil, chloroplasts, the site of photosynthesis.
chloroplasts in all the leaves of
one mature tree, such as an plants can close their stomata until In many plants there are two distinct lay-
elm, is slightly less than the conditions improve. Many plants also ers of mesophyll, the palisade layer and
entire land area of the island display a “rhythm” of opening and the spongy layer. The palisade cells are
nation of Barbados (about closing of stomata during daylight hours. more densely packed and usually contain
430 km2). Each stoma is surrounded by two more chloroplasts than the spongy cells.
guard cells (Figure 16.16). The guard The spongy layer cells are loosely spaced
cells are specialized, kidney-shaped epi- so that air can be in contact with these
dermal cells containing chloroplasts. In cells. In fact, there is more surface area
daylight, the complex movement of ions exposed to air inside the leaf than out-
into the guard cells creates a hypertonic side the leaf! The mesophyll cells are the
environment inside the cells. As a result, sites of gas exchange in the leaf. Carbon
water moves by osmosis from the sur- dioxide and oxygen have to be dissolved
rounding cells into the guard cells, causing in water to enter and leave the mesophyll
them to swell. Because the inner wall of cells, so all the cells have to be covered
the guard cell is thicker than the rest of in a thin film of water. The water is trans-
the cell wall, the cell curves more on ported from the roots by the xylem and
its outer side as it swells with water. The supplied to the leaf cells. Over 90 percent
uneven curving of the guard cells causes of the water entering the roots of plants,
them to pull away from each other and however, evaporates from the surface of
open the stoma. At night, the ions move the mesophyll cells. Once it has evapo-
out of the guard cells and the water rated, the water vapour moves through
follows, causing the cells to shrink and the spaces between mesophyll cells and
close off the opening, or stoma. out through the stomata. This process of
water loss through evaporation in leaves
is called transpiration. On a warm sum-
mer day, a mature maple tree can lose
over 160 L of water per hour through this
process.
The xylem and phloem continue
from the stems through the petiole, or
leaf stem, into the leaves, forming part
of the vascular bundles. These bundles
are called veins. The veins in a leaf
branch out extensively so that the xylem
and phloem are close to the mesophyll
Image omitted due to copyright cells. The arrangement of patterns
restrictions. varies: in monocots the veins run par-
allel to one another, while in dicots the
veins form a branching network. As you
have learned, xylem carries water and
dissolved minerals from the soil, and
phloem transports the sugar manufac-
tured in the leaf mesophyll cells, to all
FIGURE 16.16 Two stomata
are visible. One is open and parts of the plant. The conducting tis-
one is closed. In this photo- sues found in the leaf are continuous
graph, most of the epidermis with those in the stem and root. In a ma-
has been torn away, revealing ture cedar or redwood, the conducting
the spongy layer that lies
tissues can be hundreds of metres long!
below it.

Defining the Issue
Case Study
Using Plants to Fight Justifying the Course of Action
Pollution
Mustard and sauerkraut aren’t just hotdog toppings

anymore. Scientists are now using mustard and cab-
bage plants to clean soil. These plants are being used
for their ability to absorb cesium and strontium from
contaminated soil. Phytoremediation is the pro-
cess of using plants to clean up contaminated soil,
sediments, and water. Certain plants have the abil-
ity to absorb large amounts of contaminants and
transfer them to their tissues. These plants act as Image omitted due to copyright restrictions.
a kind of biological pump. There are many different
plant species that have the ability to absorb various
contaminants. Research is underway to find plant
species that can absorb specific contaminants effi-
ciently.
Plants can be used to absorb toxic metals such
as chromium and mercury, organic compounds such
as hydrocarbons and PCBs, and radionuclides (sub-
stances that produce ionizing radiation such as
x-rays and gamma rays). These include uranium, FIGURE 16.17 A wastewater treatment facility at a Body
strontium, and cesium. Because different plants can Shop manufacturing site. In this form of phytoremediation, the
be used to absorb a wide range of toxic substances, plants’ roots provide habitat for different types of bacteria that
can break down pollutants in the wastewater. The water
many contaminated sites around the globe could
passes through several different tanks before being dis-
benefit from phytoremediation. Mine tailings ponds, charged.
nuclear waste dumps, and old munitions dumps
could all benefit from phytoremediation. Removal
of contaminants by other methods from any of these
sites is difficult and very costly. The use of plants is being used in selected sites, but it is still in the re-
to clean up such areas promises to be an inexpen- search and development stages. Additional study
sive and natural way to remove harmful substances needs to be completed before the process becomes
from contaminated soil and water. Phytoremediation more widespread.
Analyzing the Issue

1. Use the Internet and other sources to research and 4. Identify and explain the environmental and economic
describe the biochemical processes involved in impacts of implementing this process.
phytoremediation. 5. Propose a media campaign to educate the public about
2. Analyze your data in a PMI chart. What other questions phytoremediation and promote the decision to imple-
come to mind from evaluating your findings? Explain. ment this technology immediately on a worldwide basis.
3. What factors affect the decision to use phytoremediation
on a broader scale?

Specialized Leaves Plants that live in dry The leaves of a cactus are modified into
conditions usually have modified leaf spines for protection and they no longer
structures to help retain water. The perform photosynthesis. The spines have
leaves often have a thicker epidermis no stomata or chlorophyll. Photosynthesis
with a very thick cuticle, which helps happens in cells near the surface of the
cut down on water loss (Figure 16.18). stem instead.
Also, all the stomata are on the under- Aquatic plants such as the water lily
side of the leaf, out of direct sunlight. have modified leaves. The underside of the
Keeping the gas exchange surface cool leaf is in contact with water, and so gas
slows the rate of transpiration. The exchange cannot happen on that surface.
leaves may also be thick and used for To overcome this, water lilies have stom-
water storage. ata only on the upper surface of the leaf.
Image omitted Image omitted

due to copyright due to copyright
restrictions.
FIGURE 16.18 The leaves of a jade plant, cactus, and water lily. All have structural
adaptations that allow them to live in their specialized environments.
Section 16.1 Review

Understanding Concepts several layers of palisade mesophyll
cells densely packed with chloroplasts.
1. In a table, state the three main func- Explain the reasoning behind your pre-
tions of the root and identify the root diction.
structure(s) that actually carry out these
functions. 8. Draw and label a cross section of a leaf.
Draw arrows to indicate the directions
2. In your own words, define: of water vapour and carbon dioxide
a) tuber movement.
b) rhizome
c) bulb
3. Identify the roles of vascular bundles Making Connections
in plants. 9. What factors does a landscaper have
4. Using diagrams, contrast the structural to consider when selecting plants for a
differences between monocot and dicot garden?
plants. 10. Research the use of phytoremediation
5. How does the structure of a leaf sup- in Ontario. What criteria should envi-
port its function? ronmentalists consider in applying this
6. Explain why most plants have stomata technology?
mainly on the lower surface of their 11. Select an analogy that could be used to
leaves. explain leaf structure.
7. Predict the environment in which you
would expect to find plants with

16.2 Plant Tissues and Their Functions

Key Understandings
identify the tissues found in angiosperms
describe the functions of fundamental, vascular, and protective tissues
locate meristematic tissues and explain their functions
A tissue is a group of cells, usually iden- tracheids (Figure 16.19). Vessel ele- Investigation
tical, that act together to carry out a ments are only found in angiosperms. A Refer to page 552,
specific function. Just as animals contain vessel consists of many vessel elements Investigation 2
specialized tissues (such as muscle and connected end-to-end. The ends are ei-
nerve tissues), so do plants. The anther absent or perforated. This allows
giosperms have a number of tissues, xylem sap to pass from one element to
each designed to carry out an important the next as it travels upward through the
role. length of the vessel. Vessels are often
packed side-by-side and may be con-
nected to each other by pits. These
Vascular Tissue
permit the lateral flow of xylem sap from
As you know, xylem conducts water and one element to the next. Thus, xylem sap
dissolved minerals (together called xylem may flow straight upward or may
sap) from the roots to all parts of the change vessels part way by flowing
plant. There are two types of xylem cells: through pits.
vessels or vessel elements and
water water
vascular bundles
phloem xylem
vessel
sieve elements
companion tracheids
elements
cells
stem section
food FIGURE 16.19 Cells of the xylem and phloem. The inset photo is a microscopic view of
vascular tissue.

The tracheids are much narrower the sieve cell. Experiments have demon-
than the vessel elements and their ends strated that if the companion cell dies,
are so sharply angled that they appear the sieve cell stops functioning.
pointed. They also have numerous pits.
Tracheids are found in all vascular
plants, not just in the angiosperms. They Fundamental or
are the only kind of xylem found in gym- Ground Tissue
nosperms. Most of a plant is made of ground tissue,
The substances cellulose and lignin and this tissue consists of parenchyma
are deposited on the exterior surfaces of cells. Parenchyma is found in the roots,
xylem cells to form rigid cell walls. When stems, leaves, and fruit. Parenchyma has
the cell walls are complete, the cyto- many different functions. It provides
plasm dies, leaving dead, hollow xylem. support for the plant and stores food and
In woody dicots, xylem cells eventually water. Photosynthesis also occurs
become plugged with oils, gum, tannins in parenchyma cells containing
and resin, resulting in the formation of chloroplasts. The flesh of an apple
heartwood. or watermelon is parenchyma, and
Phloem transports water and dis- potatoes and radishes are mostly
solved carbohydrates (primarily sugars) parenchyma. The cell walls of
WORD ORIGIN from the leaves to other parts of the plant. parenchyma cells are quite thin and
Most phloem cells (Figure 16.19) are flexible (Figure 16.20). Collenchyma and
collenchyma from the Greek called sieve tube cells (or members) be- sclerenchyma are specialized types of
words kolla, meaning “glue,”
cause they have sieve plates at each end. parenchyma with thicker and more rigid
and enchima, meaning “an
infusion.” These resemble vessel elements, but cell walls. They provide support in plant
are much smaller. Also, these cells remain stems. Mature sclerenchyma consists
meristematic from the Greek alive, unlike the xylem elements. At ma- mainly of the rigid walls of dead cells.
word meridzein, meaning “to turity, however, sieve tube members con-
divide.”
tain no nuclei. Instead, they have
cytoplasm. Even though a sieve tube Meristematic Tissue
cell lacks a nucleus, it is still able to func- Meristematic tissue is a type of tissue
tion. The cytoplasm of each sieve cell is that produces new cells by mitosis.
connected by pores to a small nucleated In plants, mature cells cannot divide.
companion cell next to it. The compan- This means that the plant can only
ion cell appears to direct the operation of grow where there is meristematic tissue.
Image omitted due to copyright Image omitted due to Image omitted due to copyright
restrictions. copyright restrictions. restrictions.
a) parenchyma b) collenchyma c) sclerenchyma
FIGURE 16.20 The cell walls get progressively thicker across the three types of
ground tissue. Sclerenchyma forms the shells of nuts and the spines of cacti.

producing cells that increase the stem

shoot apical
meristem length, the meristems in all shoot tips
(terminal also produce leaves and vascular tissues.
bud) In roots, the apical meristem produces
new cap cells as well as the elongating
vascular tissues. These protective root-
cap cells are continually sloughed off as
the tip forces its way farther into the soil.
A typical root tip is shown in Figure
16.22b).
There are two other types of meris-
lateral bud tematic tissue. These tissues allow
woody plant stems to grow in width,
as discussed in section 16.1. Vascular
cambium is a ring layer of meristematic
tissue found between the xylem and
a)
immature
leaf
shoot apical
meristem
root apical
meristem
FIGURE 16.21 The meristems are the purple

areas on the shoot and root.
These regions are referred to as

b)
meristems. Apical meristems are lo-
cated at the ends of shoot and root tips
(Figure 16.21). These are responsible for
the primary growth (growth in length) root
of the stem and root. A plant may have apical
thousands of apical meristems: every meristem
root tip and bud has one! Lateral buds
are located between the main stem and
the branches. These contain meristem-
atic tissue that can give rise to new
leaves or flowers. root
The youngest cells are at the tip of cap
the apical meristem. These cells are very
small. Older cells are located farther
away and they rapidly increase in size
FIGURE 16.22 The cells of the apical meristem
(Figure 16.22a). Most of the growth in in a shoot a) are seen in brown. The cells of a
shoot length comes from the elonga- root meristem b) are found behind a group of
tion of these older cells. Besides cells that form the root cap.

secondary xylem
The cork cells produce a waxy substance
first second third that acts as a water repellent. The outer
annual annual annual
layers of dead cells make up most of the
growth growth growth
ring ring ring cork tissue. However, new cells are con-
bark stantly being produced by the cork cam-
bium.
The product known as cork comes
from a single species of tree, the cork
oak (Quercus suber), which grows in
Mediterranean countries. The cork cells
from this tree are air-filled and water-
tight, which makes cork tissue very light
and impervious to water or other liquids.
Cork can only be taken from trees that
are over 25 years old. The cork is
stripped by cutting slits in the outer bark
and then peeling away the cork layer in
vascular secondary cork cork
cambium phloem cambium large sheets from the living phloem
below. It’s very important that the
phloem and vascular cambium are not
FIGURE 16.23 Secondary growth tissues. Bark damaged in the process. Cork sheets are
consists of secondary phloem, cork cambium,
then boiled to increase the cork’s flexi-
and cork.
bility. These sheets are then used to
make stoppers for bottles, flooring, cork
INFOBIT boards, and many other products. Cork
phloem in dicots. Tissue produced by di-
trees can be stripped of their cork layer
viding cambium cells is called secondary
The “skin” of a potato is repeatedly. A healthy tree, once it has
growth (growth in width). Secondary
actually a thin layer of cork. So been stripped, will grow a new layer of
vascular tissue is important to plants like
people who eat the “skins” of cork in 3 to 10 years.
cooked or baked potatoes, are trees that have permanent, growing
actually eating cork! roots and stems. The cambium produces
new large xylem cells on its “interior”
surface and new phloem cells on its “ex-
terior” surface. These new layers are
called secondary xylem and secondary
phloem (Figure 16.23).
As more and more cells are added
by the vascular cambium, the diameter
of the root or stem gradually increases.
Cork cambium produces cork, the outer
protective layer of a woody stem.
restrictions.
Protective Tissue
The epidermis, usually only one cell in
thickness, is the outer protective layer
of leaves, stems, and roots. As you
learned in the previous section, the epi-
dermal layer, with its covering of cuti-
cle, also serves as waterproofing for
plant tissues.
Cork, protects inner tissues from in-
FIGURE 16.24 The cork is peeled off a cork
jury. It is more than one cell layer thick. tree by hand.

Section 16.2 Review

1. Draw a diagram of the two types of
water-conducting xylem cells.
2. Describe how the sieve tube and com-
panion cells work together to perform
their transport role.
3. Starting with the word “tissue,” create
a concept map to illustrate the three
classes of tissues and their functions.
4. Distinguish between the functions of
parenchyma and meristematic tissues.
5. Outline the reasons why a monocot,
such as a corn plant, cannot increase
its stem width each year, whereas a FIGURE 16.25
dicot, such as an oak tree, is able to do
so for decades.
6. Some plants that grow in arid areas 7. Identify as many tissues as possible
often have thicker leaves to store water. in Figure 16.25. Is this a slide of a stem
Which type of tissue would the bulk or a root? Give reasons for your an-
of the leaf be made of? Provide reasons swer.
for your answer. 8. Draw a cross section of a root and use
coloured pencils to shade in the ground
tissue, protective tissue, and vascular
tissue.
16.3 Water and Food Transport

Key Understandings
explain the mechanism of water transport in vascular plants
explain why sugar transport in vascular plants is more complex than water transport
explain how non-vascular plants function without a specialized vascular system
The function of xylem in vascular plants Water Transport in

is to transport water and minerals from Vascular Plants
the soil to all parts of the plant, and the
function of the phloem is to transport sug- In the Root Root hairs absorb essential
ars from the leaves to all parts of the plant. minerals from the soil by active
How the xylem and phloem actually carry transport. The energy needed for active
out these tasks is not fully understood. transport comes from the respiration of
Scientists can only theorize as to the carbohydrates in the root cells. Once in-
intricacies of water and food transport. side the epidermis, the minerals are

moved toward the centre of the root

where the wax-coated endodermis pre-
vents them from diffusing back out to
the soil. This concentration of minerals
creates xylem sap that is hypertonic
relative to soil water outside the root.
Consequently, the hypotonic soil water
enters the root by osmosis. Energy is not
required for water entry but is required
restrictions. for mineral transport. As long as the root
hairs continue to absorb minerals, water
will follow by osmosis.
The accumulation of water and
dissolved minerals creates pressure. This
pressure pushes the sap up the xylem.
This pressure is called root pressure and
it can be measured in some plants such
as tomatoes. If the stem of a tomato plant
is cut off just above ground, the stump
FIGURE 16.26 Guttation occurs in some small
will “bleed” sap. Root pressure can also
plants, and usually takes place at night in humid cause guttation, where water droplets
conditions. are exuded from blades of leaves (Figure
16.26).
Root pressure is able to push water
Discovering Biology up to only a maximum of a few metres
in some plants. However, there are many
Water Movement in Narrow Tubes trees, such as giant redwoods and cedars,
Your group will be provided with a Petri dish, food colouring, that are over 100 m tall. Also, in many
and 3-4 capillary tubes of identical lengths but different plants, including some trees, there is no
diameters. Fill the Petri dish half full with water measurable root pressure. Clearly, root
and add 2 drops of food colouring. Gently pressure cannot entirely account for
swirl the dish so that the water is a xylem sap movement.
uniform colour. Each member of your
group, in turn, will place one capillary In the Stem Water clings readily to a
tube into the dish and hold it variety of non-oily surfaces. This
upright as in Figure 16.27. phenomenon is known as adhesion.
Before you place the tubes This principle is demonstrated every
in the dish, predict what time you dry yourself with a towel. Water
you think will happen. It is
clings more readily to the fibre of the
not necessary to reach a
consensus. towel than to your skin, which is oily
compared to the towel. When a drop of
Carefully observe the water in
your capillary tube. Measure the water on your skin comes into contact
height of water in the tube. with the towel, it “flows” and adheres to
Provide possible the towel fibres. This same principle
explanations for the accounts for the movement of water into
results. sponges and blotters even if the
movement of the molecules is against
gravity, as it is in the xylem. Water
adheres to the inner walls of the xylem,
creating a “pulling” force on the column
of water molecules.
FIGURE 16.27

xylem sap
air space
mesophyll cells
stoma
outside air
water molecule
Transpiration cohesion of
water molecules
adhesion
xylem cells
flow of water
Cohesion and Adhesion in the Xylem
soil particle
water molecule
root hair
water
Water Uptake from Soil
FIGURE 16.28 The flow of water from the roots to the leaves
The ability of water to stick to itself continuously from the ground to the top WEBLINK
is known as cohesion. Because of the of the highest leaves. This narrow col-
hydrogen bonding between adjacent umn of water is incredibly strong: it has
water molecules, very strong forces of the same strength as steel wire of the
To further explore the concept
attraction are created. If you have ever same diameter! This is more than
of water movement from the
tried to pry apart two wet microscope enough to support a column of water roots to the leaves, go to
slides, you will have noticed how tightly in the tallest trees. If a “pull” at the top www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
they stick together. The water between of this water column were exerted, there
the slides acts like glue. A xylem vessel would be enough cohesive strength to
may be very long, but it does not con- draw water all the way from the roots.
tain much water because it has a small The “pull” required comes from the
diameter. The cohesion of water leaves via a process called leaf pull or
molecules in this long cylinder results in transpiration pull.
the water column holding together

WEBLINK In the Leaves Most of the water entering Food Transport in

the leaves is lost through the process of Vascular Plants
Maple syrup is a popular transpiration. As each water molecule
Canadian export. Research The precise mechanism of food trans-
evaporates during transpiration, it
more about maple syrup port is not known. One of the problems
production in Canada. What “pulls” on the adjacent water molecules.
in explaining how food is moved in
provinces produce maple These molecules in turn pull on the next,
plants is that the phloem sieve-tube cells
syrup? What countries does and so on, in an unbroken cohesive
Canada export to? How much are living cells, containing cytoplasm
chain all the way to the root hairs. The
maple syrup is produced with most of the organelles that other
evaporation of liquid requires heat en-
annually? Complete a data cells have. Functioning xylem vessel
table to summarize your ergy, which comes from the environment
cells, as you know, are dead and hollow.
findings. Begin your research at around the plant. Thus, the plant uses
Scientists have a much easier time ex-
www.pearsoned.ca/biology11. heat energy from its surroundings to pull
plaining how water moves up hollow
water from the roots to the top of the
“pipes” than how sugars and other com-
plant. Xylem sap movement is depen-
plex molecules move from living cell
dent on the rate of transpiration. If the
to living cell at rates as fast as 2 m
air temperature is low, as in a north-
per hour. The theory that best explains
ern climate, the rate of evaporation (and
the movement of sugars is called the
thus the rate of transpiration) is low. But
pressure-flow theory.
if the temperature is high, these rates
In this theory, the leaf cells are called
are also high. That is, the faster water
the source, and the storage cells in the
evaporates from the leaves, the faster
roots are called the sink. In the leaves,
sap will rise. Under ideal conditions, sap
sugars are “pumped” into phloem sieve-
can rise 75 cm per minute in a tree.
tube cells by active transport, thus build-
The “pull” or tension exerted on the
ing up a hypertonic solution inside
column of water in the xylem is strong
(Figure 16.30). This hypertonic solution
enough to account for the movement of
causes water to move by osmosis into the
water to the tops of any tree found on
sieve-tube cells from adjacent hypotonic
the planet. Scientists have estimated that
xylem cells. This results in the creation
the pulling forces exerted by transpira-
of a pressure that “pushes” the sugars
tion pull, combined with cohesion forces,
through the phloem away from the
could transport water to the top of trees
leaves, down the stem toward the roots.
three times higher than the tallest known
In the root, the soluble sugars are
trees.
moved out of the sieve-tube cells into stor-
This theory of water transport is
age parenchyma cells (the sink). This may
currently widely accepted by most sci-
happen passively depending on the rela-
entists because it is the best interpreta-
tive sugar concentrations inside and
tion of the observations.
outside the root cells. Water molecules
follow the sugars out of the sieve-tube
A Product Derived from Xylem Sap In cells by osmosis. The phloem sap is now
North America, the xylem sap of the under less pressure in the roots. As leaves
sugar maple tree is put to use. In early add and the roots remove sugars, the
spring, when the days are warm and the phloem sap experiences two different
Image omitted due to night temperatures fall below freezing, fluid pressures. A high pressure in the
copyright restrictions. sugar maples begin to convert starches, leaves “pushes” on the sap and a low
stored in the roots, into sugars and send pressure in the root “pulls” on the sap.
them up the xylem to the branches. To A number of observations support
make maple syrup, holes are tapped into this theory. One of the most interesting
the xylem to collect the clear xylem sap. involves an insect called an aphid (Figure
Maple syrup producers then boil this sap 16.31). Aphid colonies are usually found
FIGURE 16.29 Tapping does
down to remove most of the water. on thin stems just below leaves. An
not harm the tree, provided
that not too much sap is About 50 L of sap are needed to produce aphid’s mouth-parts form an extremely
taken. one litre of pure maple syrup. fine tube or proboscis, which it inserts

XYLEM PHLOEM
WEBLINK
SOURCE
high sugar concentration
and high water pressure
To further explore the concept

sugar
1. active transport of sugar of sugar transport in plants,
into phloem go to
water www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
2. water follows by osmosis
leaf cell
3. pressure gradient moves

fluid down phloem
SINK
4. active or passive transport

of sugar into root cell
sugar
5. water follows by osmosis Image omitted due to copyright

water restrictions.
low sugar concentration
root cell and low water pressure
vessel elements sieve elements
FIGURE 16.30 Food transport in plants requires energy to pump the sugars into FIGURE 16.31 Aphids feeding on a stem
the phloem.
into individual phloem sieve cells to root phloem sap generally shows a lower
withdraw phloem sap for food. While an concentration of dissolved substances.
aphid is actively feeding, researchers are These observations are consistent with
able to “snip” the aphid away from its the pressure-flow theory.
embedded proboscis. The proboscis con- In general, pressure is high in the
tinues to ooze phloem sap, clearly indi- leaves and low in the roots where the
cating that the phloem is under pressure. sugar is being used. All tissues that use
Chemical analysis shows that this sugars, however, such as a growing
phloem sap is up to 30 percent dissolved shoot higher up on the plant, also de-
chemicals (mostly sugars), which is a velop low phloem pressure. The plant is
much higher sugar concentration than able to reverse the direction of flow of
that in the phloem in leaves. This indi- sugars from the root to other parts of the
cates that there is a “pumping” or con- plant. The roots then act as the source
centrating mechanism (probably active and the shoots or other upper tissues of
transport) at work. Chemical analysis of the plant act as the sink.

Water and Food Transport in

the Bryophytes
The non-vascular plants, the bryophytes,
do not have xylem or phloem. There are
consequences to lacking transport tis- Image omitted due to copyright
sues for this primitive group of plants. restrictions.
There are three groups of bryophytes:
the mosses, liverworts, and hornworts.
Bryophytes grow on rocks, on the bark
of trees, and in soil. Because these plants
have no xylem, they must live in wet,
shady environments. Water moves from FIGURE 16.32 All cells of a bryophyte depend
the environment into the plant and from on osmosis to get water. As much of the plant’s
tissue as possible must be in direct contact with
cell to cell by osmosis and capillary ac-
water.
tion. These forces work only over short
distances, so all the bryophyte’s photo-
synthetic tissues must be close to water the upper, small, leaf-like sections of the
(Figure 16.32). Thus, most bryophytes plant. Unlike the vascular plants, each
are restricted to heights of less than 2 cell in a bryophyte is responsible for
cm. These plants do not have true leaves, manufacturing its own sugars, since the
stems, or roots. Rhizoids serve to anchor plant lacks phloem to take sugars from
the plant. Photosynthesis takes place in one cell to another.
Section 16.3 Review

Understanding Concepts 7. When they receive cut flowers, people
often cut off the ends of the stems while
1. Explain why root pressure alone can- holding them under water and then
not account for water transport in most transfer the flowers to a vase, making
plants. sure there is a water droplet at the end
2. a) Name the tissue(s) in a typical plant of each stem. Explain how this slows
that is (are) the source(s) of carbo- the wilting of cut flowers.
hydrates.
b) Identify several tissues in another
plant organ that use the carbohy- Applying Inquiry/
drates produced by the plant. Communication Skills
3. Outline two consequences for the transpiration
bryophytes of not having vascular 30
(grams per 2 hours)
tissues.
Relative rate
4. You are using an electron microscope 20

to examine sections of a plant cell that
receives carbohydrates from sieve-tube
10
cells. Predict which organelle(s) you are water
unlikely to observe in these sections uptake
and provide a brief explanation. 0
6 am noon 6 pm midnight
5. Explain why aphids provide evidence Time of day
that supports the pressure-flow theory. FIGURE 16.33
6. Create a Venn diagram to compare the
similarities and differences between 8. The graph in Figure 16.33 shows the
water transport and food transport in rate of water loss through transpira-
vascular plants. Your answer should tion and the rate of water uptake.
include energy inputs, direction of Analyze the data and propose a rela-
transport, plant tissues used, among tionship between water uptake and
others. transpiration.

Inquiry Skills

Examining Monocot and Dicot Stems Analyzing and Interpreting

Problem Analyzing and Interpreting

In this activity, you will examine the arrangement of 1. a) Which conducting tissue was always closest
vascular tissue in prepared slides of monocot and dicot to the epidermis in the monocot stem?
plant stems to determine the differences between the b) Was this pattern followed in the dicot stem?
two.

Materials 2. What is the major difference in structure between
For each pair of students: monocot and dicot stems?
prepared slides of
monocot stem cross section, e.g. Zea mays
(corn)
herbaceous dicot stem cross section,
e.g. Rununculus (buttercup)
Comparing Monocot and Dicot Stems
Procedure
1. Examine a herbaceous monocot stem cross
section such as corn, Zea mays, under low magni-
fication. Locate the following: epidermis, vascular
bundles, and fundamental or ground tissue.
2. Make a labelled drawing, showing the arrangement

of the vascular bundles.
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 with a herbaceous dicot stem

cross section.
4. Move the microscope objective to a higher magni-

fication so that one vascular bundle almost fills the
field of view. This may be medium or more likely
will be high power.
5. Locate the following tissues: xylem, phloem, cam-

bium, pith, cortex, and epidermis.
6. Under high power, draw and label a section through

the vascular bundle starting at the epidermis,
through the bundle tissues, into the pith cells. The
section should only be as wide as the width of 3–4
epidermal cells, but include cells from each area
through the stem. FIGURE 16.34 Micrographs of stems

Inquiry Skills

Examining Plant Tissue Concluding and Communicating
Problem 6. Place the slide on the microscope stage. Observe the

tissue under low and then medium power.
In this activity you will examine tissue from a living
stem and determine what type of tissue it is. 7. Draw what you observe through the microscope at
medium power.
Materials
microscope Analyzing and Interpreting
microscope slides
1. Compare your tissue sample to the illustrations in
cover slip
Figure 16.19. Identify the tissue. What is the
double-edged razor blade
feature that allowed you to identify your tissue
dissecting needle
sample?
forceps
celery stalks 2. What other tissue(s) are connected to the red
tissue you have isolated? What is their function?
CAUTION: One edge of the razor should be carefully taped

by your teacher with several layers of masking tape. Handle Concluding and Communicating
the razor blades with care. 3. What is the specific function of the red tissue you
have identified?
Procedure Extending
One day prior to activity: Place several celery stalks, 4. How are food/nutrients transported in stems?
with leaves attached, in a beaker one-third filled with Where in the stem is this tissue located?
water dyed with red food colouring. 5. The spiral or coiled structures you observed are
1. Using the razor blade, cut across the centre of a cel- made of the substance called lignin. Investigate
ery stalk dividing it into 2 equal halves. Make sure a) the role of this substance in plants;
that the cut is at a right angle to the length of the b) what types of plants produce this substance;
stalk. c) what cells are able to manufacture lignin; and
2. Observe the cut end and draw a diagram. d) the importance of this material in commercial
products made from plants.
3. Using your instruments, carefully dissect a 1-cm
length of one of the red-coloured strands. Using the 6. If you make a cut around the circumference of a
razor, slice as thin a section as you can of a length plant’s stem, just shallow enough to cut the phloem,
of red tissue. Try to isolate just the red tissue. Scrape the plant will die even though its water transport
off as much of the surrounding tissue as possible. system is intact. Explain why this happens.
4. Put the isolated strands on a microscope slide placed 7. What group of vascular plants contain the tissue
on a clean lab counter surface. Using a second slide, you have identified?
carefully but firmly press down with your thumb on
top of the slide to squash the tissues. Rotate the slide
slightly as you press down.
5. Remove the top slide. Add a drop of water, and then
place a cover slip over the squashed tissue. Tap on
the cover slip to remove air bubbles.

Key Terms
adhesion herbaceous primary growth transpiration (leaf) pull

cambium meristem root pressure vascular bundle
cohesion mesophyll sapwood vascular cylinder
cortex monocot secondary growth vessel element
cuticle parenchyma sieve tube cell woody
dicot phloem stomata xylem
epidermis phytoremediation tracheid
heartwood pressure-flow theory transpiration
16.1 Root, Stem, Leaf: Structure and Function 16.2 Plant Tissues and Their Functions
Monocots and dicots have structural differences. A Water and dissolved minerals are transported in
major difference is in the seed structure: monocot dead, hollow xylem cells called vessels and tracheids.
seeds have one seed leaf, dicots have two. In phloem, living sieve-tube cells, with the aid of
Roots anchor the plant, absorb water and minerals, companion cells, transport sugars.
and transport water to the stem. Parenchyma tissue provides storage or support.
Root hairs increase the surface area available for Meristematic tissue is the growth tissue of plants. It
water absorption. is the only plant tissue whose cells can divide.
Stems conduct water and sugars to and from leaves. Epidermal tissue provides waterproofing and phys-
Monocots have vascular bundles throughout the ical protection.
stem; the vascular bundles of dicots form a ring.
Herbaceous (soft) and woody (hard) are the two 16.3 Water and Food Transport
main types of stems found in plants. Water transport up the xylem depends on root pres-
Mesophyll cells in the leaves are arranged to max- sure, which “pushes” water into the vascular cylin-
imize light absorption and gas exchange in order to der, as well as transpiration (leaf) pull, which “pulls”
carry out photosynthesis. water up the stem to the leaves. Water transport re-
Transpiration in the leaf is controlled by specialized quires no energy from the plant.
epidermal cells, called guard cells. In the pressure-flow theory, sugars are pumped into
the phloem and move down to the root because of
differences in water pressure between the leaf and
root. Sugar transport requires energy.
Non-vascular plants rely on osmosis and capillary
action for water transport.
1. Refer to your Checkpoint activity on page 529 and re- 3. The pressure-flow theory was described in section 16.3.
view the chart listing the structures and functions of Explain how this theory is important to our under-
plants. Revise the chart based on what you have learned standing of how plants function.
in the chapter. 4. Reflect on your learning. Diagrams are an important way
2. Draw a concept map beginning with the terms water, of communicating information in science. Name three
roots, and leaf to summarize what you have learned advantages to using diagrams as you learn.
about plant structure and function.

Understanding Concepts 12. Analyze how the shape of a typical dicot leaf is adapted
to its function.
1. The large surface area of root systems is mainly due to
the presence of 13. Plant growth is of two types: growth in height and growth
a) adventitious roots in diameter. Specific tissues are responsible for each of
b) root hairs these types of growth. By continuously cutting away one
c) taproot of these tissues, a miniature — but fully mature — plant
d) secondary roots can be obtained. Explain how and why this occurs.
2. Which of the following does not belong in this list? 14. A 10-cm nail is hammered 5 cm into a young tree trunk
a) parenchyma 1 m above the ground. Describe what one would observe
b) cork cambium about 30 years later with respect to where the nail would
c) apical meristem be and how deep it would be in the trunk. Provide rea-
d) vascular cambium sons for your answer.
3. Which of the following tissues does not contain meris- 15. There are at least two different plant tissues that serve
tematic cells? their primary function once they are dead. Identify these
a) vascular cambium tissues and describe the specific role(s) of each.
b) stem tip
c) root tip 16. Describe the likely effect on a) the root and b) the en-
d) phloem tire plant of adding a high concentration of salt to the
ground where the plant is growing. Explain your an-
4. Annual rings in the stem of a tree are actually swers.
a) layers of xylem
b) layers of phloem 17. Suppose a chemical can be administered to a plant
c) layers of xylem and phloem that stops the process of active transport but has no other
d) sapwood effect on the plant. Describe the likely consequences on
a) water transport
5. The pressure exerted at the source in the pressure- b) food transport
flow theory is the result of Explain the reason(s) for each of your answers.
a) diffusion of sugars into root cortex
b) diffusion of sugars into palisade cells 18. Where would you expect to find stomata on floating water
c) osmosis of water into sieve-tube cells plants? Explain.
d) osmosis of water into xylem vessels
6. Draw a cross section of a monocot root and add labels Applying Inquiry/
to identify the tissues. Communication Skills
7. Construct a table showing the differences between mono-
19. Design an experimental procedure to determine whether
cots and dicots.
a plant exhibits root pressure. What evidence would sup-
port your hypothesis?
8. Distinguish between adhesion and cohesion. Briefly
describe how each of these helps in the transport of
20. You have learned that by counting the annual rings in
water.
a cut tree trunk, one can determine the approximate age
of the tree when it was cut down. Find out how envi-
9. Draw a diagram describing the process of water move-
ronmental conditions that the tree was exposed to over
ment into sieve-tube cells.
its life can be determined from carefully examining the
annual rings.
10. Explain why the terms source and sink are used in de-
scribing food transport in the pressure-flow theory.
21. People spend a lot of time trying to get a perfect lawn.
The physical removal (by hand) of dandelions and un-
11. On the basis of the structure of xylem and phloem, pro-
wanted grass from a lawn are both difficult, but for dif-
vide an explanation for the faster movement of sap
ferent reasons. Provide a brief explanation based on the
through xylem.
structure of the plants.

22. Radish seedlings were examined by students to Analyze the data in Figure 16.35. What does it tell you
determine the surface area of the root hairs on the about the location of cell division in the root tip?
emerging primary root. The average surface area of a
typical root hair was estimated at 0.3 cm2. Table 16.2 25. Analyze the data in Figure 16.35. What conclusions can
below shows results from four seedlings. you draw as to the type of tissue in the root tip?
a) Calculate the total surface area for each of the radish
seedlings as well as the average total surface area 26. If the same measurements had been taken in a section
for the four samples. of root 16–20 10-4 cm from the end of the root, predict
b) Compare the average surface area calculated to the what data would be obtained. Draw a graph of this
surface area of the cover of your textbook. hypothetical data.
c) The data you are looking at comes from only one
small primary root, about 3–4 cm in length. What 27. What conclusions could you draw about the type of
conclusions can be drawn from the fact that mature tissue in the previous question?
dicot plants will have hundreds of branch roots in
addition to a long primary root?
Making Connections
TABLE 16.2
28. Beavers often kill trees by “girdling” them (removing a

Radish seedling Number of root hairs (estimate) strip of bark from the entire circumference).
1 1050 a) Explain specifically why the tree will die.
b) Propose a method to prevent this from happening
2 1200 in an area without harming the animals or the en-
vironment.
3 1180
4 1300 29. Explain why “old xylem” is vital to Canada’s economy.
30. Scientists have discovered that certain plants produce

23. Design a classroom experiment to determine the effect additional layers of cuticle as a protective measure when
of physically preventing leaf transpiration on geranium attacked by pests such as fungi. Assume that scientists
plants. You must control only this factor; all other con- will be able to put this characteristic into any plant they
ditions must be suitable for normal plant growth. Control want to in the future. Predict some of the possible con-
plants must be part of your experimental design. sequences of this technology.
24. The graph in Figure 16.35 shows the percentage of di- 31. A number of plants are currently being studied for use
viding root cells in a root tip. in cleaning up land sites containing toxic substances.
a) Name the technique of using plants for this purpose.
b) Briefly describe how this process works.
35 c) Consider some of the limitations and possible neg-
ative effects on the environment of this method of
cleaning up toxic land sites. Outline your concerns.
30
32. Trees in urban areas often have difficulty surviving. They
25
Cell divisions (%)
are exposed to air pollution. The water they receive may

contain dissolved salt used to clear icy streets, and oil
20 from automobile leaks. Their roots are often confined to
cement planters or are mostly covered by concrete
15 sidewalks. List the benefits trees provide to an urban
location. Describe actions that could be taken to increase
the number of trees in an urban area near you. Also,
10
propose a course of action that would improve the
chances of survival for existing trees.
5
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Distance from end of root (x10–4 cm)
FIGURE 16.35

C H A P T E R 17
SPECIFIC
EXPECTATIONS Plant Growth and
describe the nutrients required for
Development
the development of plants (17.1)
describe the effects of growth
regulators (17.2)
design and carry out an experiment
to determine the factors that affect
the growth of a population of
plants (Investigation 1)
FIGURE 17.1 Lettuces and beans being grown hydroponically
556
T he lettuces in Figure 17.1

are being grown hydropon-
ically. Instead of being planted
in soil, their roots are placed in
a solution that contains all
the dissolved nutrients the
plants need. Growing lettuce
hydroponically has certain
advantages. The grower can
carefully control all the factors
that affect the growth of the let-
tuce plants. Sunlight can be
controlled through the use of
ultraviolet light. The tempera-
ture can be controlled in the
greenhouse. The nutrients in
the growing medium can be
adjusted easily. By controlling
each of these factors, plants can
be grown efficiently in the
shortest possible time, provid-
ing Canadians with fresh
produce all year round.
FIGURE 17.2 This massive pine tree germinated
Unlike the hydroponic
from a tiny winged seed. Conifers grow continuously lettuces, the tree in Figure 17.2 CHECKPOINT
for hundreds, and in some cases, thousands of belongs to a family of trees that
years, and can reach heights of over 100 m. can grow to heights 10 times All seeds have certain
higher than a typical two-storey requirements for germination
high school. How does a seed and growth. Using a
grow into such a massive structure, one that can live for over a thousand flowchart, begin with the
years? Many processes, some very complex, take place in the growth and word seed and list all the
development of a new plant. requirements you can think
of that will make the seed
grow into a mature plant.
Discovering Biology Seed
It’s a Gas!
Bananas produce a gaseous substance that may affect the ripening of green
tomatoes.
Work in small groups and design an experiment to test this hypothesis. Each
group will need three green tomatoes, a ripe banana, and two plastic bags.
What will be the control in your experiment?
Carry out the experiment recording your observations over the next
several days. Mature Plant
Analyze your observations and form conclusions about what effect the
banana has on the ripening of tomatoes.
CHAPTER 17 Plant Growth and Development 557

17.1 Plant Growth and Adaptations

Key Understandings
describe the nutrients required for the development of plants
describe how plants adapt to growth factors in their environments
design and carry out an experiment to determine the factors that affect the growth of
plants
Plants need water, carbon dioxide, and The amounts of these components vary
light in order to manufacture the organic in different soils. There are several lay-
molecules required for energy and ers that make up soil (Figure 17.3). The
growth. Inorganic substances, commonly top layer consists of humus. Soil with
referred to as minerals, are absorbed higher concentrations of humus will sup-
from the soil by the plant’s roots and are port plant growth better than soils with
carried, dissolved in water, to the leaves. little humus. Beneath the humus is top-
In order for seeds to germinate, certain soil, the layer that primarily supports
environmental conditions must be pre- plant growth. It contains humus, clay,
sent. Only then can a seed germinate minerals, and sand. A layer of subsoil
and develop into a new plant. lies beneath it and a layer of bedrock is
found under subsoil. Plants cannot grow
well in subsoil and do not grow at all
Soil and Soil Nutrients
in bedrock. Many varieties of insects,
Plants need nutrients to grow and worms, and micro-organisms live in the
develop and they get these nutrients top three layers of soil. Water, as well as
from the soil. Soil consists of sand, clay, the minerals dissolved in it, is absorbed
rock particles, minerals, and decaying by plant roots from these three layers.
plant and animal matter called humus. Plant nutrients are classified as ei-
ther macronutrients or micronutrients.
Macronutrients are required in relatively
large amounts by the plant, whereas mi-
humus
cronutrients (or trace elements) are
needed in very small quantities. Both
topsoil containing humus types of nutrients are taken in by the
roots. Table 17.1 lists some plant nutri-
ents and their functions.
Nitrogen is of prime importance for
plant growth. Although 80 percent of
Earth’s atmosphere consists of nitrogen,
subsoil plants cannot take it in as a gas. Nitrogen
must be absorbed, by the roots, in the
form of nitrate or ammonium com-
pounds. These compounds are supplied
by the decomposing organic matter in
the soil. Unlike most other plants, the
bedrock
legumes, which include the bean, pea,
and alfalfa families, have specialized
roots that allow them to absorb nitrogen
directly from the atmosphere by a pro-
FIGURE 17.3 Soil. The various layers together are referred to as the soil profile. cess known as nitrogen fixation. The

TABLE 17.1 Some Plant Nutrients and Their Functions
Plant Nutrient Function
Macronutrients: Nitrogen component of proteins, DNA, RNA
Phosphorus component of DNA, RNA
Potassium controls operation of stomata, crucial in water intake in roots
Calcium important in the development and functioning of cell walls
Magnesium component of chlorophyll
Micronutrients: Iron important in cell respiration
Zinc crucial in the functioning of chloroplasts
Copper important in cell respiration
roots of legumes have small swellings or plant. Phosphorus (as well as nitrogen)
nodules (Figure 17.4), which contain ni- is used by cells to make DNA. Potassium
trogen-fixing bacteria. These bacteria is also important in protein synthesis as Investigation
are able to convert or “fix” nitrogen from well as in the normal development of Refer to page 574,
the atmosphere into the nitrate and am- roots. Calcium is important in the Investigation 1
monium compounds required by plants. normal development of cell walls, and
This process is called nitrogen fixation. magnesium is a key component of the
Nitrogen and sulfur are important chlorophyll molecule. Humans require
components of proteins made by the the same inorganic substances for
growth as plants do and most of these
substances are obtained by eating plants.
Even though they are required only
in very small amounts, the micronutri-
ents are also critical in normal growth
of plants. If any of the required
micronutrients are missing from the soil,
the plant will not grow properly or it
may die.

restrictions.

restrictions.
FIGURE 17.4 Nodules on roots of a bean plant. FIGURE 17.5 The leaves of this bean plant are
The nodules contain the nitrogen-fixing bacteria, turning yellow due to a lack of sulfur.
Rhizobium, which convert nitrogen from the air
to nitrogen compounds needed by the plant.

Fertilizers and Plant Growth Choosing the right kind of fertilizer

depends on the type of plant, as well as
Farmers have known for centuries that
the kind of growth you want from the
adding fertilizer to soil results in better
plant. For example, do you want a plant
crops. There are two types of fertilizers.
to produce many flowers, as in rose
Organic fertilizers come from living
bushes, or do you want a plant to pro-
sources and contain decaying plant or an-
duce lots of green growth, as in a lawn?
imal matter; examples are compost, sheep
Fertilizers with a high first number
or cow manure, bone-meal, and fish meal.
promote green growth, so a fertilizer
Inorganic fertilizers are produced chem-
with a high nitrogen content is used on
ically. Commercial fertilizers such as lawn
lawns and evergreen shrubs. Fertilizers
and plant fertilizers have three numbers
with a high second number have large
on their labels, such as 10-6-4. The first
amounts of phosphorus. Phosphorus is
number indicates the percentage of ni-
used by the plant to grow roots and to
trogen; the second, the percentage of
form flowers. If you are growing flow-
phosphorus; and the third, the percent-
ering plants, growing grass from seed,
age of potassium.
or have laid new sod, fertilizers with
high phosphorus content are the most
effective. Potassium helps build
hardiness into plants. Fertilizing plants
with a high potassium fertilizer in late
autumn helps plants to survive the
winter. Vegetables require moderate to
high levels of all three nutrients.
An advantage of using organic
fertilizers is that they release nutrients
Image omitted due to copyright restrictions. into the soil more slowly than inorganic
fertilizers do, and are less likely to be
washed away in a heavy rain.
FIGURE 17.6 A bag of commercial fertilizer.

This fertilizer has high nitrogen and potassium
percentages.
Discovering Biology Which Fertilizer for What Job?

As you have read, different fertilizers are used for dif- TABLE 17.2 Common
ferent purposes. For instance, people who do not want Garden Fertilizers
to cut their grass very often may select a fertilizer with
Fertilizer
a lower nitrogen content than one recommended for
a lush, rapidly growing lawn. 10-20-10
Copy the list of fertilizers in Table 17.2 into your 10-4-14
notebook. Match each of the following desired
outcomes with the appropriate fertilizer: high veg- 20-27-5
etable yields; a lawn successfully surviving winter; a 25-3-5
lush, green lawn; new lawn growth from seed; and
many flowers. 12-12-12

Requirements for Seed initiate or contribute to germination. Some INFOBIT

Germination species like the jack pine require that their
cones be heated or singed by fire to re- Possibly the most durable seed
Once a seed has been released from the comes from the Arctic lupin.
lease the seeds. Other species like oak
fruit, it won’t necessarily germinate Frozen seeds were found in the
acorns and walnuts require exposure to Yukon in 1954. Some seeds
immediately upon landing in a suitable
cold temperatures for a long period be- were successfully germinated.
environment. Most seeds go through a
fore the embryo will germinate. The lotus Radiocarbon dating showed
resting period or dormancy. The em- the seeds were produced
seed requires scratching or cracking
bryo cells in the seed undergo very slow between 8000-13 000 B.C.!
(called abrasion) of the seed coat before
metabolic processes. Some seeds, such
the seed will break dormancy. Other
as the coconut, may have a dormancy
species require that their seed coat be
period of months. In some cases, seeds
altered chemically by some factor in the
can remain dormant for years and still
environment. For instance, some seeds
be able to germinate.
will germinate only after passing through
Other seeds germinate within days
the digestive system of a particular animal.
of finding suitable soil conditions. There
The seeds of desert plants have a
are even examples of plants in which the
tricky problem. They must germinate only
seed has no dormancy period at all. In
when there is enough moisture in the
the red mangrove, a subtropical tree
ground to support their growth to matu-
(Figure 17.8), the seed germinates in the
rity. If they germinate after a brief rain,
fruit, while still attached to the tree.
the seedling could dry out and die after a
In agriculture, it is important for
week or so. Only a prolonged rain is suf-
seeds to be stored under controlled con-
ficient to let them complete their growth,
ditions so that they will be able to
bloom, and produce the next generation
germinate when they are needed. Proper
of seeds. These plants have a chemical in
crop seed storage is crucial in ensuring
their seeds that inhibits germination. Only
society’s continuing food supply.
a heavy rainfall can wash away this in-
When conditions are right, a seed em-
hibitor and let the seed germinate. A light
bryo will end its dormancy and begin to
rain will not break their dormancy.
grow. For many seeds, this process of ger-
mination begins with the absorption of
heat and moisture from the soil. The seed
also requires oxygen to germinate. Some
seeds require light before they will ger-
minate. There are also other factors that

restrictions.
restrictions.
FIGURE 17.7 Germinating coconut. This FIGURE 17.8 The radicle

coconut seed may have been dormant weeks or emerging from a mangrove
months before it germinated. fruit/seed still on the tree

fruits, these seeds have failed to

germinate. This phenomenon has
puzzled botanists for many years, but
scientists now hypothesize that the
Extinction May Cause dodo bird, which became extinct at
about 1790 due to human slaughter, Image omitted due to
Extinction copyright restrictions.
was the main consumer of this fruit.
The dodo ate the fruit for its fleshy
The island of Mauritius in the Indian exterior. The seed was activated by
Ocean is the only habitat of a species abrasion and chemical action as it
of tree called the dodo nut tree. passed through the dodo’s gut. By
Strangely, the youngest of these trees killing the dodo, this species of plant
are more than 200 years old. Despite may be doomed to extinction as well! FIGURE 17.9 Drawing of the extinct dodo
their abundant crops of cherry-sized bird
WORD ORIGIN Germination before dormancy. They now elongate

Germination in both monocots and di- under the influence of hormones and ab-
radicle from the Latin word cots begins when the embryo releases sorbed materials. The growth in the
radix, meaning “root,” and length of the root occurs in an area of
-ulus, meaning “little.” the plant hormone, gibberellin, into
the rest of the seed. This chemical trig- cells just above the apical meristem
gers the production of digestive enzymes called the zone of elongation (Figure
within the seed. These enzymes break 17.11). In the zone of maturation, these
down large storage molecules such as cells develop into a variety of mature root
starch and release smaller sugar cells, including specialized epidermal cells
molecules to provide energy for the with root hairs.
growing embryo. Other enzymes digest In plants such as the bean, once the
the stored lipids and proteins. radicle has begun to grow rapidly, the
These sugar molecules greatly in- hypocotyl begins to emerge (Figure
crease the solute concentration of the 17.12). The hypocotyl forms a loop or
liquid inside the seed. This makes the “hook” that elongates upward, anchored
interior of the seed hypertonic, causing by the well-developed radicle. The hook
more water to be absorbed by osmosis. drags the cotyledons with it. When the
Eventually, the seed coats soften and hook encounters light, it stops elongat-
FIGURE 17.10 Corn and stretch or crack under pressure from ing and straightens. The hypocotyl
bean seed structure. In some their swelling contents. Oxygen can now becomes the lower portion of the stem.
plants, the endosperm is the The epicotyl supports the leaves, the
diffuse in, and the embryo obtains
only source of nourishment
energy using aerobic respiration. The tip upper part of the stem, and the termi-
for the embryo. In other
plants, nutrients are stored in of the radicle emerges and elongates nal bud. The leaf-like cotyledons remain
the cotyledons. rapidly. Rapid growth is possible because on the plant temporarily and perform
the cells of the radicle were formed photosynthesis. As true leaves develop
epicotyl
plumule seed coat
hypocotyl endosperm
radicle plumule
cotyledons cotyledon
embryo
seed coat radicle
Bean (dicot) Corn (monocot)

epidermis cortex xylem
phloem
epicotyl
endodermis cotyledons
maturation
root hair
zone of
cotyledon
radicle hypocotyl
hypocotyl
elongation
zone of
cell division
zone of
FIGURE 17.12 Development of a bean seedling

apical meristem
root cap
FIGURE 17.11 Longitudinal section of a to reduce the surface area, and there-
growing root fore water loss. Because the needles are
so small, photosynthesis occurs in the
stems. In addition, cacti have thick stems
from the apical meristem, the cotyledons specially adapted to store water.
wither and fall off. The root system of most desert
plants is usually very extensive to allow
Plant Adaptations to for maximum absorption of what little
Different Environments water is available. The seeds germinate
quickly. The plants develop rapidly dur-
Plants need light, water, and soil nutri- ing the very short rainy season. Flowers
ents to grow, yet some environments lack and seeds are produced within a few
one or more of these requirements. Over weeks. As the long dry period begins,
many thousands of years plants have de- only the seeds survive until the next pe-
veloped adaptations to deal with these riod of rain arrives.
less than ideal conditions.
Desert Adaptations Deserts lack water

and so plants that live in this environ- Discovering Biology Leaf Adaptations
ment must have adaptations to help
them find and conserve water. Familiar Obtain three different leaves from your teacher, each from a plant
desert plants such as cacti possess a that grows in a different environment. Observe each leaf carefully.
thick waxy outer layer called a cuticle, You may want to examine them with a hand lens. Decide what
and have small or no leaves. Since most environment each plant lives in. Discuss with a partner what
adaptation(s) each leaf shows that allows the plant to successfully
water loss in plants occurs by transpi-
live in its particular environment.
ration from leaves, desert plants such as
cacti have leaves modified into needles

Adaptations for Wet Environments The fireweed (Figure 17.14) and Populus
ponds, swamps, bogs, and marshes grow only after a fire, and quickly cover
common to the boreal forest all contain the ash-coated ground. When other
plants that are adapted to water. Many plants and trees eventually appear,
species of plants live in shallow ponds these two species are crowded out.
and extend their leaves and flowers to Plants that are “specialists” on
the surface. Floating leaves, such as burnt land must have a means of sur-
lily pads (Figure 17.13), exchange gases viving fire. The seeds of some species
more readily than underwater leaves. need to be strongly heated or singed by
The living tissue in plant roots must ob- fire in order to germinate. This char-
tain oxygen if cellular respiration is to acteristic makes good ecological sense:
occur. For tissues that are underwater, the seeds will germinate and grow best
this can be difficult. Herbaceous pond after a fire, when there is no competi-
plants like the water lilies have special tion for soil and light from mature
stems to help move oxygen to their un- plants. Also, the ash-enriched soil
derwater roots. Hollow tubes in the makes an ideal environment for young
stems allow gases to diffuse downward. seedlings.
These tubes serve a dual purpose: they
make the stem buoyant, which then
helps to keep the plant upright in the
water. Vascular plants like the pickerel
weed and water plantain live partly sub-
merged in water often produce seeds
that are designed to float.
restrictions.
Image omitted due to copyright FIGURE 17.14 Fireweed is one of the first
restrictions. plants to appear after a forest fire.
FIGURE 17.13 Water lilies. The leaves of the

water lily have stomata on their upper surface
only.

restrictions.
Adaptations for Fire Fire is a normal oc-

currence in the boreal forest. It removes
old and dying trees, and enriches the soil
with ash. The ash neutralizes some of
the acid in the soil, making the soil
conditions better for new plants. Many
plants can live only in environments FIGURE 17.15 This jack pine cones have
recently ravaged by fire. Plants such as opened after being singed.

Cold Climate Adaptations Many plants In deciduous plants, nutrients are

must contend with sub-zero tempera- moved out of the leaves before they are
tures and dry winter conditions, dropped and are stored in the roots over
especially in the tundra and boreal for- winter. In early spring, the days lengthen
est. Plants have developed adaptations and water becomes more abundant. As Image omitted due to
that allow them to survive and repro- the trees come out of dormancy, these copyright restrictions.
duce in such harsh conditions. In colder sugars are brought from the roots, in the
climates, heat-collecting adaptations are sap, as new leaves develop. It is during
useful. The flowers of some tundra this time that maple trees are tapped for
plants such as the arctic poppy act as this sap in order to make maple syrup.
miniature solar collectors (Figure 17.16). Evergreens, such as the spruces, FIGURE 17.17 Balsam fir
Under hormonal control, these flowers do not lose their leaves in the winter. leaves are flattened needles.
rotate to follow the sun across the sum- Instead, the leaves are designed to min- New growth shows a lighter
mer sky. The shape of their flowers con- imize winter drying by having a thick green.
centrate the sun’s rays on the ovary at layer of moisture-proof cuticle. Evergreen
the base of the petals. With the extra heat, leaves are modified to form needles,
the ovary matures faster so that repro- which minimize the surface area of the
duction can occur before winter sets in. leaves, to reduce winter drying (Figure
This is an important adaptation in a short 17.17).
growing season.
Adaptations for Nutrient-Poor Soil Some
soils are very acidic. In boreal forest soil,
the acid is mostly humic acid from fallen
conifer needles. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria
do not thrive in acidic soil, and so there
is little conversion of nitrites to nitrates,
Image omitted due to copyright the form of nitrogen that plants are able
restrictions. to use. Angiosperms, however, need gen-
erous supplies of nitrogen, which are
needed to make proteins. A number of
angiosperms that live in nitrogen-poor
soil have developed a special technique
for obtaining nitrates: they “eat” animals.
FIGURE 17.16 The flowers of the arctic poppy Carnivorous plants capture, kill, and
act as solar-energy collectors. partly digest insects. The digestion
proceeds far enough to remove the
nitrogen-containing compounds and the
Plants must have a means of sur- remainder of the animal is then
viving winter’s lack of water. Plants that discarded. In Ontario, carnivorous plants
grow in areas with a cold winter have a include the sundew (Figure 17.18), the
dormant period. Just how plants sense pitcher plant, and the butterwort.
the approach of winter is not clear, but Some plants survive in nutrient-poor
it is thought that the lower tempera- soils by “stealing” food from other plants.
ture and declining daylight periods are There are over 2500 species of parasitic
the key stimuli to trigger leaf fall in de- flowering plants worldwide. These plants
ciduous trees. If leaves remained on the can get water, minerals, or sugars from
trees, the water in the leaves could their host plant. Mistletoe (Figure 17.19c),
freeze and damage the leaves’ tissues. a plant with chlorophyll, obtains some
With a large surface area, they would of its nutrition by “sucking” fluid from
also dry out easily. The simple solution the xylem of its host plant. The parasitic
for many plants is to lose their leaves as vine, dodder, which contains almost no
winter approaches. chlorophyll, obtains all its nutrition by


FIGURE 17.18 Although the

Venus fly trap a) does not
grow in Ontario, it is probably
the best-known carnivorous
plant. It grows in the southern
U.S. Sundews b) are found in
Ontario.
a) b)

FIGURE 17.19 Parasitic plants

a) Dodder b) Indian pipe c) Mistletoe
drawing fluids from the host’s xylem and spring. Plants that use this adaptation
phloem. Indian pipe gets its nutrition are called spring ephemerals. As soon
from the host tree’s roots. as the snow melts, trilliums and dog-
toothed violets send their shoots
Adaptations to Shade In both the boreal upwards (Figure 17.21).
and temperate deciduous forests, the Within days, their leaves are
Image omitted due to canopy of tall trees shades the ground collecting light and soon they are in full
copyright restrictions. (Figure 17.20). Deciduous maples and bloom. This rapid growth is possible
beeches can block more than 98 percent because each plant has a specialized
of the sunlight reaching the ground energy-storing root underground. These
below. Smaller plants below these trees plants’ life cycles are carried out
must be adapted to live with limited before the forest canopy leaves appear.
light, particularly in the deciduous for- By midsummer, the spring plants have
est where fires are much less frequent. disappeared.
FIGURE 17.20 The forest Many herbaceous plants of the tem- Winter survival was difficult for
floor gets only a small perate deciduous forest have adapted to native peoples and early European set-
amount of direct sunlight. this lack of light by blooming early in the tlers in North America. In spring, with

winter food stores dwindling, any source called wild leek emerges early in the
of food was welcome. Spring plants spring. Its leaves and bulb are edible,
helped. A member of the onion family tasty, and nutritious (Figure 17.22).

FIGURE 17.21 The trillium is the official flower FIGURE 17.22 Wild leeks
of the province of Ontario. If you see trilliums
flowering in the early spring, enjoy looking, but
do not pick them.
Section 17.1 Review

Understanding Concepts 7. Scientists have “tricked” a type of plant
that normally does not fix nitrogen into
1. Make a chart listing three important developing root nodules, the structures
inorganic substances from soil needed that hold nitrogen-fixing bacteria in
by plants in significant quantities, and legumes. These nodules do not have
the role each plays in growth. bacteria in them. Describe further steps
2. Indicate one advantage and one dis- you think scientists need to carry out
advantage of using inorganic fertilizer. to enable these plants to fix nitrogen
3. Describe the factors that affect the in the same manner as the legumes.
growth of a desert plant and explain
how the plant has adapted to grow in
desert conditions.
4. In a germinating seedling, what role TABLE 17.3 Three trays of seedlings were
do the cotyledons play? Explain the risk given a complete nutrient solution, distilled
water, or a nutrient solution lacking nitrogen.
that the seedling faces if the cotyledons
After several days, the root length of the
drop off or are broken off prematurely.
seedlings were measured.
Applying Inquiry/ Solutions Mean Root Leaf Colour

Communication Skills Length (mm)
5. Interpret the results in Table 17.3 to Complete 46 deep green
determine which solution provided the nutrients
elements for healthy growth.
Distilled 13 pale green/
6. Decide whether there is enough
water yellow
evidence to conclude that a solution
lacking nitrogen is better for plant Lacking 15 pale green
growth than distilled water. Provide nitrogen yellow
reasons for your answer.

17.2 Hormones and the Control

of Plant Growth
Key Understandings
identify plant hormones and describe their functions
WORD ORIGIN All organisms must be able to control Individually or collectively, they can alter
their own growth and plants are no the rate of mitosis, direct differentiation,
hormone from the Greek word exception. Plants use hormones to control aging, and stimulate the growth
horman, meaning “to set in
coordinate their growth in response in size of individual target cells.
motion” or “to urge.”
to external factors such as light, gravity,
auxin from the Latin word nutrients, and competition, or in re-
Auxins
augeo, meaning “to enlarge, sponse to internal factors such as the
grow, or increase.” need for repair or reproduction. It has long been observed that plants
A hormone is a complex chemical bend toward a light source. Experiments
produced in very small amounts within done in the late 1880s showed that the
the plant, and it has a dramatic effect on tip of a growing stem was responsible for
the plant’s growth. Hormones are often this phenomenon. Plants such as grasses
produced in one location (the source) have a coleoptile, a sheath that covers
and travel to another location to exert the young leaves as the seedling emerges
their influence (the target). Only small from the ground. The coleoptile responds
amounts of hormones are required to to light by bending toward it. A hormone
stimulate the target cells. called auxin is released from the tip of
There are three groups of plant the coleoptile when it is exposed to light
hormones: auxins, gibberellins, and (Figure 17.23). The auxin is transported
cytokinins. There are also two hormones downward and causes the cells of the
that are not classified into any of these growing stem to elongate. If the light is
groups: abscisic acid and ethylene. coming from the side, the auxin moves
away from the light to the shaded side of
the stem, causing only those cells on the
dark side to elongate. As a result of the
uneven elongation of cells, the stem bends
toward the light.
In the root, auxin produced in
auxin apical meristems causes the root to grow
molecules
downward with the pull of gravity and
tion away from light. In root cells, auxin has
ga
lon the opposite effect than on the shoot
ll e
ce
cells: high concentrations of auxin in-

hibit cell elongation. If a root is exposed
to light, auxin accumulates in the cells
that are the least exposed to the light.
Thus, the “sunny” cells elongate more
a b c
than the shaded ones, causing the root
to curve downward, away from the light.
The same thing happens when grow-
FIGURE 17.23 The action of auxin in shoots. Auxin molecules move away from the
ing roots hit an object such as a stone.
light source, either downward a) or sideways b), depending on the position of the
light source. Auxin accumulates on the lower side of

coleoptile was covered everywhere down the stem. They did not know
except the tip, it still responded to what this “influence” was or how it
light by bending. The Darwins con- functioned. Some 40 years later, an-
cluded that coleoptile is light sensitive other researcher discovered that the
The Darwins’ and that it produces an “influence,” “influence” was in fact a chemical,
Experiments or signal, that causes bending further which is now known as auxin.
Charles Darwin, well known as the

co-originator of the theory of evolu-
light
tion, and his son Francis were the
first researchers to provide evidence
for the existence of plant hormones.
In 1880, the Darwins performed a se-
ries of experiments with grass
seedlings to investigate how they re-
spond to light (Figure 17.24). They
found that if the tip of the coleoptile
control tip tip covered tip covered base covered
was covered with a light-proof cap, removed by opaque by transparent by opaque
and the stem was left exposed, the cap cap shield
stem continued to grow but did not
bend toward the light. However, if the FIGURE 17.24 The Darwins’ experiments
the root, and the upper part elongates.

The root then grows sideways and then
downward around the stone.
Other Effects of Auxins Auxins also affect

other plant parts. The terminal bud (the
highest bud) of many plants produces an
auxin that inhibits or retards the devel-
restrictions.
opment of other buds below it on the
FIGURE 17.25 Leaf fall is
stem. This is called apical dominance. caused by declining levels of
Plants that show strong apical dominance auxin and increased levels of
grow tall and straight. Plants that lack ethylene. Stephen Leacock, the
apical dominance are usually short and famous Canadian humorist,
reportedly spent many hours
bushy. Shade trees often have apical dom-
under this maple tree, located
inance when young, and then lose it as in Jackson’s Point, Ontario.
they mature, thus forming a spreading
canopy high above the ground. Uses for Auxins Chemically, auxin is
Auxins (or their absence) also control known as indoleacetic acid or IAA. IAA
maturing processes in plants. Leaves on is the only known natural auxin, but oth-
deciduous plants release auxin during the ers similar to it have been synthesized and
warm growing season, but stop releas- are now commercially available. IAA is
ing it as fall approaches. Without auxin, a used commercially in the horticulture
layer of cells at the base of the leaf stalk industry to promote root growth in cuttings.
called the abscission layer weakens, al- Some commercial weed killers have an
lowing the leaf to fall away at the end of artificial auxin, a chemical called 2,4-D. In
the growing season (Figure 17.25). high concentrations, it is toxic to dicots,
Auxins also aid in root development, but monocots, such as grass, can toler-
and in the initiation of flowering. ate these concentrations. Broad-leafed

weeds sprayed with 2,4-D grow uncon- also produced in leaf chloroplasts.
trollably and the plant “grows itself to Gibberellins work together with auxins
death,” leaving only the surrounding to promote elongation of stems and
grass. Unfortunately, during the pro- roots. They also work alone to promote
duction of 2,4-D, another chemical called leaf growth and flowering. Earlier in this
2,4,5-T is also manufactured as a side chapter, you learned how gibberellins
product. Together these two chemicals are involved in seed germination.
are known as “agent orange.” Agent or- Gibberellins also control fruit devel-
ange was used as a defoliant in the opment. An important application of
Vietnam war in the late 1960s and early gibberellins is the spraying of the
70s. Besides killing all plants, it is dan- Thompson variety of seedless grapes.
gerous to human health. A by-product When giberellins are sprayed on the
of 2,4,5-T is dioxin, which is linked to grapes, each grape grows larger and far-
birth defects, skin diseases, and a num- ther apart in a cluster (Figure 17.26).
ber of cancers.
Another artificial auxin is used to re-
tard the sprouting of potatoes during
storage. Seedless tomatoes and water-
melons are produced using an auxin
sprayed on the flowers before pollina-
tion. The unfertilized (and therefore
seedless) ovary develops a fleshy coat
under the influence of the hormone. Image omitted due to copyright
restrictions.
Sprayed auxins may also be used to pre-
vent ripe fruit from falling off orchard
trees. The auxin prevents the abscission
layer from developing, thus allowing the
farmer extra time to harvest the crop.
Gibberellins
Gibberellins are produced in apical FIGURE 17.26 The grapes on the right have
meristems but, unlike auxins, they are been sprayed with gibberellin.
very tall, but these plants soon

fell over. The disease was ap-
propriately known as “foolish
seedling disease.” The scientific
name of the fungus is Gibberella
Foolish fujikori. Kurosawa discovered
Seedlings that a chemical released by the
fungus was responsible for the
abnormal growth. The term gib-
berellin was used to name this
In the 1920s, Japanese biologist Ewiti chemical. Further research
Kurosawa was working with a fun- showed that there were many
FIGURE 17.27 Farmers need rice plants
gal disease of young rice plants. The different forms of gibberellins.
with strong stalks to keep the rice seeds
fungus caused infected plants to grow (More than 80 are now known.) away from the ground.

Cytokinins in part by the environment. These WORDORIGIN

growth responses are called tropisms
Cytokinins are hormones that promote
and are controlled by plant hormones. tropism from the Greek word
cell division and cell differentiation. They tropé, meaning “a turning.”
Positive tropisms are growths toward
also promote seed germination and flow-
the stimulus whereas negative tropisms
ering. Cytokinins are produced in the
are growths away from the stimulus.
roots and are transported to their target
There are several known kinds of
cells. One effect of cytokinins is that they
tropisms, and they are classified by the INFOBIT
prevent some plant cells from aging
type of stimulus to which they respond.
too quickly. Florists spray cut flowers
The old expression that “one
with cytokinins to keep them fresh for a rotten apple will spoil the
longer time.
Phototropism The bending and growth
whole barrel” is true because
of a stem toward a light source is an ex- the rotting apple gives off
ample of a phototropism. Stems and ethylene gas, which
Other Hormones leaves almost always show a positive accelerates the ripening of
phototropic response because this allows all fruit near it.
Unlike the three groups of hormones
previously discussed, abscisic acid (ABA) them to capture more sunlight energy.
does not stimulate growth but, rather, Roots, on the other hand, show a nega-
tive phototropic response by growing WEBLINK
inhibits it. In the lab, ABA speeds up the
fall of leaves when sprayed on plants. away from light. As you have studied,
Plant hormones often work
Whether or not it controls this process auxin is responsible for the different together to produce changes
in the natural environment is unclear. It ways in which stem and root cells elon- in a plant. Research plant
certainly slows down or stops growth gate when exposed to light. hormone interactions and
create a concept map to show
and induces dormancy. these interactions and their
Auxin stimulates the production of Gravitropism The growth response to
effects on plants. Begin
fruit, but another hormone, ethylene, gravity is called gravitropism or your research at
causes the ripening of fruit in many geotropism. Stems show negative grav- www.pearsoned.ca/biology11.
plants. Ethylene is a gas produced in itropism and roots show positive
large quantities by over-ripe fruits. It also gravitropism in response to the force
initiates the formation of the abscis- of gravity. It is believed that the direc-
sion layer in the stems of fruits. tion of gravitational force is sensed by Investigation
Ethylene has widespread commer- specialized cells found in root caps and Refer to page 576,
along the length of stems. These cells Investigation 2
cial applications. Many fruits are now
picked before they are ripe. Green fruits contain dense organelles called
are tougher, do not spoil, and are easy amyloplasts. The amyloplasts sink to the
to ship. The action of ethylene produced lowest side of the cell, thus indicating
by the fruit as it ripens can be stopped, which direction is down. The result is
but not reversed, by adding large quan- the release of auxin, which causes un-
tities of carbon-dioxide gas to storage even cell elongation and the subsequent
containers. They can be stored for an
extended length of time near their final
destination in giant cold lockers flooded
with carbon dioxide. When the market
is ready, as in mid-winter, the locker is
warmed and filled with air and ethylene.
The fruit then ripens and is sold. Image omitted due to copyright
restrictions.
Tropisms and Turgor
Responses FIGURE 17.28 After
Plants grow in response to external being placed on its side,
this oak sapling stem
stimuli. The pattern of growth and the has curved upward
appearance of the plant are determined against gravity.

Gravity acts on the emerging root. Auxin is released and moves to Cells on the upward side elongate,
the downward side of the root, causing the root tip to point downward.
inhibiting cell elongation.
gravity
FIGURE 17.29 Gravitropism in plant roots. Roots show a positive gravitropism.
bending of the root downward, with Other Tropisms Other tropic responses
gravity (Figure 17.29). have been observed. Chemotropism is
a response to certain chemicals in the
Thigmotropism Some plants grow in re- environment. Hydrotropism is a special
sponse to touch. This response is termed type of chemotropism: growth toward
thigmotropism. Most vines are masters water. All tropic responses are of adap-
of this response, using it to gain support tive value, that is, they improve the
without growing a thick woody trunk. likelihood of the plant’s survival.
Specialized cells in the epidermis of
these plants control this response.
Turgor Responses
One of the most remarkable plant
responses is rapid movement. The
insect-trapping movement of a Venus fly
trap is a familiar example. Less well
known, but even more dramatic is the
rapid movement of the leaflets of the
mimosa plant (Figure 17.31).
These rapid movements are brought
about by changes in turgor pressure.
When plant cells are filled or swollen
with water, they are rigid and have high
turgor pressure. When their water
restrictions.
content is low, the cells are limp and tur-
gor is low.
This is similar to a truck tire with
an inner tube. When the tube is full of
air, it presses against the tire. The tire
becomes rigid and can bear weight.
When the tube is low on air, it does not
press firmly against the tire. The tire be-
comes soft and cannot bear weight.
Touching the petiole of the mimosa or
trigger cells on the Venus fly trap causes
FIGURE 17.30 Thigmotropism a sudden loss of turgor in special cells.


FIGURE 17.31 Mimosa leaflets. Touching the petiole of a mimosa plant leads to a
loss in turgor pressure, causing the leaflets to close rapidly.
This is like a nail punching through a

tire’s tube. Rigid weight-bearing cells
rapidly become limp, and the leaflets or
leaves close quickly.
Plants like the sunflower (Figure
17.32) use turgor to “track” the sun like
a TV satellite dish. Many leaves do the
same. These regulated responses are
also carried out by changes in the tur-
gor of specialized cells.
FIGURE 17.32 All the sunflower plants have

angled their flowers toward the sun.
Section 17.2 Review

1. A growing plant is illuminated from
one side. Describe the effect of auxin 5. Using additional sources, collect more
on the cells of the stem. information about the actions of each
2. Describe the effect gibberellins have on of the hormones listed in the text.
a plant and what parts of the plant are Create a chart that lists the hormones’
affected. various actions, and where in the plant
each hormone is produced.
3. Explain the difference between a pos-
itive and negative tropism. Give one ex-
ample of each. Making Connections
4. Flowering tropical plants called
6. Write a brief report on the uses of plant
bromeliads can be “tricked” into flow-
hormones in agriculture. In your re-
ering by growing them inside a clear
port, outline the positive and negative
plastic bag that also has a ripe apple
impacts of using hormones on soci-
in it. Propose a mechanism that ex-
ety, the environment, and on food
plains this observation.
producers and consumers.

Inquiry
InquirySkills
Skills
Initiating
Initiatingand
andPlanning
Planning

Applying
ApplyingTechnical
Using
TechnicalSkills
UsingTools,
Skills
Tools,Material,
material,Equipment
Equipment
Conducting
Conductingand
andRecording
Recording
Analyzing
Analyzingand
andInterpreting
Interpreting
Factors Affecting the Growth of Plants Concluding
Concludingand
andCommunicating
Communicating
In this activity your group will design and carry out an 9. Once the seeds have germinated, the lids may be
investigation to determine how certain factors affect removed.
the growth of a population of plants. You will carry out
your investigation on cress seedlings, which you will Part B–Design and Conduct an Experiment
grow in Part A of the activity.
Part A–Growing Cress Seedlings Experimental Design

1. Discuss each of the following factors and decide
In this activity you will grow cress seedlings using a which one your group will investigate.
soil-less growth medium. You will use the resulting • quality of light (colour)
plants in the experiment you design in Part B. • intensity of light
• amounts of nutrients supplied to plants
Materials LAL1 • temperature
cress seeds • salinity
distilled water 2. Once you have chosen a factor, propose a hypoth-
3 Petri dishes esis for your investigation.
vermiculite 3. List the materials you will need to carry out your
marking pens experiment. The materials must be available either
25-mL graduated cylinder through your teacher or brought from home.
4. Assess whether there are any safety issues with any
of the materials.
Procedure 5. Design your procedure. Outline, in sequence, the
1. Mark the sides of your Petri dishes clearly to steps you will take to carry out your investigation.
identify them as yours.
6. Decide which variable you will manipulate and
2. Fill the bottom half of each Petri dish evenly with which variables will be kept constant.
vermiculite and smooth it out so that the surface is
flat. 7. Decide what you are going to measure and how you
are going to record the data.
3. Measure 20 mL of water into the graduated cylin-
der. Carefully pour the water evenly over the ver- 8. Write out the entire procedure in logical sequence
miculite so that it is thoroughly moistened but there and clearly so that any other science
is no standing water. Record the exact amount of student could carry out your investigation.
water you used. 9. Once your group has completed the procedure,
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 for the other two Petri dishes. exchange it with the procedure of a group investi-
Make sure you use exactly the same amount of gating another factor. Suggest ways they could
water as in step 3. clarify or improve their experimental design.
5. Sprinkle roughly the same amount of cress seeds 10. Modify your experimental design as necessary.
evenly onto the surface of the vermiculite in each dish. 11. Submit your final experimental design to your
6. Gently push the seeds onto the surface and replace teacher for approval.
the lids of the Petri dishes. 12. Once approved, carry out your investigation.
7. Store the dishes in a dark cupboard at room tem- 13. Record data from your investigation.
perature or slightly higher.
8. Check the dishes each day and add water to keep
the vermiculite moist. Always add equal amounts
of water to each dish.


(continued)
Analyzing and Interpreting Concluding and Communicating

1. Analyze your data and decide whether your data 4. Draw a conclusion from your data.
support your hypothesis. 5. Prepare a written lab report as outlined by your
2. Compare your results with other groups that teacher. Be sure to include any possible errors in
investigated the same factor. the design and the carrying out of your experiment,
3. Your group may not have obtained the results you and how they may have affected your
expected for a variety of reasons. Analyze your ex- results.
periment and determine the most likely reasons 6. From your observations of Part A, are nutrients
why you did not get the expected results. needed for seed germination? Explain.
7. From Part B, at what level (concentration intensity,
and so on) did your factor produce the
optimum growth in your seedings?

Inquiry Skills

Investigating Gravitropism Analyzing and Interpreting
Problem a dark place. The tape will hold best if the edge of
the dish rests on a shelf.
In this activity, you will investigate what kind of
response seedlings show to gravity. 5. Predict the direction of root growth as they emerge
from the seeds.
6. Observe the seeds each day and add water as
Materials necessary to keep the towels moist. When the roots
For each groups of students: are 3–4 cm long, mark their location and direction
12 corn seeds soaked Petri dish on the cover with a felt pen.
for 48 h masking tape 7. Rotate the dish clockwise 90° and reattach it to the
paper towels felt pen wall. Predict what will happen to the direction of
growth.
8. After 24 h and after 48 h, observe and draw the
Procedure pattern of root growth.
1. Line the bottom of the Petri dish with folded
paper towels. Use enough paper towels so that in
step 2 the seeds will press against the lid firmly Analyzing and Evaluating
enough to hold them in place. Moisten the towel 1. In what direction did the majority of stems grow
and pour off excess water. after emerging from the seeds?
2. Select 12 corn seeds and arrange them in the 2. After rotating the Petri dish, did the roots continue
dish in a circle with their tips pointing toward in a straight line or did they change direction? If
the centre as in Figure 17.33. Place the dish lid they changed direction, what was their new
on top. direction?
3. Why was it important to place the seeds in a
circle?
4. If cell growth in an emerging root is uniform,
corn seed
then there is no reason for a change in the direc-
tion of growth. However, if there is a change in the
direction, then unequal cell growth must be occur-
ring. Based on your observations, determine where
in the root cell growth or cell elongation must be
greatest.

5. Based on your observations, what conclusions
can you draw about a root’s response to gravity?
6. Do roots show a positive or negative gravitropism?
FIGURE 17.33 Explain.
Corn seeds in paper towels squeezing 7. Scientists are very interested in how plants will
a Petri dish seeds to lid grow in space. Explain why it would be important
to know this.
3. While holding the cover firmly in place, turn the
dish on its edge and shake gently. If any seeds
move from their location, open the dish and add
Extending
more towels until the seeds no longer move when 8. Continue the experiment, observing and recording
the dish is shaken. the growth of the stem. Predict what happens to
the stem when the dish is rotated clockwise, once
4. Tape the edges shut and tape the entire dish onto
the stems are 1–2 cm long. Do the stems
a wall in a cupboard so that the dish is vertical in
respond differently to gravity?

Key Terms
abscisic acid dormancy hormone phototropism

apical dominance ethylene macronutrient tropism
auxin gibberellin micronutrient turgor response
cytokinin gravitropism (geotropism) nitrogen fixation
17.1 Plant Growth and Adaptations 17.2 Hormones and the Control of Plant Growth
Soil, consisting of several layers, contains a num- Auxins control plant growth responses to light and
ber of important nutrients needed by plants. to gravity.
Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are the major Gibberellins promote elongation of roots and stems.
plant nutrients. Cytokinins promote cell division and differentiation.
Legumes are able to fix nitrogen from the air by Abscisic acid inhibits growth.
means of specialized bacteria living in their roots. Ethylene promotes ripening in fruit.
The conditions required for seeds to germinate vary, Phototropism is a plant’s growth response to light.
depending on the plant. Gravitropism is a plant’s growth response to
Nutrients within the seed nourish the seedling until gravity.
leaves and roots develop. Turgor responses allow plants to respond rapidly to
Plants have developed a variety of adaptations to stimuli.
overcome excesses or lack of growth factors in their
environments.
1. Refer to your Checkpoint activity on page 557 and re- 3. Draw a series of unlabelled diagrams illustrating how
view your flow chart outlining growth requirements for a coleoptile responds to a light source directed on one
the development of a seed to a mature plant. Revise side of a plant. In your diagrams, indicate the role of
the flow chart based on what you have learned in the auxin in the growth response.
chapter. 4. Reflect on your learning. You completed a lab report for
2. Draw a concept map to summarize what you have Investigation 1 (Section 17.1): Factors Affecting the
learned about plant growth and development using the Growth of Plants. Why is a lab report an effective learn-
following key terms: dormancy, germination, zone of ing tool?
elongation, zone of maturation, radicle, hypocotyl.

Understanding Concepts 13. Explain why crops such as peas and beans do not re-
quire fertilizers rich in ammonium compounds whereas
1. Seed germination begins with the most other crops do require these compounds.
a) release of a hormone from the seed embryo
b) release of a hormone from the plant 14. Place the following events in proper sequence: cotyle-
c) landing of the seed in suitable soil dons drop off, radicle emerges, seed coat breaks, leaves
d) first rain and warm temperature form, hypocotyl emerges.
2. In phototropism, auxins 15. Explain why seeds are called “time and space travellers.”
a) migrate to the illuminated side of the growing shoot
b) stimulate cell division in the shoot 16. When a deciduous tree is cut down in midsummer, its
c) stimulate cell elongation on the “illuminated” side leaves die, shrivel, and turn brown. However, they do
of the shoot not fall off the branches for months or even years. Explain
d) stimulate cell elongation on the “dark side” of the why these dead leaves do not fall off.
shoot
17. An experiment using radish seeds was set up to inves-
3. During seed dormancy tigate gravitropism. Three groups of seeds were planted
a) no metabolic processes in the seed occur in soil. As soon as the radicles emerged, the seedlings
b) cell respiration occurs at a slow rate in group 1 were placed so that the radicles were facing
c) cell respiration ceases up, group 2 seedlings were placed with their radicles
d) the seed is dead facing down, and group 3 were arranged with their radi-
cles growing horizontally.
4. The requirements needed by all seeds for germination a) Predict what will happen to root growth over sev-
are eral weeks with each group. All of the plants are
a) light and moisture provided with ample water and ideal growing
b) moisture and oxygen temperatures.
c) heat and light b) Explain briefly how auxin controls root growth re-
d) oxygen and light sponse to gravity in each of the three groups of
plants.
5. Which of the following does not belong in the list below?
a) gibberellin 18. Describe four plant adaptations for living in cold envi-
b) ethylene ronments. For any one of these, explain how the same
c) 2,4-D adaptation allows other plants to live in extremely hot
d) auxin environments.
6. Identify the three layers that make up soil and name the 19. House plants grown on a window sill should be turned
layer that provides the most nutrients to plants. or rotated one-quarter turn each week. Provide the rea-
son for this advice.
7. Differentiate between the terms micronutrient and
macronutrient. 20. A bean seedling is growing in a pot, and it’s shoot sys-
tem has emerged from the soil. The pot is knocked on
8. Name the three most important macronutrients for plants its side and left in that position. Draw a diagram of the
and describe one role of each. seedling after having been on its side for three days.
9. Fertilizer designated as “10-6-4” is likely to be used to 21. When a seed germinates, the roots always emerge
promote a lush green lawn. Indicate why this particular before the shoots. Explain why this provides an
fertilizer would be used. advantage to the plant.
10. Describe the role of gibberellins in seed germination. 22. Reread the InfoBIT on page 561. This is an extreme
example of dormancy. However, Arctic lupin seeds have
11. Distinguish a plant turgor response from a tropism. evolved the ability to remain dormant for many years.
Given that this plant lives in the tundra biome, explain
12. Gardeners often “pinch” or cut off the terminal (apical) how this adaptation could help the plant.
shoots of young plants in order to increase the
“bushiness” of the plant. Explain why this technique
works.

Applying Inquiry/ 40
Mass of seedings (mg)

30
23. Research the nitrogen cycle. Explain the role of the
legume family of plants in this important natural cycle. 20
24. Table 17.4 indicates the nutrient levels in four different 10

fertilizers. Copy them into your notebook and match one
to each of the desired outcomes: new sod surviving,
shrubs surviving the winter, high-quality vegetables, and 10 20 30 40 50
increased growth of evergreen seeds. Explain the rea-
FIGURE 17.35 Mass of seed (mg)
soning for each of your answers.
27. Using the Internet and other resources, prepare a sum-

TABLE 17.4 mary table showing the known functions of each of the
Nutrient Levels 10-20-10
following plant hormones: auxins, gibberellins, and
in Four Fertilizers
25-3-5 cytokinins.
4-4-14 Making Connections

28. One of the roles of auxins in some plants is to stimulate
7-7-7
the development of fruit. These auxins are produced in
the seeds of the fruit. Synthetic auxins are applied to an-
25. An experiment using oat seedlings was carried out to giosperms, such as the tomato plant, to induce the pro-
study the effects of auxin on the growth response of the duction of fruit without the need for pollination.
the shoots. Examine Figure 17.34 below showing the ex- a) Relate what is unusual about fruit grown this way.
perimental set up. The “wafers” used in this experiment b) Discuss any practical advantage this technology pro-
are very thin sections of glass, similar to microscope vides for either the food industry or consumers.
cover slips. Predict what the growth response of each
seedling will be. Draw a diagram of your predictions. 29. The herbicide 2,4-D is widely used to kill weeds. It is es-
Explain your predicted results based on your knowledge pecially useful in agriculture since it only kills dicot plants.
of the action of auxins. Explain the significance of this feature of the chemical
in the spraying of agricultural crops. Include a specific
glass wafers example of a crop in your answer.
30. It is not possible to supply sufficient soil nutrients for

agriculture by using animal manure only. Thus, indus-
trial, inorganic fertilizers must be used worldwide. Specify
light some of the environmental concerns farmers must be
sensitive to in using fertilizers.
31. One of the functions of the plant hormone ethylene is

to cause fruit to ripen. Prepare a brief report on this hor-
mone using the following headings: a) plant production
of ethylene, b) effects on fruit tissues, c) commercial uses
of ethylene.
32. Irrigation allows farmers to grow crops in parts of

FIGURE 17.34 Canada that receive little rainfall. Research the use of ir-
rigation and create a PMI chart on the use of irrigation.
26. Figure 17.35 shows the relationship between the mass Investigate how irrigation affects society, the economy,
of seeds and the mass of seedlings grown from these and the environment.
seeds after 30 days of growth. Examine the graph to de-
termine the relationship between seed mass and seedling 33. In order to have high crop-yielding agricultural land,
mass. Propose a hypothesis to explain these results. farmers around the world have had to supply nutrients
to the soil in the form of fertilizers. Without fertilizers,
the yield of agricultural land is very inefficient. Predict
what the effect(s) would be on the world’s natural habi-
tat if fertilizers were not used on agricultural land.

EXPLORING CAREERS
After Class
You’ve learned how career opportuni- talk about the experience you’ve gained
ties in biology are increasing and through accomplishments at home and
changing, as well as how many of these school. These accomplishments are
careers overlap into the other sciences. important and will certainly help get you
You’ve practised how to communicate part-time or summer work. But the
your science skills to prospective em- moment you start that first job, you will
ployers and on forms. You may have begin to accumulate specific experience
found exactly the right match between that can help you obtain the post-
your own interests and a particular field secondary education you want and the
within biology, as well as which career in biology that interests you.
universities offer the most specific
education in that field. But what comes
Finding Experience
next? What can you do toward a
career in biology after this class? 1. Choose one of the experience re-
Have a look at the excerpts from job quirements listed. How could you go
ads shown on this page. Each is a re- about gaining this experience
quirement for experience. You already during your summer break, or after
know the importance of having experi- school?
Make a list of places that could
ence when you apply for a job. If you are
looking for your first job, you can only offer experience. Consider as
many ideas as you can. For ex-
ample, if you selected “working
with animals” you might list pet
shops, animal shelters, dog
grooming services, kennels,
breeders, stables, wildlife/con-
servation groups, farms, groups
supplying therapeutic or com-
panion animals. (Hint: Ask
others for their ideas.)
Obtain a local phone book.
Using this, and your list, look for
places within your community
you could approach for experi-
ence. (Hint: Ask others for sug-
gestions but, this time, ask for
specific contact information.)
Call or visit these places to
find out more. Do they hire
students? Do they take on
volunteers? Do they offer
apprenticeships or other
training? Be sure to mention
why you want this experience.

The Importance of Experience Get it in writ-

ing! When you
Experience doesn’t just make your
do any kind of
résumé look terrific to an employer. It is
work, paid or
important in applying to university as
volunteer, be
well. If your goal is to apply for a uni-
sure to get it
versity program with a set number of
documented.
new students a year, such as medicine
Make a list of
or veterinary science, pharmacology, or
your duties and Image omitted due to copyright restrictions.
other professions, related experience will
keep it with
make an immense difference as to
your résumé
whether you will be accepted.
and other im-
portant infor-
2. Use university calendars and other
mation. When
sources of information about
you ask for a
specific professional schools and
letter of refer-
programs to find out what experi-
ence, explain to
ence is required or recommended
your supervisor
for admission. (Hint: This will be
or employer
listed separately from requirements
that it would be helpful if this letter FIGURE 1 Volunteer work or
to enter a B.Sc. program.) Remember, summer jobs will gain you
emphasized the experience you gained.
you need to do certain undergradu- valuable experience.
Most will be very willing to add a
ate programs or even obtain a B.Sc.
sentence or two, especially if they know
before you apply to medical or other
why it is important to your career plans.
schools, but you can begin prepar-
Ask for this letter at least a week before
ing for that application now.
you leave or need it for an application.
Are there any specific experi-
ence requirements? For example,
a valid St. John’s Ambulance Looking Outward
First Aid Certificate is needed Taking a first aid course is an excellent
when applying for medical idea, whether you are interested in
school. This is something you medicine, human biology, or simply want
can obtain immediately and will to be better prepared for an emergency.
also let you see what it is like to You will also find such a course is rec-
work in the health field. ommended or required for many types
Are there any general experi- of jobs, especially outdoors jobs. Find
ence requirements? For example, out when and where the next St. John’s
admission to veterinary med- Ambulance First Aid Course will be held
icine requires demonstrated in your area. Plan to attend. You will
experience working with animals gain confidence dealing with emergen-
as well as letters of reference cies as well as knowledge on how to
from veterinarians. This is handle everyday mishaps. (Hint: If you
something you can begin have previously taken a first aid course
immediately, by looking for through school, a club, or sports, check
opportunities to volunteer or your qualifications. You must upgrade
work part-time with a local your training every few years to keep
veterinarian. your certificate valid.)

ACHIEVEMENT TASK
View Rubric
Golden Rice: Problem or Solution?
Most Canadians eat a well-balanced diet that
provides all of the vitamins and minerals their
bodies need. In many developing countries
around the world, rice is a large part of people’s
diet, just as wheat is in Canada. However, a
major drawback of rice is that it lacks vitamin
A. In developing countries, the very poor may
restrictions.
eat just a few bowls of rice a day and not much
else. As a result, millions of children around the
world don’t get enough vitamin A. Having a vi-
tamin A deficiency is particularly serious. Lack
of vitamin A causes night blindness, and can
leave the body vulnerable to diarrhea and in-
fectious diseases such as measles, which to-
FIGURE 1 Rice being planted. Rice is a staple in many
gether kill 3.5 million children a year world developing countries.
wide. It is estimated that 100 million children
suffer from vitamin A deficiency.
Swiss scientist Ingo Potrykus decided to
address this issue by developing a genetically Golden rice was never meant to be a total so-
modified rice that would be rich in beta lution to vitamin A deficiency. Studies are
carotene, the building block of vitamin A. It took needed to assess the long-term effects of all ge-
him many years to perfect this new strain of netically modified foods as they become more
rice, which he then offered as new seeds to poor widely used.
farmers in India. Instead of being recognized
for having a sense of social responsibility, his
“golden rice” caused a huge public outcry, and
the warehouse where it was stored had to be
SCENARIO
protected against attacks.
Some environmentalists call the golden rice
“Frankenfood.” They are concerned that golden You are attending a summit on world health and
rice may interbreed with other varieties of rice. will be presenting a funding proposal for re-
Because large corporations helped to market search on genetically modified foods. Your pro-
the rice, there is a fear that the profit motive posal should be based on what you have
may overshadow humanitarian goals. Environ- researched, and your personal views on the
mentalists and agriculturalists say other issue. Your presentation should include: graph-
alternatives, such as the distribution of ics such as charts, tables; summary overheads
vitamin A capsules or leafy green vegetables to help you communicate your argument; as
should be explored before introducing a bio-en- well as any additional presentation devices to
gineered food. add interest and support your proposal.

Part A: Research the Issue Part C: Perspectives

1. Define the term “Frankenfood” and explain 7. Evaluate Potrykus’ golden rice in relation
how the term is used in the debate on to safety, cost, availability, and impact on
genetically modified foods. everyday life and the environment.
2. In a consequence map, show all the differ- 8. How do the media affect our thinking on
ent points of view that exist on the issue genetically modified foods. Give examples.
of genetically modified foods.
9. Compare and contrast the points of view of
3. Research the development of “golden rice” different cultures around the world on
and analyze the social and economic im- this issue.
pacts of your findings, using a PMI chart.
10. Should economics influence the implemen-
tation of solutions to world problems like
vitamin deficiency? Explain.
Part B: Analyzing the Data
4. What methods of experimentation did
Potrykus use to create golden rice? Part D: Summary Sheet
5. Using diagrams and charts, show who is 11. Create a summary sheet (1–2 pages maxi-
most affected by vitamin A deficiency mum) which outlines the important features
around the globe. of your research from Part A and from your
presentation. Your summary sheet must
6. Plan and propose a method of testing the
include a bibliography of the sources used.
long-term effects of “golden rice.”
Attach your PMI chart to the summary
sheet.
UNIT 5 REVIEW
Understanding Concepts 9. The technique of growing many identical plants from a
small group of cells is called
1. The process mainly responsible for water movement up a) grafting
vascular plants occurs in b) cloning
a) roots c) artificial selection
b) stems d) cross-pollination
c) soil
d) leaves 10. The plant “part” that serves as the main food supply for
humans is the
2. Maple sap is “tapped” in early spring because a) seed
a) sugars are manufactured in the leaves as soon as b) root
the weather gets warm c) stem
b) sugars are being transported to the roots d) fruit
c) stored sugars are being moved from the roots to the
tops of the trees 11. The property of water molecules being strongly attracted
d) in winter the snow is too deep to get to the trees to each other is called
a) adhesion and is essential in the transport of
3. Which of the following fertilizers release their nutrients sugars
into the soil fastest? b) cohesion and helps explain the rise of water to the
a) sheep manure tops of plants
b) fish meal c) cohesion and explains root pressure
c) 10-6-4 d) adhesion and is essential for transpiration to take
d) cow manure place
4. Negative gravitropism is demonstrated by 12. The choosing of a particular plant variety to cultivate as
a) roots a crop is an example of
b) stems a) monoculture
c) seeds b) natural selection
d) leaves c) artificial selection
d) phytoremediation
5. Plant hormones are used commercially as
a) fertilizers 13. Which of the following is not an effect of auxin?
b) insecticides a) stimulates stem and root cell elongation
c) weed killers b) stimulates lateral growth of branches in shrubs
d) all of the above c) prevents leaf abscission
d) stimulates growth toward light
6. Which of the following is designed to prevent water loss?
a) cuticle covering of leaves 14. A growth response to contact is known as
b) leaves with small surface area a) thigmotropism
c) leaves that are needles b) gravitropism
d) all of the above c) turgor response
d) phototropism
7. Plants that bloom early in the spring and then are “gone”
until the next spring do so because 15. The ability of plants to re-grow missing parts is the basis
a) they usually grow in dense forests and would be of
shaded from light by trees all summer a) hybridization
b) the soil is richest in nutrients after the snow melts b) grafting
c) they grow best in a cool, wet environment c) artificial selection
d) they require frost at night during their growing d) cloning of cuttings
period
16. In steep, mountainous terrain, clear-cut logging of forests
8. Each stage in succession generally creates an is thought to increase the chance of landslides. When
environment landslides occur, most of the topsoil and loose rock frag-
a) less suitable for itself ments are washed away. When succession occurs, would
b) less suitable for the next stage you expect it to be faster or slower than the succession
c) ideal for the conifers that occurs in a nearby abandoned (agricultural) field?
d) ideal for pioneer plants Explain.

17. Name the biomes found in Ontario. For each one,

identify
a) a representative plant
b) a major climatic characteristic
18. Many plants that grow in the tundra reproduce asexu-

ally. Suggest several reasons why plants that must
survive in such a harsh environment do not rely on
sexual reproduction as do most plants.
19. Once water moves into the vascular cylinder in the root,
it cannot move back into the tissues it came from. Explain
a) what the significance is of this fact for the plant and
b) the reason(s) why water cannot move back. FIGURE 1
20. Discuss the non-conducting role(s) of vascular tissues in 29. Explain briefly how the structure of a guard cell is
angiosperms. In your answer, refer to specific tissues by related to its function.
name when discussing their role(s).
30. Describe the process of water transport into sieve-tube
21. a) Name the two main types of stems found in vascu- cells.
lar plants.
b) Outline three differences between the stem types. 31. Name the three processes responsible for the movement
c) Provide three common examples of plants with each of water and minerals up plants.
stem type.
32. Explain how the same auxin can produce the opposite
22. Relate two structural features of typical angiosperms of growth effect in a root as in a stem.
the temperate deciduous biome that help reduce water
loss. Explain how each one helps the plant conserve 33. Provide several reasons why the practice of monoculture
water. in forest replanting leads to a decrease in biodiversity.
23. Explain clearly the difference between a parasitic and 34. Name three carnivorous plants that grow in Canada.
a carnivorous plant. Identify an example of each that Explain what nutrients are extracted and the reason
grows in Canada. why these plants need to “eat” insects.
24. The average height of a row of corn plants in a field about

half way through the growing season was 0.8 m. Another
row of plants that was sprayed with a particular plant Applying Skills of Inquiry and
hormone had an average height of 1.4 m. Communication
a) Determine what hormone was most likely applied
to the corn plants. 35. A person buys several identical house plants but gets dif-
b) Explain what effect this hormone has on the tissues ferent advice with respect to how frequently they must
of the plants. be watered. Outline the steps of a simple experiment that
could be done at home to determine an appropriate
25. Explain why leaf mesophyll tissue must be constantly schedule for watering the plants.
moist.
36.
26. Describe briefly how water gets from the soil to the pho-
tosynthetic tissues of mosses and liverworts.
27. The photo in Figure 1 shows nodules on the roots of a

bean plant. These nodules are also found on the roots
of alfalfa. Explain what function they serve.
28. Compare heartwood and sapwood tissue with respect to

a) structure of the cells in each tissue and b) function of
the tissue.
FIGURE 2
Unit Review 585

UNIT 5 REVIEW (continued)

Examine the photos in Figure 2. Describe the arrange- 43. Discuss the idea that plants such as trees can live for-
ment of vascular bundles that would be observed in a ever because their living tissue is always young. Provide
cross section of the root of each of these plants. Explain evidence for your answer
your reasoning.
44. In the fields in which parasitic wasps are used as a bio-
37. If a plant is pulled out of the ground and re-planted, it logical control for the alfalfa weevil, farmers avoid using
will often die even though the roots appear to be in- chemical pesticides and herbicides. Outline at least one
tact. Describe what damage likely occurred and reason why each of these chemical controls is not used.
explain why the plant does not survive.
45. Humans have used selection to modify many species in-
38. Predict the likely effect of excess inorganic fertilizer ap- cluding plants like corn and animals like dogs. Select one
plication on a) the germination of a seed and b) the agriculturally important domestic plant species and write
growth of a mature plant such as a geranium. Explain a report showing how it has been altered from its “wild”
each of your answers. state.
39. Horticulturists growing flowering plants in greenhouses 46. Integrated forest management allows for animal diversity
must be able to produce plants with flowers at any to be maintained. Look up this term and explain what is
time of the year even though these times may not be meant by this statement.
when the plant normally flowers. Suggest how this is
accomplished. 47. The seeds of most plants in temperate climates do not
germinate until they have gone through a dormancy pe-
40. riod. The time they remain in dormancy varies from a
few weeks to years. However, there are some temperate
plants in which the seeds germinate as soon as they
light fall upon soil. Predict
a) what types of plants you would expect to produce
seeds that germinate immediately after being re-
leased and
b) in what environments you would expect to find such
plants
Provide reasons for your answers.
48. Erecting buildings in the tundra is difficult because the

footings or foundations upon which the building rests
cannot be properly built in tundra soil. Discuss the fea-
tip separated tip separated tures of the tundra soil that hinder the construction of
by gelatin by glass wafer buildings.
block
49. Leaf fall (abscission) is very important in the harvest-
FIGURE 3 ing of cotton. Research the reasons for its importance
and how growers artificially influence the process.
The diagram in Figure 3 illustrate the results of an ex-
periment to show growth responses of seedlings to light 50. Chloroplasts belong to a group of organelles known as
under three different conditions. plastids. Research plastids and summarize your findings
a) Interpret each of the experiments. in the form of a chart. In your chart, indicate the roles
b) Based on your knowledge of plant hormones, of each type of plastid and the functions of some of the
account for each of the experimental results. molecules found in the plastids, both for plants and an-
imals that eat them.
41. Look back at Table 15.4 on page 527. Predict what types
of trees would likely be found in this field after 100 years 51. Table 1 contains data from the Canadian Pulp and Paper
in this Windsor location. If the field were located near Association, showing total sales of Canadian forest prod-
North Bay, would there be different tree species present? ucts and direct employment in the forest products
Explain. industry from 1994 to 1998.
a) Produce a bar graph using the data provided.
42. You are provided with slides of root and stem cross b) Try to obtain the latest data to determine if there
sections of a plant. Explain how you would be able to are any trends of sales and employment in Canada’s
classify what type of plant you are examining from the forest products industry.
slides.

TABLE 1 Canadian Pulp and Paper Association Sales 57. As of 2000, over 40 transgenic crop varieties have
been approved and are currently grown in North
Year Total sales Direct employment America. GM potatoes, tomatoes, and squash are on the
(millions of dollars) grocer’s vegetable counter. GM grains such as corn are
1994 44 329 242 500 also used in commercial products such as cereals and
snack foods. Often these grains are used in small quan-
1995 53 959 246 800 tities in these products. There has been a call for labelling
1996 51 170 251 700 of all GM foods and products containing them both in
1997 52 340 253 700 North America and Europe. The American Medical
Association (AMA) has stated in a December 2000 re-
1998 52 602 253 600 port that there is no justification for specific labelling of
GM foods. The organization says that without “focused
52. Select one example of a carnivorous plant native to consumer education” there is no point to labelling
Canada. Research the plant and prepare a brief report such products. Based on your knowledge of the types
covering the following topics: habitat, a simple overview of characteristics scientists are modifying in agricultural
of the mechanism use to trap its prey, method of killing plants, discuss the following:
its prey. a) What the AMA means by “focused consumer
education.”
b) What pros and cons of labelling GM foods the
AMA probably examined before reaching their
Making Connections
conclusion.
c) Do you think products that contain GM foods should
53. For any four of the following drugs, construct a chart
be labelled? Provide reasons for your opinion.
showing name of drug, plant it is derived from and use
or effect on humans: digitalis, quinine, salicylic acid,
58. In 1997, it was estimated most prairie farmers spent
opium, caffeine, atropine.
about $8000–$9000 per year on pesticides. With in-
creased use of insect-resistant GM crops and biological
54. There are companies, some on the Internet, that sell live
control methods, one would expect that farmers are
organisms to control garden and agricultural insect pests.
spending less on pesticides. Prepare a brief report on
For example, a company will sell praying mantis (a car-
Western farmers’ pesticide costs using the most up to
nivorous insect) cultures to use in a home garden to
date information you can obtain. In your report, if pos-
kill plant-eating bugs. Describe some of the benefits and
sible, include a bar graph showing pesticide costs over
some of the potential drawbacks the average gardener
the years.
would face in using a biological control such as this.
59. Acid precipitation likely causes more serious damage to
55. It has been discovered that some plants release chemi-
plants in the boreal coniferous forest than in the other
cal substances into the air when they are attacked by
Ontario biomes. Using your knowledge of the environ-
insects. These substances can be detected by certain
mental conditions of this biome, explain why. Research
predatory insects in the area. The predators are attracted
the current status of acid precipitation in Ontario.
to the plant and proceed to eat the plant-eating insects.
Scientists are trying to identify the molecular structure
60. It is likely that the biome most affected by global warm-
of these chemicals and the genes that are responsible
ing will be the tundra. Some scientists have estimated
for their synthesis. Assume a gene for one of these chem-
that the temperature in this biome could rise as much
icals that attracts predatory insects has been isolated
as 10°C. Predict what changes in plant and animal life
and can be used by scientists. Propose a plan that will
will take place as a result of global warming. Decide if
benefit agriculture using this technology.
any species, including humans, would benefit from or
would be harmed by this temperature change.
56. Ethanol, a component of gasohol, is produced from
wastes of agricultural crops. Currently, in the U.S., gaso-
61. Phytoremediation is a form of the technique known as
hol makes up only about one percent of the automobile
bioremediation, in which living organisms are used to
fuel market. The costs of bringing gasohol to market are
clean up environmental contaminants. Research the his-
higher than that of gasoline, even though gasohol re-
tory of bioremediation and prepare a summary report.
duces air pollution significantly. Using corn as an ex-
Include its benefits and its drawbacks in terms of cost
ample, try to identify as many of the costs associated
and impact on the environment.
with the final production of gasohol as you can. Start
with the cost of buying the corn seed. Propose a plan
to significantly reduce the cost of producing ethanol from
plant material so that gasohol can become a more
common fuel source.
Unit Review 587

Appendix
A Science and Safety 590
B The Inquiry Process 594
C The Decision-Making Process 599
D Using Graphic Organizers 602
E Problem-Solving 605
F Graphing Techniques 606
G Periodic Table of the Elements 609
589
A. Science and Safety

Doing science and learning science occur in the classroom, in the laboratory,
and in the field. Safe practices are essential when students are actively
learning science in all environments. Familiarity with the potential hazards
makes it possible to take proper precautions and develop a safe learning
environment.
Before every investigation, you should review all safety precautions and
understand their importance. If you are unsure of any procedure or safety
instructions, ask your instructor before you proceed.
The Canadian Hazardous Products Act requires chemical manufacturers
to include all hazard symbols and the degree of hazard. You may recognize
the household product symbols shown in the photograph. These symbols
indicate hazard(s), precaution, and first-aid treatment.
Hazardous Product and WHMIS

Symbols
The household hazardous symbols indicate the type
of danger and the degree of danger. They appear in
either a triangle (which means “caution”), a
diamond (which means “warning”), or an octagon
(which means “danger”).
Below are some of the more common symbols.
Flammable Explosive Hazard: Toxic Hazard: Corrosive Hazard: Biological Electrical Hazard:
Hazard: Materials The materials or The material is The material may Hazard: Be alert to the
could ignite equipment could very poisonous corrode (“eat Be alert to the possibility of an
(catch on fire) if explode. and could have away at”) cloth- possibility of electric spark or
exposed to immediate and ing, skin, or other poisoning or shock.
flames, sparks, or serious effects. materials. infection from
friction. microscopic and
other organisms.
590 APPENDIX A
Many of the chemical products used in Canadian schools are manufac-

tured in the United States. To standardize the labelling systems, WHMIS
(the Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System) was developed. The
symbols belonging to this system appear on materials and products used both
in workplaces and our schools.
compressed dangerously oxidizing poisonous flammable biohazardous corrosive poisonous

gas reactive material and and infectious material and
material infectious combustible material infectious
causing material causing
immediate other toxic
and serious effects
toxic effects
Laboratory Safety
Approach all investigations, especially in the laboratory, with maturity. Before
you begin, read all instructions carefully, noting all safety precautions. In
addition, your teacher may provide other safety reminders and rules per-
taining to the laboratory activity. It is your responsibility to inform your teacher
of medical conditions such as possible allergies
to materials used (e.g. plants, plant products,
and latex) or by-products of the activity. If you
wear contact lenses, inform your teacher.
1. Precautions and Safety Equipment

a) Identify all safety equipment in the lab-
oratory.
b) Know the location of and how to oper-
ate safety equipment, including the fire
extinguisher, fire blankets, eyewash
fountains, sand, and the first-aid kit.
c) Wear appropriate laboratory apparel,
which includes safety goggles, rubber
gloves, and lab aprons.
d) Tie back long hair and loose clothing.
2. Precautions with Burners or Hot Plates

a) Never leave any burner or hot plate
unattended.
b) Before connecting a burner, make sure
the gas supply valve is completely closed.
Open it only slightly just before lighting
the burner.
APPENDIX A 591
c) If the flame keeps going out, turn off the gas before you seek your
teacher’s help.
d) Ensure the use of Borosilicate (e.g., Pyrex) for heating substances.
e) Use tongs or holders to handle hot glassware or objects.
3. Precautions with Glassware

a) Check for any chipped, cracked, or
broken glassware.
b) Ensure the glassware is clean before
and after use.
c) Use only equipment specified in the
laboratory instructions unless ad-
vised otherwise by your teacher.
4. Precautions with Chemicals

a) Never smell, touch, or taste sub-
stances in the laboratory without
your teacher’s instruction.
b) Do not inhale fumes directly.
Instead, wave the air above the sub-
stance toward your nose.
c) Take materials only from labelled
containers.
d) Dilute acids by adding only ACID
to WATER.
e) Never return unused chemicals to
stock bottles or containers.
5. Precautions with Live or Preserved Specimens and Micro-organisms

a) Treat all animals (invertebrates and vertebrates) gently.
b) Put on rubber gloves and secure all specimens before dissection.
c) Always cut specimens away from you.
d) Dispose of all dissected specimens as instructed by your teacher.
e) Follow all instructions for cleaning the microbiology lab. Use aseptic
techniques. When finished, use disinfectants and paper towels, and
wipe your lab bench surfaces.
f) Ensure you wash your hands and the lab surface with proper disin-
fectants.
6. Precautions with Plants, Soils, and Animals

a) Follow all instructions for touching or smelling any substances under
investigation.
b) Always wash your hands before and after handling plants, soils, and
animals (both live and preserved).
c) Never put plants or soil in your mouth.
d) Wear protective eyewear and gloves when handling micro-organisms
or compost.
592 APPENDIX A
e) Wash all surfaces with an appropriate disinfectant such as a bleach

solution.
f) Do not grow soil bacteria because of the risk of culturing
tetanus-causing organisms.
g) Wear protective gloves when handling live animals.
h) Do not use specimens preserved in formaldehyde solutions.
i) Place dissected remains in bags marked with biohazard symbols and
dispose of them immediately after the dissection. They can be placed
in normal garbage.
j) Wash your hands.
7. Precautions with Electrical Sources

a) Do not use 110-V AC equipment if it has a damaged plug (e.g., miss-
ing the ground pin) or a frayed cord.
b) Keep water and wet hands away from electrical cords.
c) Do not touch a person in contact with live electrical currents.
Disconnect the power source first. Then give artificial respiration, if
necessary, and treat burns.
d) When unplugging an electrical device, always disconnect the cord
from the socket by pulling the plug, not the cord, and make sure elec-
trical cords are not placed where someone could trip over them.
e) Never attempt to recharge a non-rechargeable battery. Always ex-
ercise, caution in handling any batteries: allowing them to discharge
quickly, through a short circuit for instance, can generate dangerous
amounts of heat in the wires and in the batteries themselves, and
some kinds of batteries could even explode.
f) Never cut open batteries. Their contents can be corrosive and
poisonous.
8. Other Precautions and Accident Procedures

a) All accidents (including breakage and spillage) or injuries must be
reported to your teacher.
b) With your teacher’s help and supervision, clean up all spills and bro-
ken glassware.
c) If a chemical splashes into your eyes or on your body, wash at the
eyewash for several minutes or add copious amounts of cool water
immediately. Ensure your teacher is notified.
d) At the end of all lab activities, ensure the lab bench is clean.
e) Put all cleaned apparatus away.
f) Ensure your hands are washed before you leave the lab.
For any independent investigation:

Before you begin, obtain approval from your teacher for all procedures .
Carefully discuss the apparatus and the procedure with your instructor. Learn
the appropriate safety measures for your work. Never work without your
teacher’s supervision and never work alone.
APPENDIX A 593
B. The Inquiry Process

Initiating and Planning Why do apples fall from trees? What causes foot-
and-mouth disease? Why do different types of wood
Notice a scientific problem or issue, ask a question, and formu- burn to produce different amounts of heat? What
late a plan to solve it. causes leaves to change colours? How can I cap-
I wonder if? I wonder why? ture an image on film? Why did the bacteria die
How can I find out? in this Petri plate?
All of these are questions asked by scientists as
they observe parts of the world around them. While
an answer to the last question might be “Let’s just
Applying Technical Skills throw out this plate’s results,” a scientist named
Alexander Fleming might have asked, “What
Use your skills to put your plan into action.
factors existed in this culture plate to kill these bac-
Did I give all the plants the same amount of water?
teria?” It turns out, Fleming had discovered a
mould, called Penicillium notatum, that has a lethal
effect on many harmful organisms. As a result of
his discovery, Oxford researchers Howard Florey
Using Tools, Materials, and Equipment and Ernst Chain were able to isolate the active com-
Use suitable tools and materials appropriately. ponent penicillin. Today, penicillin is produced by
Would an elodea plant be more suitable drug companies to help fight infections and dis-
than a bean plant? eases.
Fleming approached the problem from a sci-
entific perspective, using a structured approach to
examine the world and answer his questions.
This approach is called the Inquiry Process. It is
Conducting and Recording a logical reasoning process used to solve problems
Conduct your study in a controlled manner and observe/record through observation and measurement, experi-
appropriate results. mentation and research, and analysis and dissem-
Did I control all of the variables? ination. It attempts to explain phenomena by
Are my results recorded clearly and accurately? examining cause and effect in a controlled situa-
tion. Scientists use experiments as a key part of
their scientific work. Working scientifically involves
being precise and accurate when making and in-
terpreting observations and formulating conclusions
Analyzing and Interpreting from them. It is also important to communicate the
Use various tools to analyze results and figure out what they results of experimental work clearly to other sci-
mean. entists. The flowchart on this page outlines some
Should I use a graph or a calculation to examine these results? of the steps involved in the inquiry process.
What do my results mean?
A scientist notices an event or occurrence and
attempts to explain it. If a reasonable explanation
Concluding and Communicating does not exist, the scientist may take further steps.
He or she will develop a question that can be an-
Make a decision about the experimental results and swered through various means. The question should
communicate them. point to a structured approach to finding the an-
Do my results support my conclusion? swer or explanation through an experiment, a
Will others be able to understand my work? model, or research. The scientist will make a pre-
Would they be able to repeat my work? diction (hypothesis) of the answer based on his or
her scientific knowledge and experience. A plan
594 APPENDIX B
must then be devised in order to gather information and drawing appropri-

ate conclusions.
Question: What factors affect the growth of plants?
Hypothesis: Plants require sunlight to grow.
One scientific plan would be to conduct an experiment. A sequence of

steps (method) must be determined to describe how the experiment is to be
conducted. The design of the method is essential to ensure that consistent
and valid results are obtained. The method should be geared toward
collecting data specific to the hypothesis and should identify what tools, equip-
ment, and materials would be necessary. Care should be taken to control as
many variables as possible, otherwise results will be difficult to interpret
correctly. Any safety considerations should also be included in the method.
In addition, the method should be written to allow others to reproduce the
experiment.
Method
1. Select 6 equal-sized bean plants, numbered accordingly, for the

experiment.
2. Choose dark and sunlit locations for each set of plants. Ensure that
the temperature in each location is the same.
3. Place plants 1–3 in the sunlit location and plants 4–6 in the dark
area. Water the plants with 50 mL of water every second day.
4. Measure the height of the plants, from the soil level to the tip of
the stem, daily for 4 days.
To ensure reliable results, the method should also clarify the number of
plants used, the frequency and length of data collection, and the difference
in the amount of light used. All of these factors should be reflected in the pro-
cedure for the experiment.

To conduct an experiment on distinguishing plant growth, for example, you
would need to control a number of variables that may affect the results. The
type of plant, amount of water, type of soil, and temperature may all affect
plant growth. So it is important to use proper technical skills in applying your
method, to ensure that the variables are indeed controlled and that the data
obtained are valid. Determining the best way to observe results is also a tech-
nical decision that could affect the accuracy and interpretation of the data.
Using Tools, Materials, and Equipment Materials

In a laboratory, using tools, materials, and equipment safely and correctly is
essential to ensure a secure environment for all. Safety is everyone’s – 6 equal-sized bean plants
responsibility. If you see a fellow student struggling to use equipment prop- – ruler
erly, it is your responsibility to offer assistance or notify the lab supervisor
(your teacher). A review of specific safety considerations and proper use of – dark location
apparatus may be necessary at the outset of an experiment. Working – sunny location
responsibly includes knowing what to do and when to ask for help.
APPENDIX B 595

While performing an experiment, use your scientific and technical skills to
follow the identified method, gathering and recording both qualitative and
quantitative observations in your lab notes. The critical functions of lab notes
are to state what was done and what was observed. The greatest flaw
found in lab notes, even with experienced scientists, is that they are often
unreadable. Hard as it is to believe, even the author of a notebook often can-
not understand his or her own notes after a few years. The problem is not
usually one of legibility, but rather of poorly labelled entries and incomplete
descriptions. Writing in complete sentences, indicating units of measurement,
and noting possible sources of error are excellent ways to ensure a
high-quality record of the experiment.
A table is one method to present results; it offers an organized structure
to present experimental results/data. For the plant growth example, a quick
analysis of the quantitative observations shows that the plants kept in a sun-
lit location appear to have grown taller than the plants kept in a dark loca-
tion. The data can be manipulated through graphing or calculations to find
further relationships.
Observations
The plants that were selected each had a starting height of 5.0 cm.
Daily results were recorded in Table B.1. Qualitative observations were

recorded in Table B.2 on the last day.
Table B.1: Daily Plant Growth in Different Light Conditions
Environment Plant # Daily Plant Height (cm)
1 2 3 4
Sunlit 1 5.2 5.5 5.9 6.2
2 5.5 5.7 6.1 6.4
3 5.4 5.8 6.2 6.5
Dark 4 5.0 5.1 5.1 5.2
5 5.1 5.1 5.2 5.2
6 5.1 5.2 5.2 5.3
Table B.2: Plant Appearance After 4 Days
Environment Plant Appearance
Sunlit – Bright green colour

– Strong, straight stems
– Large leaves
Dark – Faded green colour

– Weak, bent stems
– Small, wilted leaves
596 APPENDIX B

A collection of numbers or a list of observations is not sufficient to address
your hypothesis. It is necessary to use appropriate analysis tools to find mean-
ing in your experimental results. The tools may include a graphical repre-
sentation of results, a calculation, a comparison to known data, and an
identification of patterns or trends. Often visual representations of data
simplify the identification of relationships that exist in data.
Analysis
The qualitative observations show that the plants in the sunlit

environment were generally healthier than the plants in the dark
environment. The average growth was calculated for each day (Table B.3);
the data were then graphed and a line of best fit was drawn for each
set (Graph B.1).
Table B.3: Average Daily Plant Growth in Different Light Conditions
Environment Daily Plant Height (cm)
1 2 3 4
Sunlit 5.4 5.7 6.1 6.4
Dark 5.1 5.1 5.2 5.2
Graph B.1: Average Daily Plant Growth
Sunlit Dark
6.6
6.4
Plant Height (cm)
6.2
6.0 The data, as illustrated, show a clear trend
5.8 within each plant group. The plants in the
5.6 sunlit environment grew significantly taller than
5.4 the plants in the dark environment.
5.2
5.0
1 2 3 4
Day

Use your completed analysis to draw conclusions that support or refute
your hypothesis. Your conclusion should be written in such a manner that it
is clearly linked to your analysis and results. Any errors noted should be
addressed, indicating their effect on the observed results.
Your overall inquiry process should be organized in order to communi-
cate your results. Regardless of the form they take, the information and ideas
should be communicated with a high degree of clarity and precision, using
the correct terminology, symbols, conventions, SI units, and number of sig-
nificant figures. It may be necessary to use technology to support the com-
munication of your inquiry process; you may choose to use computers, or
media tools to enhance your work.
APPENDIX B 597
Conclusions
The amount of sunlight available to plants is one of the factors

affecting their growth. The qualitative and quantitative data collected
in this experiment clearly show that plants receiving inadequate sunlight
show poor growth, are wilted, and have unhealthy plants and stems.
You can use the following Inquiry Process Checklist to guide your work.
Inquiry Process Checklist
Purpose
poses a question
question can be answered by following an inquiry process
Hypothesis
hypothesis specifically predicts the answer to the question stated in the
purpose
Method
written in logical steps
reproducible by other scientists
data collected are connected to the hypothesis
variables controlled where necessary
diagram included where appropriate
Inquiry Skills
demonstrate knowledge of proper use of tools, materials, and
equipment
use apparatus properly
use apparatus safely
help others to work safely and properly
follow method
qualitative observations written with adequate detail
quantitative observations include appropriate units and significant figures
use table, chart to organize results
note errors or discrepancies
include a visual representation of results
calculations where necessary; clearly organized, units shown
Conclusion
stated to link hypothesis with results
hypothesis supported or refuted
error analysis
Overall
spelling and grammar correct
written in clear, precise language
scientific terms used correctly
neat presentation
technology used where necessary
598 APPENDIX B
C. The Decision-Making Process

Adam Nash was born on August 29, 2000 because Defining the Issue
of his genetic make-up. His parents had used preim- Identify an issue and its context.
plantation genetic diagnosis during in vitro fertil- Is this ethical? Is this acceptable?
ization. The Nashs chose the healthy embryo that What are the options and which one is better?
became Adam so that he could donate compatible
blood cells from his umbilical cord to his sister.
Adam’s sister has fanconi anemia, a bone-marrow Developing Assessment Criteria
disorder, with a survival rate that increases signif- Establish criteria to use as the basis for making a final decision.
icantly with donations from a brother or sister. On what criteria will I base my decision?
The unusual circumstances surrounding What factors are important in making this decision?
Adam’s birth typify the many different issues fac-
ing science and scientists today. Some of these is-
sues are ethical in nature, requiring analysis of one’s Researching the Issue
beliefs and values. Others require a consideration
of safety issues. This type of issue and the ques- Find as much information as possible to make an
tions it raises require an informed decision to be informed decision.
made. Some decisions are easier than others. How What sources of information can I use?
does one make an informed decision and analyze Are my sources reliable?
its validity? Scientists often use an approach called Have I considered all aspects of the issue?
the Decision-Making Process as they strive to make
prudent choices. The flowchart on this page out- Analyzing Data and Information
lines this process.
Select the relevant information, organize it, manipulate it,
and examine it.
Defining the Issue How can I best present the information?
The issue should be articulated using a brief state- What method should I use to analyze the data?
ment or question. For example, in vitro genetic
screening is the issue from the above example and
the broad question might be: “Should parents and Proposing a Course of Action
scientists be permitted to use this process in fer- Make a decision.
tility practices?” Have I considered all of the relevant factors?
Have I put the possible courses of action in the right order?
Assessment criteria should be established before Justifying the Course of Action
you research and analyze the issue; this will make
the decision-making process more objective. Some Determine whether the information supports your decision.
possible criteria include cost, societal implications, Is there enough support for my decision to allow others to
precedents, norms, environmental impact, and/or reach the same conclusion?
feasibility. In this example, one might base a deci- What will I do if my course of action is turned down?
sion on the costs versus benefits to support or re- Check for the consequences or impact of the decision.
fute in vitro genetic screening. What are the consequences of this decision?
Have I weighted the consequences in an appropriate way?

To make an informed decision, all related factors Communicating Your Proposal
must be identified and described. A researcher Decide how you will communicate your findings.
might consult journals, articles, the Internet, ex- Who is my intended audience?
perts, available data, past practice, or precedents How will I communicate my findings?
to find information, impacts, factors, norms, and What visuals will I include in my work?
APPENDIX C 599
connections to other fields. Relevant ethical, moral, and social perspectives

should be noted. If relevant information is overlooked, the wrong decision
may be reached. For example, the following questions may arise in the case
of Adam Nash:
• non-natural fertility techniques: Should scientists be tampering with nat-

ural reproduction?
• genetic screening: Should potential parents have the right to “design”
their offspring?
• genetic engineering for organ/tissue harvesting: When does an individ-
ual have the right to refuse or choose their cells being used?
• cost versus benefit to individuals/society: Are too many funds being
allocated for too small a gain?
• rights of the unborn child and children: Should children have to donate
cells based on their parents’ decisions?
• accessibility to the general public: Is this technology only available to a
certain social class?

The information must be organized in a structured manner to facilitate anal-
ysis. Methods for organizing information might be a chart comparing pros
and cons, a cost-benefit analysis, a chart of consequences or responsibilities,
a statistical analysis, a graphical representation, or a flowchart to illustrate
the issue.
Once organized, information can be easily analyzed using the assessment
criteria. During analysis, one should consider the relative importance of the
factors and how each affects the outcome of the decision in order to weight
them accordingly within the decision-making process. For example, the rights
of the unborn child and genetic screening factors may carry more weight in
a decision than the cost versus benefit factor.

Taking into account all available research and its analysis, an objective course
of action must be chosen. For example, an ethics committee has rendered its
decision that pre-implantation genetic screening may be used in applications
of fertility practices for medical reasons only.
Justifying the Course of Action

Your course of action should be directly supported by your analysis of the
research. To justify your course of action, it is necessary to evaluate its ef-
fect or impact on society. The evaluation can be conducted from two per-
spectives:
1) the validity of the decision in comparison to the data and criteria (Did
you make the best decision possible with the available information and
financial resources?)
2) the impact and effect of a decision over an extended period of time (How
has the course of action affected a population? Were there unforeseen
consequences?)
600 APPENDIX C
This analysis could be accomplished through public polls, expert analysis, or

a study of success rates. The method of analysis will depend on the scope of
the issue. The argument presented should appeal to the reader’s intellect
through logic and reason.

Any good research project requires clear communication of the work and re-
sults. The communication should summarize the goal, the process, and the
recommendations of the work in a succinct and concise manner. Regardless
of the form used for communication, there are key components to include:
an introductory statement of the issue, an accurate and precise description
of relevant background information and the research undertaken, an analy-
sis of the information, and a conclusion clearly supported by the analysis.
There are various ways to communicate your work, both orally and in writ-
ten format. A number of forms of communication are outlined in the table
below. The form used should be supported by visual aids to enhance the com-
munication. In addition, the tone and perspective of the work should be
matched to its intended audience. For example, an editorial may contain more
personal views than a news report.
Forms of Communication
Oral Written
debate editorial
presentation (e.g., town meeting, school council) position paper
radio spot poster
TV spot pamphlet or brochure
You can use the following Decision-Making Process Checklist to guide your
work.
Decision-Making Process Checklist
Issue
clearly articulated as a statement or question
Assessment Criteria
clearly identified
enables objective, fact-based decision making
Research
relevant factors identified
factors described in detail
a variety of sources used
Analysis
appropriate method(s) used
easily interpreted
weighted according to relative importance
APPENDIX 601
Decision
objective course of action chosen
supported by data
Evaluation
predicted possible impact or consequence of decision
checked validity of decision with respect to data
Communication (Overall)
information presented clearly and precisely
spelling and grammar correct
scientific terms used correctly
approach appropriate to intended audience
content appropriate to intended audience
structure of content appropriate to communication form
use of technology enhances presentation
D. Using Graphic Organizers

Graphic organizers are effective tools that can help you learn. They enable you
to problem solve and think critically through analyzing similarities and differ-
ences, inferring sequences, and establishing cause-and-effect relationships.
They generate discussion and negotiation of ideas, extend comprehension of
a concept, theme, or topic, and lead to organized representation and presen-
tation of understandings. You can use them to brainstorm, demonstrate what
you know, and organize your thoughts before writing a report or essay or plan-
ning a presentation. The following chart outlines a number of graphic orga-
nizers, their intended purposes, and how to use them as you study science.
Type of Graphic Organizer Purpose Method
Concept Map • Used to clarify relationships and Brainstorm ideas and link together
linkages between concepts, from “big to small” with arrows and
events, or ideas linking words.
602 APPENDIX D
Venn Diagram • Used to visualize similarities and Brainstorm similar traits to both
differences between two or more topics and list in the overlapping
ideas, topics, or concepts section of the two circles. Repeat for
unique traits and list in the non-
overlapping sections.
Web Diagram • Used to clarify concepts and Cluster words and/or information
ideas by clustering them around a central object, concept, or
idea.
Pie Chart • Used to estimate the relationship Estimate/research the importance

of parts to the whole or amount of proportionate time of
each aspect of an event in relation
to the whole.
Flowchart/Sequence Chart • Used to map out your thinking Brainstorm aspects of the whole
about an issue or to organize event. Select important aspects and
ideas for an essay or report put them into sequential order.
Ranking Ladder • Used to rank ideas in order of Brainstorm ideas and rank them in
importance order from most important (bottom
rung), to least important (top rung).
APPENDIX D 603
Fishbone Diagram • Used to identify cause-and-effect Identify a problem to be solved. List

relationships the “effect” at the head of the fish.
Brainstorm “possible causes” in
each bone. Rank the causes and
circle the most probable ones with
justification.
Right-Angle Diagram • Used to explore the implications Identify an event and show it on the
of ideas and reflect on horizontal arrow. Brainstorm traits
applications of those ideas and list them to the right of the
horizontal arrow. Expand on one trait
and list details about it along the
vertical arrow. Describe social
impacts of that trait below the
vertical arrow.
Target Diagram • Used to weigh the importance of Brainstorm facts and ideas. Rank
facts and ideas their importance and place the most
important facts/ideas centrally and
the least important ones toward the
outer ring.
Agree/Disagree • Used to organize data to support List a series of statements relating

Chart a position for or against an idea to a topic or issue. Survey
or decision agree/disagreement before
discussion. Survey again after
discussion/research.
PMI (Plus, Minus, • Used to summarize the positive Sort ideas or information about a
Interesting) Chart and negative aspects of a topic topic or issue in a three-column
or issue, as well as identify chart that has the following
interesting aspects of the topic headings: Plus (+), Minus (-), and
for possible further research Interesting.
• Used to make distinctions Gather information on a number of

between ideas or events ideas or events and arrange it on a
Gathering Grid grid. Each idea or event is assigned
to a separate row. Analyze the
information according to selected
criteria in each specific column.
• Used to identify and sequence Place the higher-order concept at

Concept Hierarchy Diagram the subordinate concepts the top of a page. Then consider the
needed to understand a higher- question, “What concepts need to
order concept be understood before the higher-
order concept above can be
grasped?” The same question is then
asked for each of the subordinate
concepts identified and a hierarchy
of connected concepts is created.
604 APPENDIX D
E. Problem Solving
Solving Conceptual Problems

Have you ever been curious about an idea that you have discussed in class?
Have you ever questioned an assumption that you or a fellow student have
made while examining an idea? Have you ever wondered on what basis a
newspaper journalist has stated his or her position on a science topic?
Have you ever tried to determine the difference between factual information
and opinion?
These are questions that are important to scientists. The ability to an-
swer such conceptual questions is important to solving problems in science.
As you study science using this text, you will discover that your attitudes, be-
liefs, and feelings about what science is and what it should accomplish will
influence how you learn. You will discover that science is much more than
finding the right answers, and that “doing” science is much more exciting
than “memorizing” the facts.
As a scientist, you will find that your explanations about what happens
in the world come partly from what you observe and partly from what you
think. Sometimes you may have different explanations for the same set of ob-
servations, and your assumptions may change, or your conclusions may vary.
In the end, you will experience that scientific knowledge is subject to modi-
fication as new information is gathered and new problems are solved.
In order to solve a conceptual problem, you need to do the following:

1. Identify the problem and describe it in a way that can be understood.
2. Determine what the outcome of solving the problem might be.
3. Explore possible solutions and apply them to the problem.
4. Evaluate the possible solutions and revise solutions if they do not pass
the test in other similar situations.
As you work through this text, you will have numerous opportunities to
apply your problem-solving skills through
• applying biological concepts to solve new problems
• conducting investigations on well-defined testable questions of your own
design
• designing your own investigations
• evaluating experimental designs
• collecting quantitative as well as qualitative measurements
• analyzing quantitative data for specific as well as general patterns
(Quantitative data analysis frequently includes numerical calculations to
produce graphs that are appropriate to represent the data.)
• interpreting experimental data in light of your original question
and justifying your interpretations using evidence to support your
inferences
APPENDIX E 605
Solving Numerical Problems

Step 1: Identify the Given Data
Read the problem carefully, extract the data, represent physical As mentioned above, the quantitative analysis of
quantities with appropriate symbols and units, and write the data data in investigations frequently includes numeri-
in standard form to the correct number of significant figures. cal calculations. The following flowchart outlines
steps used in solving numerical problems. This ap-
proach to solving numerical problems is called
Step 2: List What Is Required the GRASS approach. The steps are easy to re-
Identify what the problem is asking you to do and identify the member and apply because the first letters of the
units of the final answer. key words spell GRASS.
Step 3: Analyze the Problem

Draw a sketch, write down possible relationships, list
assumptions, look up any constants needed, identify any
inconsistent units, and look up any unit conversions required.
Step 4: Work out the Solution

Perform the necessary unit conversions, substitute appropriate
data into the relationship, simplify the results, check the math
calculations, and check the significant figures of the final answer.
Step 5: Write the Concluding Statement

Write the answer to the original problem in a complete sentence.
Check that the original problem has been answered.
F. Graphing Techniques
Biologists make extensive use of graphs to convey information and to help
determine how one physical quantity is affected by another. To review sim-
ple graphical analysis techniques, we will use the data for an experiment
recently performed to compare the effects on patients of giving cortisol
intravenously versus by mouth (Charmandari, et al.). The experiment was
designed to answer the question, “Does orally administered cortisol provide
adequate concentrations of the drug in a patient’s bloodstream?” The
research group used 16 patients and administered cortisol both orally and
intravenously. The total cortisol concentration in their bloodstream was
measured over a period of 6 h and the median of these concentrations was
then determined.
606 APPENDIX F
The Data Table TABLE F.1 Total Cortisol

Concentrations in Patients over a
A data table is the most practical way to record quantitative data. Table F.1 Period of Time
shows the data from an experiment similar to that obtained by the research
group. Note that the name of each variable, the symbol, and the unit of mea- Time Concentration of
nmol
(min) Cortisol ( L )
surement are recorded at the top of each column. The unit is enclosed in
round brackets. Oral Intraveneous
0 0 0
The Title of the Graph 10 1760

20 315 1400
Figure F.1 shows a sample graph for the cortisol experiment. Every graph
needs a title to describe what it is about. We place the title at the top of the 30 1200
graph or in a box on a clear area above the graph. 40 625 1050
50 1100
Graph of Concentration of Cortisol vs. Time
60 550 900
2000
70 890
Intravenous
80 500 875
Oral
90 800
)
1500 100 550 815

nmol
L
110 700
Concentration of Cortisol (
120 505 650

160 400 520
1000 200 390 390
240 260 270
280 130 135
320 100 115
500
360 50 110
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

Time (min)
FIGURE F-1 Median total cortisol concentrations in patients after being given cortisol
intravenously and by mouth.
The Axes of the Graph

In graphing, we plot the independent variable on the horizontal x-axis and
the dependent variable on the vertical y-axis. The variable that we change
intentionally is called the independent variable. Time was the independent
variable in Charmandari’s experiment, since the research group chose the
intervals of time over which they would measure total cortisol concentrations.
The variable that the experimenter observes and measures is called
the dependent variable. This experiment measured the total cortisol
concentration in a patient’s bloodstream at a given time, thus making it the
dependent variable.
We label each axis with the name, symbol, and unit of the variable being
plotted, as shown in Figure F.1. The graphs in this text have origins of (0, 0).
Scales are chosen for each axis to spread the measured values across the
APPENDIX F 607
graph paper without making the plotting difficult and without wasting too
much graph paper. The scale on each axis usually has equal divisions and
each division represents a whole number.
The maximum value of the total cortisol concentration in Figure F.1 is
1760. Each major vertical division has been made to represent 500. The max-
imum time value in Figure F.1 is 360 min. The horizontal axis has been di-
vided into 12 divisions in order to show 30-min intervals.
Plotting the Data

Use a pencil to plot the data points. Mark the data points with a small visi-
ble dot. In this text, we assume that all measured quantities have an error
no larger than plus or minus one-half of the smallest division on the mea-
suring instrument. In Charmandari’s experiment, the researchers measured
the time to the nearest whole minute. The error here is plus or minus
0.5 min. Similarly, the error in the cortisol concentration is plus or minus 0.5.
Then the error is no larger than plus or minus 0.5 mm. With experience,
people can read instruments to plus or minus a tenth of the smallest division.
Figure F.2 shows this for a ruler calibrated in centimetres.
Drawing the Line of Best Fit

Once all of the data points have been plotted, a line of best fit or a curved line
is drawn where appropriate. It is important to consider the data set in
order to determine what type of line should be drawn through all the data
points. A line of best fit is a line that shows the trend of the points. Do not
try to have the curve or straight line go through all the dots since most data
points have some error. The scatter of the data points from the smooth line
indicates the extent of the errors in the data.
Where a point is far off the line, a serious error may have been made. If
this occurs, measure the data for that point again. If the same result is ob-
tained, a factor other than those under investigation may be the cause.
Interpolating from the Graph

Interpolation is the process of finding intermediate values between the known
or measured points. To interpolate, locate the given value of the variable on
its axis. Draw a straight line perpendicular to this axis to intersect the graph.
Draw a line at the intersection point perpendicular to the second axis. Read
the value of the second variable from this axis.
There is some risk of inaccuracy involved in interpolation, since it is as-
sumed that the trend of the line continues between the measured points. This
assumption is not always valid. Figure F.1 shows an exponential decrease
in cortisol levels; however, data was not recorded at all times. From the graph,
could you interpolate the cortisol level after 45 min had elapsed?
Reference
Charmandari, E., et al. 2001. “Bioavailability of oral hydrocortisone in patients with

congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency.” Journal of
Endocrinology 169, 65–70.
608 APPENDIX F
G.
1 Atomic number 81
IA 2 Alkali metals Noble gases 0
11 8 Electrons in each
1 2
1 1 energy level Alkaline earth metals Halogens 2
Contents
H Na Element symbol Other main group metals Other nonmetals He

Hydrogen
s block
Element name Lanthanoids and actinoids Helium

2 41 51 61 71
Transition metals
31
1.01 II A Sodium III A IV A VA VI A VII A 4.00
2 2
22.99 Average atomic mass 2 2 2 2 2 2
3 4 Semimetals or metalloids 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 2 (For unstable elements a value 3 4 5 6 7 8
for the longest lived isotope is
Li Be shown in parentheses.) B C N O F Ne
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
6.94 9.01 Synthetic element 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
11 2
8
12 2
8
Tc 13 2
8
14 2
8
15 2
8
16 2
8
17 2
8
18 2
8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Sodium Magnesium Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 01 11 21
22.99 24.31 III B IV B VB VI B VII B VIII B IB II B 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
19 20 8
21 8
22 8
23 8
24 8
25 8
26 8
27 8
28 8
29 8
30 8
31 32 8
33 8
34 8
35 8
36 8
8 8
8 8 9 10 11 13 13 14 15 16 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18
1 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.87 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.39 69.72 72.61 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Previous Section
37 38 8
39 8
40 8
41 8
42 8
43 8
44 8
45 8
46 8
47 8
48 8
49 50 8
51 8
52 8
53 8
54 8
8 8
18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18
8 8 9 10 12 13 13 15 16 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18
Rb 1
Sr 2
Y 2
Zr 2
Nb 1
Mo 1
Tc 2
Ru 1
Rh 1
Pd Ag 1
Cd 2
In 3
Sn 4
Sb 5
Te 6
I 7
Xe 8
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 (97.91) 101.07 102.91 106.42 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.71 121.76 127.60 126.90 131.29
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
55 56 8
71 8
72 8
73 8
74 8
75 8
76 8
77 8
78 8
79 8
80 8
81 82 8
83 8
84 8
85 8
86 8
8 8
18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18
18 18 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32
Cs 8
Ba 8
Lu 9
Hf 10
Ta 11
W 12
Re 13
Os 14
Ir 15
Pt 17
Au 18
Hg 18
Tl 18
Pb 18
Bi 18
Po 18
At 18
Rn 18
Cesium 1 Barium 2 Lutetium 2 Hafnium 2 Tantalum 2 Tungsten 2 Rhenium 2 Osmium 2 Iridium 2 Platinum 1 Gold 1 Mercury 2 Thallium 3 Lead 4 Bismuth 5 Polonium 6 Astatine 7 Radon 8
132.91 137.33 174.97 178.49 180.95 183.84 186.21 190.23 192.22 195.08 196.97 200.59 204.18 207.2 208.98 (208.98) (209.99) (222.02)
2 2
87 88 8
103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
8
18 18
Periodic Table of the Elements
32 32
Fr 18
Ra 18
Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt *Uun *Uuu *Uub *Uuq *Uuh *Uuo
Francium 8 Radium 8 Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Ununnilium Unununium Ununbium Ununquadium Ununhexium Ununoctium
1 2
(223.02) 226.03 (262.11) (263.11) (262.11) (266.12) (264.12) (265.13) (268.14) (272.15) (272.15) (277) (289) (289) (293)
*Name not officially assigned.
s block d block p block
Next Section
Lanthanoids
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
57 8
58 8
59 8
60 8
61 8
62 8
63 8
64 8
65 8
66 67 8
68 8
69 8
70 8
8
18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18
18 19 21 22 23 24 25 25 27 28 29 30 31 32
La 9
Ce 9
Pr 8
Nd 8
Pm 8
Sm 8
Eu 8
Gd 9
Tb 8
Dy 8
Ho 8
Er 8
Tm 8
Yb 8
Lanthanum 2 Cerium 2 Praseodymium 2 Neodymium 2 Promethium 2 Samarium 2 Europium 2 Gadolinium 2 Terbium 2 Dysprosium 2 Holmium 2 Erbium 2 Thulium 2 Ytterbium 2
138.91 140.12 140.91 144.24 (144.91) 150.36 151.96 157.25 158.93 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.04
Actinoids
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
89 8
90 8
91 8
92 8
93 8
94 8
95 8
96 8
97 8
98 99 8
100 8
101 8
102 8
8
18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18
32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32
Ac 18
Th 18
Pa 20
U 21
Np 22
Pu 24
Am 25
Cm 25
Bk 27
Cf 28
Es 29
Fm 30
Md 31
No 32
Actinium 9 Thorium 10 Protactinium 9 Uranium 9 Neptunium 9 Plutonium 8 Americium 8 Curium 9 Berkelium 8 Californium 8 Einsteinium 8 Fermium 8 Mendelevium 8 Nobelium 8
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
(227.03) 232.04 231.04 238.03 (237.05) (244.06) (243.06) (247.07) (247.07) (251.08) (252.08) (257.10) (258.10) (259.10)
Quit
f block
APPENDIX G
609
G LO S SA RY
A algae (singular, alga) plant-like protists, usually unicellular
and autotrophic, that contain chloroplasts and
abdomen posterior arthropod body segments that contain photosynthesize
most of the internal organs
alimentary canal open-ended muscular tube that forms a
abdominal cavity region beneath the diaphragm that digestive tract between the mouth and the anus of an
contains the stomach, liver, intestines, and other organs organism
abrasion scratching or otherwise physically damaging a allele one form of a gene for a specific trait
seed coat; required for seed germination
alternation of generations succession from the haploid
abscisic acid (ABA) plant hormone that inhibits growth gametophyte generation to the diploid sporophyte
and induces dormancy generation in the life cycle of plants and some fungi
abscission layer cell layer at the base of a leaf stalk that alveoli (singular, alveolus) air sacs in the lung where gas
weakens, allowing the leaf to separate from the stem exchange occurs
absorption uptake of nutrients through the skin, mucous amino acid organic molecule made up of carbon,
membrane or cell membrane of an animal hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen atoms; is the monomer
acellular slime mould single-celled, fungus-like protist of proteins
with many nuclei amniocentesis extraction of amniotic fluid from the uterus
achondroplasia inherited disorder characterized by to diagnose genetic defects in the fetus
abnormal bone growth that produces short individuals amoeboid cell sponge cell that digests nutrients, produces
acid compound that releases hydrogen ions into solution reproductive cells, and builds an internal skeleton
acoelomate an organism that lacks a body cavity between anabolic reaction see anabolism
the gut and the outer body wall anabolism synthesis of a compound from simpler
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) disease substances
caused when the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) anaerobe organism that needs no oxygen to produce
enters human white blood cells, destroys the cells, and energy
cripples the immune system of the host
anaerobic methanogen bacterium that lives in an
activation energy energy required to activate a reaction oxygen-free environment and releases methane gas
active site part of an enzyme that binds to a substrate anaerobic respiration see fermentation
during a reaction
anal pore opening that discharges undigested food from a
active transport movement of molecules or ions across a Paramecium
membrane against a concentration gradient; requires
energy from ATP anaphase third phase of mitosis; paired chromatids
separate
adaptation modification of a structure or function in an
individual that allows the organism to adjust to a new anaphylactic shock allergic reaction that causes the
environment or condition smooth muscles of a bronchiole to swell, blocking the
passage of air to the lungs
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) nucleotide that releases
stored energy in a cell anatomical dead space space within the trachea, the
bronchi and the bronchioles that holds oxygen-poor air
adhesion tendency of unlike of molecules to stick together
anemia inadequate oxygen transport throughout the body
adipose tissue type of connective tissue that stores resulting from a decrease in blood hemoglobin or red
triglycerides in its fat cells blood cell number
adventitious root root that emerges from an unusual aneuploidy possession of an abnormal number of
location on a plant, such as a stem or leaf chromosomes
aerobe organism that uses oxygen to produce energy angina pain, especially in the chest, caused by an
through cellular respiration inadequate supply of oxygen to the heart muscle
aerobic cellular respiration use of oxygen to break down angioplasty treatment for coronary artery disease that re-
food molecules and produce energy; see cellular duces the narrowing of the artery by inserting a balloon
respiration and inflating it inside the artery
air sac in birds, an outgrowth of a lung that receives angiogram x-ray that shows the degree of arterial block-
oxygen; in insects, an enlargement at the end of a age in the heart
tracheal tube
angiosperm plant that produces flowers and forms seeds
alcoholic fermentation breakdown of pyruvic acid into within an ovary that develops into a fruit
alcohol and carbon dioxide
610 Glossary
Animalia kingdom containing heterotrophic, eukaryotic, astral ray tiny protein fibre that forms around a centriole
multicellular organisms whose cells lack cell walls during mitosis
annual ring layer of xylem that forms in woody plant atherosclerosis decreased diameter and elasticity of blood
stems every year vessels due to accumulation of fatty deposits in the lin-
ing
anorexia nervosa medical and psychiatric condition
characterized by a fear of weight gain atom smallest unit of matter
antenna (plural, antennae) sensory appendage attached ATP see adenosine triphosphate
to the anterior body segments of many invertebrates,
atrioventricular (AV) valve valve between the right
especially arthropods
atrium and the right ventricle of the heart that prevents
anther structure on the stamen of a flower that produces blood flow back into the atrium
pollen
atrium (plural, atria) thin-walled chamber of the heart
antibiotic substance that inhibits the growth of bacteria that receives blood
anus opening at the end of the rectum that expels waste autosome chromosome not involved in determining the
from the body sex of an organism
aorta large artery that conveys blood from the heart to autotroph organism that makes its own food
other arteries
auxin type of plant hormone that promotes cell growth or
aortic semilunar valve valve between the left ventricle elongation
and the aorta that prevents blood flow back into the
heart
B
aortic valve see aortic semilunar valve
bacillus (plural, bacilli) rod-shaped bacterium
apical dominance hormonal inhibition of plant bud
bacterium single-celled prokaryote that belongs to the
growth by the highest bud on a stem
kingdom Archaebacteria or the kingdom Eubacteria
apical meristem meristem at the end of a shoot or root;
bark tissue layers outside the vascular cambium of a
see meristem
woody plant stem
appendix extension of the vertebrate cecum
base compound that takes up hydrogen ions from solution
Archaebacteria kingdom containing prokaryotic single-
basidium (plural, basidia) club-like reproductive structure
celled organisms that are genetically different from
that produces spores in a basidiomycete fungus
those in the kingdom Eubacteria; found mostly in harsh
habitats benign tumour that remains in one place in the body
archegonium (plural, archegonia) female reproductive beriberi disease caused by a thiamin (vitamin B1)
structure on a fern that produces eggs deficiency
arteriole branch of an artery that conveys blood to a bicuspid valve valve between the left atrium and the left
capillary ventricle of the heart that prevents blood flow back into
the atrium
artery thick-walled vessel that conveys blood from the
heart to other parts of the body bilateral symmetry body plan of an animal with body
parts that mirror each other on opposite sides of an
artificial selection intervention by humans who select
imaginary line drawn down the middle of the body from
and then breed certain individual organisms with de-
the anterior to the posterior end
sired characteristics to produce offspring with those
characteristics bile mixture of salts, acids, cholesterol, phospholipids,
fatty acids and water that the liver secretes into the
ascospore fungus spore produced within an ascus
small intestine to digest food
through sexual reproduction
binary fission division of an organism into two identical
ascus reproductive sac that produces ascospores in an
individuals through a type of asexual reproduction
ascomycete fungus
binomial nomenclature classification system that assigns
asexual reproduction production of a new organism by a
a two-part Latin name of genus and species to an
single parent without the participation of eggs and
organism
sperm
biodiversity variety and number of species in an
aster centriole surrounded by tiny protein fibres during
ecosystem; variation between individuals within a
mitosis
species
asthma allergic reaction that causes the smooth muscles
biological control use of a natural parasite or predator to
around airways to contract, restricting air flow to the
control or eliminate a pest
lungs
Glossary 611
biopharmaceutical compound produced by a bacterium C

containing recombinant DNA, which is extracted and
purified for medical use caecum chamber of the large intestine that receives
chyme from the small intestine
biosphere all areas of the earth inhabited by living
organisms callus wound tissue that develops at the end of a cut stem
biotechnology manipulation of living organisms or their calorie amount of heat energy needed to increase the
cells to manufacture products that perform useful tasks temperature of one gram of water by 1°C; used to
measure energy
blastula early stage of animal development in which a
single layer of cells forms a hollow sphere Calorie a kilocalorie, sometimes called a dietetic calorie;
1 Cal = 1000 cal
blending theory of inheritance nineteenth-century
hypothesis that “seeds” control hereditary traits and cambium layer of meristematic plant tissue that produces
blend with each other when they pass to the next new cells (see vascular cambium)
generation canine sharp tooth that shreds and tears food
blood pressure force that blood exerts against the walls of cap top of a mushroom, shaped like an umbrella, that
blood vessels contains gills with spores
BMI body mass index; relates body mass to height; mea- capillary microscopic blood vessel that conveys blood
sured in kg/m2 from an arteriole to a venule and allows the exchange
body plan layout of an animal’s structures of dissolved gases between the blood and body tissues
or alveoli
bolus moist mass of food in the mouth, partially digested
by the teeth and salivary glands before swallowing carapace thick exoskeleton that covers the cephalothorax
of a crustacean
bone marrow soft tissue in the cavities of bone
carbohydrase enzyme secreted by the pancreas that
bony plate structure that joins with others to form the breaks down carbohydrates
dorsal or ventral shell that covers a turtle or tortoise
carbohydrate organic molecule formed by carbon,
book lung highly folded membrane used for gas exchange hydrogen and oxygen atoms; used as a major energy
in arachnids source for body functions
brachial artery artery in the arm that a carbon element that forms the main component of living
sphygnomanometer constricts to measure blood systems and builds strong, stable covalent bonds
pressure
cardiac catheterization injection of dye through a
bronchiodilator substance that increases the diameter of catheter into the arterial system to test for the presence
a bronchus to allow air to pass through of coronary artery disease
bronchiole thin tube that branches from a bronchus cardiac cycle alternating contraction and relaxation of the
within a lung heart at regular intervals
bronchitis inflammation of the bronchial lining cardiac sphincter ring of smooth muscle that contracts
bronchus (plural, bronchi) hollow tube, supported by and relaxes around the opening between the esophagus
cartilage, that branches from the trachea and enters a and the stomach to control the passage of food
lung carnivore meat eater
bryophyte plant that lacks true roots, stems, leaves, and carpel female reproductive structure that contains the
xylem and phloem to transport materials ovaries in a flower
budding outgrowth and detachment of buds from an cartilage ring structure that encircles and supports the
organism; a type of asexual reproduction trachea
bulb small underground stem surrounded by layers of Casparian strip waterproof tissue that surrounds the
short, thick modified leaves that store food endodermal cells of a plant root and controls the
bulimia medical and psychiatric condition characterized passage of water into the root’s center
by a habitual alternation between binge eating and catabolic reaction see catabolism
fasting or purging
catabolism breakdown of a compound into simpler
Bundle of His specialized muscle fibres that convey substances
electrical impulses through the heart
catalyst substance that speeds up a chemical reaction
bypass surgery extraction of a leg vein and its without itself changing in the process
incorporation into the arterial system to redirect blood
flow around a diseased heart artery cell membrane structure that surrounds a cell and
regulates the passage of materials between the cell and
its environment
612 Glossary
cell plate membrane that forms in a dividing plant cell chorionic villus sampling removal and analysis of cells
and develops into a cell wall that separates the from a membrane that surrounds the fetus in the uterus
daughter cells
chromatid each of the two identical chromosome strands
cell theory assumption that cells compose all living things in a replicated chromosome attached by their shared
and arise only from pre-existing cells centromere
cell wall structure that surrounds, protects and supports, chromatin thread-like structure made up of DNA and
the cell membrane in all living organisms except proteins in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell
animals and some protists
chromosome structure in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell
cellular respiration breakdown of sugar molecules to that carries genes, formed when chromatin condenses
release chemical energy that a cell can use
chromosome theory of heredity theory that genes, the
cellular slime mould single-celled, fungus-like protist that units of heredity, are carried on chromosomes; suggests
joins with others in a multicellular mass to reproduce a physical basis for Mendel’s laws of inheritance
cellulose complex carbohydrate that forms the main chyme paste that results after the stomach partially di-
component of a plant cell wall gests food
centrifuge machine that spins a substance in a test tube cilia (singular, cilium) hair-like structures that project
to separate the substance into its components from a cell and beat to produce movement
centriole paired structure in animal cells that organizes ciliate protist that has cilia
the mitotic spindle
circular smooth muscle muscle layer that encircles the
centromere union point of two chromatids that join to lumen of the digestive tract and contracts to constrict
form a chromosome pair the lumen
cephalization concentration of sense organs and nerve cells circulatory system group of organs that deliver oxygen
at the anterior end of a bilaterally symmetrical animal and nutrients through the blood to the body tissues
cephalothorax arthropod body part formed by the fusion class taxon containing closely related orders
of the head and the thorax
classification key system of branching divisions that a
cheliped large, claw-like crustacean appendage that grabs biologist uses to place an organism into the appropriate
food and protects the animal taxon
chemical digestion breakdown of food particles by cloaca common opening for the digestive, excretory, and
digestive fluids; see digestion reproductive tracts in all vertebrates except mammals
chemoautotroph organism that uses energy from oxidiz- clone genetically identical copy of an organism
ing inorganic materials to manufacture organic com-
cloning vector agent, such as a plasmid or a virus, that
pounds from carbon dioxide; see autotroph
scientists use in genetic engineering to transfer
chemoreceptor receptor that detects chemical changes in recombinant DNA to another organism
the body
closed circulatory system circulatory system that pumps
chemotherapy injection of drugs into the body to treat blood through contained vessels between the heart and
cancer the rest of the body organs
chemotroph organism that needs no light energy to break clot mesh of fibrin molecules that blocks blood flow from
down compounds to produce its own food a damaged vessel
chemotropism plant growth response to certain chemicals cnidocyte specialized ectoderm cell on a cnidarian
tentacle that releases a toxic substance to paralyze prey
chiasma (plural, chiasmata) site on a tetrad where
chromatids separate and reunite coccus (plural, cocci) spherical bacterium
chitin strong, waterproof carbohydrate molecule found in co-dominance complete expression of two different alleles
arthropod exoskeletons and the cell walls of fungi of a gene in a heterozygote
chlorophyll molecule that captures light energy in a coelom internal animal body cavity lined with mesoderm
chloroplast
coelomate animal possessing a body cavity lined with
chloroplast organelle that contains chlorophyll and mesoderm
converts sunlight into chemical energy in the cells of
coenzyme substance associated with an enzyme that acti-
plants and some protists
vates the enzyme
cholesterol compound in some animal tissues that helps
cohesion tendency of molecules of the same kind to stick
maintain the fluidity of the cell membrane
together
chordae tendinae fibrous connective tissue structures in
colchicine alkaloid that inhibits mitosis by preventing the
the ventricle that stabilize the atrio-ventricular valves
formation of the mitotic spindle
during systole
Glossary 613
coleoptile sheath that encloses the shoot and leaves of countercurrent flow opposed directional flow of water
monocot seedlings and blood through the gills of a fish, allowing efficient
gas exchange
collar cell sponge cell that beats a flagellum to circulate
water covalent bond bond formed between atoms that share
one or more pairs of electrons
collenchyma parenchyma tissue made up of thick-walled
cells that strengthen a plant cristae (singular, crista) folds of the inner membrane of a
mitochondrion
companion cell type of small phloem cell adjacent to sieve
tube cells that appear to control sugar transport in the critical value value at which some condition undergoes a
phloem change; value above or below which a reaction may be
expected
compensation takeover of a body function by an organ to
make up for the inadequate functioning of another organ Crohn’s disease inflammation of the digestive tract,
localized in the small intestine
competitive inhibitor molecule that inhibits enzyme
activity when it binds to an enzyme in place of the crop enlarged chamber that stores food in the alimentary
substrate canal of birds and some invertebrates
complement one half of a complementary base pair; cross-pollination transfer of pollen from the anther of one
adenosine is the complement of thymine, and cytosine plant to the stigma of another plant of the same species
is the complement of guanine
crossing over exchange of chromosome segments
complementary base pair pair of particular nitrogen between homologous chromosomes during meiosis
bases that link together in the DNA molecule; adenosine
cuticle waterproof, noncellular protective layer or cover-
links with thymine and cytosine links with guanine
ing in some invertebrates; waxy, noncellular, water-
compound substance formed by the bonding of atoms of proof coating that covers a plant’s leaves and stems
more than one element
cutting section of plant tissue capable of growing into a
concentration gradient difference within a given area new plant
between the highest and lowest concentration of a
cystic fibrosis inherited disease caused by the failure of a
particular chemical substance
specialized protein to transport sodium and potassium
condensation reaction see dehydration synthesis across the cell membrane; results in mucus build-up
that destroys lung tissue
cone reproductive structure of a gymnosperm
cytokinesis division of a cell’s cytoplasm into two distinct
congenital defect mutation present at birth
cells
conidium (plural, conidia) asexually-produced spore of an
cytokinin plant hormone that promotes cell division and
ascomycete fungus
differentiation
conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) unsaturated fatty acid that
cytoplasm interior of a cell between the nuclear envelope
may benefit human health, found in some meat and
and the cell membrane that contains organelles and
dairy products
cytosol
conjugation transfer of DNA between two bacterial or
cytoskeleton network of fine protein fibres that supports
protist cells that unite in a type of sexual reproduction
a eukaryotic cell
connective tissue tissue that supports and binds body
cytosol liquid portion of cytoplasm that surrounds
structures and may also store food or form blood cells
organelles
conservative describes the production of a DNA molecule
without the inclusion of strands from the original
molecule; see semiconservative D
continuous distribution range of expression of a daughter cell one of two genetically identical cells
multifactorial trait produced when a cell divides by mitosis
controlled breeding see selective breeding defecation expulsion of feces from the rectum through the
anus
cork water-resistant protective layer, dead a maturity,
produced in the outer regions of stems and roots of dehydration synthesis formation of a polymer from
woody plants monomers that link together; water is removed as each
bond forms
cork cambium meristematic tissue that produces cork in
a woody plant stem; see cambium deletion chromosome that lacks genetic information due
to the failure of a chromosome fragment to attach to its
coronary circulation delivery of oxygenated blood from homologous chromosome during crossing over
the aorta to the heart tissue
density mass of a substance per unit volume
cortex parenchymal tissue in the root or stem primarily
used for storage deoxygenated describes a living system or an
environment that has released or lost oxygen
614 Glossary
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) nucleic acid, encoded with dorsal vessel main vessel that conveys blood along the
instructions to produce proteins, that stores and upper surface of an earthworm
transmits genetic information from one generation to
double helix shape formed when the two chains of
the next
nucleotides link in the DNA molecule
diabetes disease caused by the inability of the body to
Down syndrome condition that results from the possession
transport glucose into cells
of an extra copy of chromosome 21 (also called trisomy
diaphragm muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from 21)
the abdominal cavity
duodenum first section of the vertebrate small intestine
diastole relaxation stage of the cardiac cycle that allows
duplication attachment of a chromosome fragment to a
blood to flow into the heart chambers
homolog that is already complete during crossing-over
diatom single-celled photosynthetic protist with a cell wall
that contains silica
E
dicot short for dicotyledon (Dicotyledoneae), a class of
ecological succession process whereby a community of
flowering plants whose seeds have two seed leaves
plants in an area gradually changes, often following an
differentiation structural and functional divergence of ecological disturbance
cells as they specialize
ectoderm outermost of three cell or tissue layers in an
diffusion spontaneous movement of particles from an animal
area of higher concentration to an area of lower
ectotherm animal that regulates its internal body temper-
concentration
ature by absorbing heat from the environment
digestion mechanical and chemical breakdown of food
egg see ovum
into molecules that the body can absorb
electrocardiogram (ECG) graphic representation of the
digestive system group of organs that work together to
heart’s electrical activity
break down food, take in nutrients, and expel waste
electrocardiograph device that detects the heart’s
dihybrid an individual who is heterozygous for two traits;
electrical activity
represented by the genotype AaBb for example
electrode instrument that senses the heart’s electrical
dihybrid cross mating of two individuals both
currents and transmits them to a machine
heterozygous for two particular traits
elimination discharge of waste from the digestive tract
dinoflagellate single-celled photosynthetic protist with
through the anus
two flagella
emphysema respiratory disorder that results in stiffening
diploid number (2n) number of chromosomes in a body
of the normally elastic alveoli
cell of an organism; the number characteristic of a
species, having two chromosomes of each type per cell. emulsify to break down a substance physically without
changing its chemical structure
disaccharide carbohydrate formed from two
monosaccharides endergonic reaction reaction that requires energy
discontinuous distribution interrupted range of endocardium tissue that lines the inside of the heart
expression of a trait controlled by only one gene pair chambers
dissociation ability of a molecule to break down into its endocytosis uptake of large particles or molecules by for-
ions mation of a vesicle from the cell membrane; requires
energy from ATP
disulphide bridge covalent bond formed between the
sulphur atoms of two amino acids endoderm innermost of three cell or tissue layers in an
animal
diuretic substance that increases urine excretion
endodermis wax-coated inner layer of the cortex of a
division another word for phylum; used only with the
plant root
plant and fungi kingdoms
endoplasmic reticulum network of membrane tubes that
DNA see deoxyribonucleic acid
branch from the nuclear envelope and circulate
dominance expression of one allele of a gene over the materials throughout the cell
other
endoscopy insertion of an endoscope through a natural
dominant allele that is expressed in a heterozygous body opening or a small incision to investigate an organ
individual or cavity
dormancy period of growth inactivity in an organism endoskeleton rigid internal skeleton of an echinoderm or
dorsal upper side of a bilaterally symmetrical organism a vertebrate that supports and protects the animal
dorsal fin fin along the midline of the back of a endosperm angiosperm tissue, formed during fertilization,
chondrichthyan or osteichthyan that stores nutrients for the developing seed
Glossary 615
endospore thick wall produced in some bacteria in exocytosis release of molecules from a vesicle that fuses
unfavourable conditions to enclose its DNA and with the cell membrane to export the molecules from
cytoplasm the cell
endosymbiotic theory hypothesis that mitochondria and exoskeleton hard external coat of chitin that covers and
chloroplasts evolved from the symbiotic associations protects an arthropod and provides a surface for muscle
between eukaryotic cells and the bacterial and algal attachment
cells that lived inside them
exotoxin poison produced by a micro-organism that dif-
endotherm animal that uses metabolic energy to maintain fuses through the cell membrane into its surroundings
a high, stable internal body temperature
expiratory reserve volume volume of air that can be
endotoxin poisonous substance released when certain exhaled from the lungs after tidal exhalation; see tidal
bacteria split open in a host, causing fever, vomiting, volume
and diarrhea
external respiration diffusion of oxygen and carbon
enzyme protein that speeds up the rate of a chemical dioxide between the alveoli and the blood
reaction without itself changing in the process
extracellular fluid fluid found between cells
enzyme-substrate complex structure formed when an
eye spot light-sensing organ on the head of a planarian
enzyme binds to a substrate during a reaction
epidermis outermost cell layer of plants and animals
F
epiglottis small flap of connective tissue that moves
F1 (first filial) generation offspring of two P generation
between the esophagus and the trachea to separate the
individuals in a study of inheritance
materials that pass to the digestive tract from the
materials that pass to the respiratory tube F2 (second filial) generation offspring of two F1
generation individuals in a study of inheritance
epi-pen instrument that delivers epinephrine to a person
experiencing anaphylactic shock facilitated diffusion diffusion of molecules across a mem-
brane through channels in certain proteins; does not
epithelial tissue (epithelium) tissue that lines body
require energy from ATP; see diffusion
organs and cavities
factor unit of inheritance; now called a gene
equator linear region across the middle of a cell
facultative anaerobe organism that can produce energy
erythrocyte see red blood cell
with or without oxygen; see anaerobe
esophagus long, muscular tube that receives food from
family taxon containing closely related genera
the pharynx and passes it to the stomach
fat lipid, formed by fatty acids and glycerol molecules,
essential amino acid amino acid that an organism needs
that protects body structures, insulates the body, and
to function
provides energy
essential nutrient nutrient that an organism needs to
fatty acid molecule formed by a chain of carbon and
function
hydrogen atoms with a carboxyl (COOH) group at one end
estrogen steroid hormone that maintains the female
feather outgrowth of the bird epidermis that forms part of
reproductive system
the outer body covering
ethylene gaseous plant hormone that inhibits growth and
feces solid waste product of digestion
promotes fruit ripening
fermentation breakdown of sugar molecules without the
euglenoid flagellated unicellular organism with plant and
presence of oxygen to produce energy
animal characteristics
fertile describes an organism that can produce normal
eukaryote organism made of one or more cells that have
gametes
both a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-en-
closed organelles fibrin strand-like molecule that joins with others to form a
blood clot
Eubacteria kingdom containing prokaryotic single-celled
organisms; contains most species of bacteria fibrous root thread-like, branching root system found in
monocot plants
evolution genetic modification in a population of organ-
isms over time, which sometimes results in the flagella (singular, flagellum) long whip-like cellular
development of a new species projections that beat to produce movement
exercise stress test measurement of ECG and blood flower reproductive structure of an angiosperm that
pressure during physical activity to test for the presence typically includes both male and female parts
of coronary artery disease fluid mosaic model description of the arrangement of
exergonic reaction reaction that releases energy protein molecules in the fluid double layer of the cell
membrane
exhalation (expiration) expulsion of air from the lungs
616 Glossary
fluke parasitic flatworm in the class Trematoda genetic engineering techniques that scientists use to alter
the DNA of an organism
food vacuole cavity formed when a cell membrane
pinches off and surrounds food particles genetic recombination see crossing over
foot muscular mollusk structure that usually moves or genetic variation differences among individuals caused
feeds the animal by the recombination of genetic material during meiosis
foreign substance recognized as not being part on an or- genetics science of heredity
ganism’s make up
genotype genetic make up of an organism
frond leaf of a fern
genus (plural, genera) taxon containing closely related
fruit mature angiosperm ovary that contains fertilized seeds species; first part of the two-part scientific Latin name of
an organism
fruiting body reproductive structure that produces spores
by meiosis in some fungi and fungus-like protists geotropism see gravitropism
Fungi kingdom containing eukaryotic, multicellular, gibberellin plant hormone that interacts with auxins to
heterotrophic organisms that have cell walls containing control plant growth and fruit development
chitin; includes mushrooms, yeasts, and moulds
gill in a mushroom, a thin sheet that hangs from the cap
and bears thousands of basidia; in fish, a feather-like
G extension of the body surface that specializes in gas
exchange
G1 (first gap) phase period of cell growth before mitosis
gill arch skeletal structure that supports a fish gill
G2 (second gap) phase period of cell preparation for
division before mitosis gill capillary tiny vessel that conveys blood through a fish
gill to take in oxygen
gallbladder muscular sac that stores bile and releases it
into the small intestine gill filament structure that projects from a gill arch of a
fish and increases the surface area for gas exchange
gamete specialized reproductive cell that unites with
another of a different sex to produce a zygote through gizzard thick-walled structure that grinds food in the
sexual reproduction; eggs and sperm alimentary canal of birds and some invertebrates
gametophyte haploid plant generation that produces glucagon hormone, released by the pancreas that
haploid gametes stimulates the liver to release glucose
gastrodermis lining of the gastrovascular cavity in a glucose common monosaccharide with the molecular
cnidarian; made of endoderm formula C6H12O6; monomer of polysaccharides
gastrovascular cavity sac with only one opening that glycerol organic molecule formed from three carbon
functions in digestion, circulation, or gas exchange in atoms, each with a hydroxyl group attached; bonds with
some invertebrates fatty acid to form fat
gene segment of DNA that carries the code for a specific glycocalyx see glycoprotein
protein glycogen polymer made of glucose monomers; storage
gene linkage transmital of genes on the same compound in animal cells
chromosome that fail to sort independently of one glycolysis breakdown of glucose into two molecules of
another and are inherited together pyruvic acid, first step of cellular respiration
gene map representation of the location and order of glycoprotein protein combined with a carbohydrate,
genes on a chromosome embedded in the cell membrane, that functions in cell
gene mapping determination of the location and order of communication or recognition
genes on a chromosome Golgi complex or apparatus flat stack of membranes that
gene pool all the alleles of a specific trait in a population; receive, modify and trasport proteins throughout a cell
all the genes in a population at any one time grafting attachment of a plant shoot to the rooted stem of
gene splicing insertion of one piece of genetic material another plant
into another gram stain dye made of crystal violet and iodine that
gene therapy use of a gene product or manipulation of biologists use to classify bacteria based on the
abnormal DNA to treat a genetic condition organism’s reaction to the stain
genetic describes a relationship to genes or heredity grana (singular, granum) flat structures, formed by
internal chloroplast membranes, that trap light energy
genetic continuity transmission of hereditary information
from a parent cell to the daughter cells in mitosis or gravitropism plant growth response to gravity
from generation to generation in sexual reproduction green algae freshwater protists with biflagellated cells
and chloroplasts
Glossary 617
guard cells specialized epidermal cells that swell and homologous chromosome (homolog) one of a pair of
contract to control gas exchange through the stoma of a chromosomes that each carry genes for the same trait
leaf at the same location on the chromosome; one chromo-
some is inherited from the mother, the other from the
guttation exuding liquid water from the leaves of some
father
plants as a result of root pressure
homozygous describes an organism with two identical
gymnosperm vascular plant that does not enclose its seed
alleles of a certain gene
within a fruit
hormone complex chemical that travels from its
production site to other sites in an organism where it
H produces an effect
halophile organism that lives in a high-salt environment
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) retrovirus that
haploid number (n) number of chromosomes in a cell causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in
that contains a single set of chromosomes; present in humans as it destroys white blood cells and cripples the
gametes; one-half the diploid number immune system
heart attack blockage of a coronary artery that prevents hybrid offspring from a cross between two different vari-
the flow of oxygenated blood to the heart tissue and eties of organism or different species
kills heart muscle cells
hybrid vigour superiority of a hybrid over either parent
heartburn irritation of the mucous lining of the esophagus for any given trait, e.g., resistance to disease, size
when stomach acids enter the esophagus
hybridization formation of an offspring from two parents
heart murmur sound caused by turbulent blood flow of different varieties or different species
through a disfunctional heart valve
hydrochloric acid digestive substance that stomach lining
heartwood inner region of xylem in woody stems filled glands secrete into the stomach
with complex substances making it non-conducting
hydrogen bond weak bond formed between the
heme group iron compound that links to a hemoglobin negatively-charged atom of a polar molecule and the
molecule in blood and binds oxygen positively-charged hydrogen atom of another polar
hemochromatosis genetic disorder characterized by high molecule
iron absorption that damages tissue hydrolysis reaction in which a compound reacts with
hemocoel blood cavity that bathes the internal organs in water and is split into two parts
the arthropod circulatory system hydrolytic enzymes enzymes, particularly in lysosomes,
hemoglobin protein-based molecule that contains iron that digest substances by hydrolysis of bonds
and binds oxygen in a red blood cell hydrophilic describes a molecule that dissolves in water
hemophilia human genetic disease caused by the failure hydrophobic describes a molecule that does not dissolve
of blood to form clots in water
herbaceous describes a soft plant stem with little or no hydrophobic interaction association between non-polar
woody tissue molecules that results from their inability to associate
herbivore plant eater with polar molecules
heritable describes the relationship between total hydrotropism chemotropic plant growth toward water;
variation in the phenotype and total variation in the see chemotropism
genotype; trait capable of being inherited hypercholesterolemia disease characterized by an excess
hermaphroditic describes an organism that has both of cholesterol in the blood
male and female reproductive organs hypertension persistently high blood pressure
heterotroph organism that cannot manufacture its own hypertonic describes a solution that has a higher solute
food and so depends on other organisms as food concentration than another solution
sources
hyphae (singular, hypha) thread-like filaments that make
heterozygous describes an organism with two different up the body of most fungi
alleles for a certain gene
hypocotyl stem that emerges below the seed leaves of a
homeostasis state of constancy in an organism’s internal germinating seed
environment despite changes in the external environment
hypotonic describes a solution that has a lower solute
homogeneity possession of a homozygous genotype concentration than another solution
homologous in anatomy, similar in fundamental structure
and development but may have a different function
618 Glossary
I iron key component of a red blood cell

ileocaecal valve valve that controls the passage of chyme isotonic describes a solution that has the same solute
from the small intestine into the large intestine concentration as another solution
ileum third part of the vertebrate small intestine
J
immunosuppressant substance that suppresses the
immune system jejunum second part of the vertebrate small intestine
immunotherapy use of chemicals produced naturally in joule (J) metric unit that measures energy
the immune system to fight cancer
inbreeding mating of closely-related individuals K
incisor flat, blade-like tooth in the front of the mouth that karyotype number and form of chromosomes in a cell
snips and bites off food kilojoule (kJ) metric unit that measures energy; equal to
incomplete dominance incomplete expression of two 1000 joules (J)
different alleles of a gene in a heterozygote; results in kingdom taxon containing closely related phyla or divisions
intermediate expression
indoleacetic acid (IAA) naturally-occurring auxin L
inferior vena cava large vein that conveys oxygen-poor lactic acid product of lactic acid fermentation
blood from the lower body to the heart
lactic acid fermentation anaerobic process that converts
inflammatory bowel disease disease that affects the pyruvic acid to lactic acid
lining of the small and large intestine; see Crohn’s
disease and ulcerative colitis lactose intolerance inability to digest lactose; caused by
the absence of lactase, a digestive enzyme
ingestion uptake of food into the body
lamella (plural, lamellae) flat structure in a gill filament of
inhalation (inspiration) uptake of air into the lungs a fish that increases the surface area for gas exchange
inorganic compound compound that often contains no large intestine organ that removes water from
carbon, usually formed by ionic bonds and rarely found unabsorbed material in the small intestine
within a living organism
larva (plural, larvae) immature developmental stage of an
inorganic fertilizer plant nutrients produced industrially invertebrate that differs structurally from the adult form
from inorganic compounds
larynx structure at the top of the trachea that contains the
inspiratory reserve volume additional volume of air that vocal cords
the lungs take in during a deep breath
Law of Independent Assortment describes the indepen-
instar intermediate stage of insect metamorphosis dent segregation of genes for different traits when a
insulin hormone that binds to a protein on the cell gamete forms
membrane, allowing glucose to enter the cell by Law of Segregation separation of the members of an
facilitated diffusion allele pair when a gamete forms
integral protein protein embedded in the cell membrane laxative substance that helps the passage of stool through
that performs a specific function the rectum
intercellular communication communication between leaf pull force that pulls water up from the roots of a
cells plant as water evaporates from the leaves
internal respiration diffusion of oxygen and carbon left anterior descending artery one of two main
dioxide between blood in the capillaries and the cells in branches of the left coronary artery that conveys
body tissue oxygenated blood from the aorta to the heart tissue
interphase period of the cell cycle between cell divisions left circumflex artery one of two main branches of the
intracellular communication communication within a left coronary artery that conveys oxygenated blood from
single cell the aorta to the heart tissue
intrinsic protein see integral protein legume any member of the pulse family, a large group of
dicots that includes beans, peanuts, and alfalfa
inversion reversed order of attachment of a chromosome
fragment to a homologous chromosome during crossing leucocyte see white blood cell
over lichen symbiotic association of a fungus with either a
invertebrate animal that lacks a backbone cyanobacterium or an alga
ion atom that has gained or lost an electron and acquired light-dependent reactions sequence of reactions during
a negative or positive charge photosynthesis; depend on light energy and break down
water molecules with the release of hydrogen and
ionic bond bond formed by the attraction between ions
oxygen
with opposite charges
Glossary 619
light-independent reactions sequence of reactions during maternal set all chromosomes, one from each
photosynthesis; do not depend on light; carbon dioxide homologous pair, inherited from the mother
and hydrogen atoms combine to form glucose
matrix liquid solution inside a mitochondrion
lignin complex molecule that hardens around xylem cells
maxilla (plural, maxillae) crustacean appendage that
to form a major component of a woody stem
gathers food
linkage group genes on the same chromosome that fail to
maxilliped crustacean appendage that senses the
sort independently of one another and are inherited
environment and searches for food
together
mechanical digestion breakdown of a solid food mass into
lipase enzyme secreted by the pancreas that breaks down
smaller components by muscular activity; see digestion
lipids
medulla oblongata region of the vertebrate brain that
lipid organic compound formed of carbon, hydrogen, and
regulates involuntary body functions
oxygen atoms but with relatively more hydrogen than a
carbohydrate medusa (plural, medusae) free-swimming sexual stage of
the cnidarian life cycle
liver large organ that secretes bile to digest food and
extracts nutrients and toxins from blood meiosis cell division process that involves two divisions
with only one duplication of chromosomes; results in
lobe rounded division of an organ
haploid (n) gametes containing one chromosome from
locus (plural, loci) specific location of a gene on a each homologous pair
chromosome
meristem region of a plant with meristematic tissue
longitudinal smooth muscle muscle layer along the
meristematic tissue plant tissue whose cells divide by
digestive tract that contracts to shorten the tract
mitosis to generate new cells
lower esophageal sphincter see cardiac sphincter
mesoderm middle of three cell or tissue layers in an
lumen hollow interior of a vessel or tube, such as the ali- animal
mentary canal
mesoglea jelly-like layer that sits between the
lung vertebrate organ specialized for gas exchange gastrodermis and epidermis of a cnidarian
lysis bursting of a host cell infected by a replicating virus mesophyll tissue inside a leaf, made up of thin-walled
cells containing chloroplasts
lysogeny insertion of viral DNA into the DNA of a
bacterial host messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule that encodes the
information on a DNA molecule to build proteins
lysosome organelle containing enzymes that digest food,
destroy bacteria, or break down damaged organelles in metabolism sum of all chemical reactions that occur in
a eukaryotic cell the cells of an organism
metamorphosis change in shape that some animals un-
M dergo as they develop from an egg to an adult
macronucleus larger of two types of nuclei in a ciliate metaphase second phase of mitosis; chromosomes line up
across the middle of the cell
macronutrient substance that an organism requires in
relatively large amounts metaphase plate see equator
macrophage specialized white blood cell that consumes metastasis spread of cancer cells from the initial site to
bacteria and dead cells by phagocytosis other parts of the body
malignant life-threatening; describes tumours that are ca- micronucleus smaller of two types of nuclei in a ciliate
pable of spreading throughout the body micronutrient substance that an organism requires in
maltose disaccharide formed by two glucose molecules minimal amounts
mammary gland gland in a female mammal that microvilli (singular, microvillus) microscopic projections of
produces milk to nourish young villi in the small intestine
mandible crustacean appendage that crushes food mineral inorganic nutrient that an organism requires in
small amounts
mantle thin membrane that covers the body and gills of a
mollusk and secretes a protective shell mitochondrion (plural, mitochondria) organelle that
performs cellular respiration in a eukaryotic cell
marsupial mammal that gives birth to immature offspring
that develop in a pouch on the mother’s abdomen mitosis in cell division, division of a nucleus into two
genetically identical nuclei; divided into five stages
maternal serum screening (MSS) blood test used in
pregnant women to identify abnormal hormone levels mitotic spindle network of protein fibres that help move
seen in pregnancies with an increased chance of certain chromosomes during the first phase of mitosis
genetic defects (Down syndrome, trisomy 18, open mitral valve see bicuspid valve
neural tube defects)
620 Glossary
molar posterior tooth that grinds and crushes food negative feedback response that regulates the stimulus
that produced it to maintain balance within a system
molecular formula representation of a compound that
shows the number of each type of atom present negative tropism plant growth away from an external
stimulus
molecule smallest unit of a compound formed by covalent
bonds that retains all the chemical properties of that nematocyst stinging structure in the cnidocyte of a
compound cnidarian
monocot short for monocotyledon (Monocotyledoneae), a nerve cord dorsal hollow elongated tube made of nerve
class of flowering plants whose seeds have one seed leaf fibres; found in tunicates, chordates, and vertebrates
monoculture cultivation of a single crop variety in a large nerve net network of nerves in a cnidarian
area
nervous tissue tissue that forms the organs of the nervous
monohybrid cross mating of two individuals both system
heterozygous for a particular trait
net equation representation of the steps of a reaction,
monomer molecule that bonds with others to form a including reactants and products
polymer
nicotine addictive substance that stimulates the heart and
monosaccharide simple sugar monomer that bonds with increases blood pressure
others to build a carbohydrate
nitrogen fixation process by which atmospheric nitrogen
monosomic describes an individual who lacks a is converted to nitrogenous compounds that plants can
chromosome use
monosomy possession of only one of a homologous pair of nitroglycerine medication that dilates blood vessels to
chromosomes in an otherwise diploid cell treat angina and cardiovascular disease
monotreme mammal that lays eggs nodule swelling that contains nitrogen-fixing bacteria on a
legume root
moulting periodic shedding and replacement of an
arthropod exoskeleton to accommodate growth nondisjunction failure of chromosomes to separate or
move apart during meiosis
mRNA see messenger RNA
non-virulent describes an organism that does not cause
mucosa lining of intestine where absorption occurs
disease
mucus substance secreted by mucous cells to line and
norm see set point
protect an organ
notochord flexible dorsal rod that runs along the length of
multifactorial describes a trait whose expression is con-
a chordate between the digestive tract and the nerve
trolled by genes found at many loci; expression of this
cord
trait may also be influenced by other contributing fac-
tors nuclear envelope double membrane with pores that
surrounds and separates the nucleus from the rest of
multiple allelism when there are more than two possible
the cell
alleles for a given gene (at a specific locus)
nuclease enzyme secreted by the pancreas for digestion
muscle fibre single muscle cell
nucleic acid complex molecule made up of nucleotides
muscle tissue specialized tissue that forms muscle
that forms DNA and RNA
mutagen substance or agent that causes a mutation
nucleolus dense structure in the nucleus of a eukaryotic
mutation change in the DNA of a gene cell that contains DNA and is involved in forming
mycelium tangled mass of filaments formed by the ribosomes
hyphae of a fungus nucleotide organic molecule, made up of a nitrogen base,
mycorrhizae (singular, micorrhiza) fungus mycelium that a sugar, and a phosphate group; monomer for nucleic
forms a symbiotic association with plant roots acids
myocardium muscle that forms the heart wall nucleus (plural, nuclei) organelle that contains DNA and
controls cell activity
N
O
nasal cavity region of the respiratory tube lined with
mucus and cilia that receives, moistens, and filters air obligate aerobe aerobe that needs oxygen to survive; see
inhaled through the nose aerobe
natural selection difference in the survival or reproduc- obligate anaerobe aerobe that can live only in the
tion among individuals in a population based on how absence of oxygen; see anaerobe
well their traits suit them for their environment omnivore plant and meat eater
Glossary 621
oogonium (plural, oogonia) cell that produces eggs in the pangenesis outdated theory that suggested that traits
ovary could be modified during a person’s lifetime and these
modifications could be passed on to his or her offspring
open circulatory system system in some animals that
pumps blood through open-ended vessels into the body parapodium (plural, parapodia) outgrowth of the body
cavity containing organs, then drains the cavity wall that functions in gas exchange and locomotion in
some annelids
operculum (plural, opercula) flat bony plate that covers
the gills of a fish parasite organism that lives in or on another organism
and absorbs or consumes nutrients from the organism
oral cavity region that receives food and also air inhaled
to obtain energy
through the mouth
parenchyma type of unspecialized fundamental or ground
oral groove structure in a ciliate that receives food
tissue in plants that serves a variety of functions see
order taxon containing closely related families collenchyma and sclerenchyma
organ group of tissues that work together to perform a parent cell cell that divides by mitosis into two genetically
specific function identical cells
organ system group of organs that work together to passive transport movement of substances along the con-
perform a specific function centration gradient; process that does not require ATP
organelle structure that performs a specific function in a paternal set all chromosomes, one from each homologous
cell pair, inherited from the father
organic compound compound that contains carbon; see pathogenic causing disease
compound
pectoral fin anterior fin of a chondrichthyan or an
organic fertilizer plant nutrients derived from decaying osteichthyan
plant or animal matter
pedigree representation of the transmission patterns of a
oscula (singular, osculum) openings that expel water from heritable trait across generations of parents and
the body of a sponge offspring
osmosis diffusion of water across a selectively permeable pellicle outer membrane that covers some protozoans
membrane
pelvic fin posterior fin of a chondrichthyan or
ovary female organ that produces eggs in a plant or an osteichthyan
animal
penicillin chemical produced by the green fungal mould
oviviparous describes a vertebrate that retains fertilized Penicillium, that prevents the growth of bacteria
eggs within its body without nourishing them, and gives
pepsin enzyme, converted from pepsinogen, that breaks
birth to live young
down protein in the stomach
ovule oval body in the ovary of a flower, which develops
pepsinogen digestive substance that glands of the stomach
into an embryo that develops into a seed after
lining secrete into the stomach
fertilization
peptide bond bond that forms between amino acids in a
ovum larger of two cells produced by the unequal division
polypeptide
of the secondary oocyte in a female during meiosis
peristalsis coordinated muscle contractions that move
oxygenated describes a living system or an environment
food through the digestive tract
that has received oxygen
permeable describes a membrane that allows some
substances to pass through it
P
petal colourful, leaflike structure on a flower
P generation parent individuals that produce offspring in
a study of inheritance phagocytosis type of endocytosis that moves large particles
into a cell; see endocytosis
pacemaker specialized muscle in the right atrium that
generates an electrical signal and maintains the heart’s pharynx muscular tube that connects the mouth to the
pumping rhythm; device that generates electric signals rest of the digestive tract; in terrestrial vertebrates, it
to stimulate the heart to contract also connects the nasal cavity to the rest of the
respiratory tube
palisade layer layer of densely-packed, column-shaped
mesophyll cells in a plant leaf phenotype physical characteristics of an organism
pancreas organ that secretes digestive enzymes into the phenotypic ratio proportion of individuals in a generation
small intestine and hormones into the blood that express a certain trait
pancreatic enzyme enzyme, produced by the pancreas, phlebotomy weekly removal of blood to lower iron levels
that digests macronutrients in the small intestine and treat hemochromatosis
622 Glossary
phloem vascular tissue that transports carbohydrates polar covalent bond bond formed between atoms that
from the leaves to other parts of the plant share electrons unequally and acquire partial opposite
electric charges
phospholipid lipid found in a cell membrane; formed by
two hydrophobic fatty acids and a hydrophilic head polar molecule molecule made of atoms joined by polar
containing a phosphate group and a nitrogen-containing covalent bonds
group
pole partially-charged end of a polar molecule
phospholipid bilayer double layer of outward-facing
pollen cone male cone that produces pollen grains in a
phosphates and inward-facing fatty acids that form a
gymnosperm; see cone
cell membrane
pollination transfer of pollen from an anther of a stamen
photoautotroph organism that uses light energy to make
to a stigma of a pistil
organic compounds from inorganic substances; see
autotroph polygenic describes a trait that is controlled by genes
found at many loci
photosynthesis use of light energy to convert carbon
dioxide and water into carbohydrates, carried out by polymer large molecule formed by identical or similar
the chloroplasts of plants and some protists monomers
phototropism plant growth toward or away from a light polyp aexual, sessile stage of the cnidarian life cycle
source polypeptide chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds;
phylogenetic tree diagram that represents the forms a protein
evolutionary relationships among groups of organisms polyploidy possession of more than two sets of
phylogeny evolutionary history of a group of organisms chromosomes
that share a common ancestor polysaccharide large carbohydrate formed by many
phylum taxon containing closely related classes monosaccharides
phytoremediation use of plants to extract toxic polysomy possession of an extra copy of a particular
substances from soil or water chromosome
pinocytosis type of endocytosis that moves a liquid into a population genetics study of the frequencies of genes and
cell; see endocytosis genetic defects in populations
pioneer species first species to grow in an area that lacks positive tropism plant growth toward an external stimulus
soil predisposition genetic condition that increases an
placental mammal that incubates its young in its uterus individual’s chance of developing a certain condition
Plantae kingdom containing multicellular autotrophic or- pre-meiotic S period of genetic information synthesis
ganisms before meiosis
planula free-swimming larva of a cnidarian premolar tooth that grinds and crushes food
plaque accumulation of fatty deposits in a vessel that prenatal diagnosis testing of a fetus to determine its
hinders blood flow and increases blood pressure condition in the uterus
plasma liquid component of blood that contains salts, pressure-flow theory explanation of plant nutrient
proteins, hormones, and dissolved nutrients and gases transport from leaves to other parts of the plant, driven
by the pressure build-up of hypertonic solution in leaf
plasma membrane see cell membrane
phloem
plasmid small ring of DNA in a bacterium; often used in
primary growth plant growth in height (length) due to cell
genetic recombination
division and differentiation from apical meristem tissue
plasmodium wall-less mass of cytoplasm of an acellular
primary structure specific sequence of amino acids in a
slime mould
polypeptide, representing the first level of protein
plastid group of organelles that photosynthesize, store structure
nutrients, and give colour to a cell; found in plants and
primary succession ecological succession that takes place
some protists
over a long time period on land that was not previously
platelet fragment of a bone marrow cell that helps to clot inhabited by plants
blood
probability ratio of the number of times an event is ex-
pleiotropy change in the expression of many genes pected to occur to the total number of events; the likeli-
caused by a defect in one gene hood of an event occurring
pleura membrane that covers and connects the lungs to prokaryote single-celled organism that lacks a
the walls of the thoracic cavity membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed
organelles
polar body smaller of two cells produced by the unequal
division of cytoplasm in a female during meiosis
Glossary 623
prophase first phase of mitosis; chromatin condenses and purebred describes an organism bred to express a
duplicated chromosomes become visible; mitotic spindle particular form of a trait
begins to form
Purkinje fibres specialized muscle fibres that convey
prostomium head projection of some annelids, used to electrical impulses through the heart
burrow
pus combination of white blood cells and dead bacteria
protease enzyme secreted by the pancreas that breaks
pyloric sphincter ring of smooth muscle that contracts
down proteins
and relaxes around the opening between the stomach
protein large molecule formed by amino acids that directs and the small intestine to control the passage of food
chemical reactions in the body
pyruvic acid product of glycolysis containing three
protein kinase molecule in a cell that transmits a carbons
message to another molecule to regulate cellular
processes
Q
protein structure shape of a protein molecule, classified
quaternary structure shape that results when two or
into four levels, which determines the function of the
more polypeptide chains join to form a protein,
molecule; see primary structure, secondary structure,
representing the fourth level of protein structure
tertiary structure and quaternary structure
protein synthesis assembly of amino acids into proteins
in a cell based on instructions encoded on a DNA
R
molecule; see transcription and translation R group group of atoms in an amino acid whose specific
biological properties distinguish one amino acid from
protist eukaryote, usually single-celled, that falls outside
another
the plant, fungi or animal kingdoms
radial symmetry body plan of an animal with body parts
Protista kingdom containing mostly unicellular eukaryotic
that repeat around one main axis point
organisms
radiation therapy use of radiation on specific sites in the
protozoan animal-like protist
body to upset mitosis and kill cancer cells
pseudocoelomate animal that has a body cavity that is
radicle embryonic root that emerges from a germinating
only partially lined with mesoderm
seed
pseudoheart muscular structure that pumps blood
radula flexible piece of tissue lined with spines used for
through an earthworm
feeding in some mollusks
pseudopod temporary extension of cytoplasm that an
random assortment separation and independent
amoeba projects to move and feed
alignment of homologous chromosome pairs during
pseudopodia (singular, pseudopodium) strands that meiosis
extend as a network from the plasmodium of an
receptor-mediated endocytosis (RME) type of
acellular slime mould
endocytosis that moves a specific molecule into a cell
puff region on a chromatin engaged in transcription as it when the molecule binds to a protein on the cell
appears in a stained preparation membrane
pulmonary artery vessel that conveys blood from the recessive describes the form of a trait that is only ex-
heart to a lung pressed in the homozygous condition (for example,
pulmonary circuit low-pressure system that conveys “aa”)
blood from the heart to the lungs recombinant chromosome produced by the exchange of
pulmonary semilunar valve valve between the right chromosome segments between homologous
ventricle and the pulmonary trunk of the heart that chromosomes during crossing-over
prevents blood flow back into the heart recombinant DNA DNA molecule formed when a biologist
pulmonary trunk main vessel that conveys blood from the splices and combines portions of DNA from two
heart different sources
pulmonary valve see pulmonary semilunar valve rectum last section of the large intestine
pulmonary vein vessel that conveys blood from a lung to red blood cell blood cell with hemoglobin that transports
the left atrium of the heart oxygen throughout the body
pulse pressure difference between the systolic pressure reduction division first division of meiosis, resulting in
and the diastolic pressure of a heart the reduction by half (from 2n to 1n) of the number of
chromosomes in a cell
pure breeding describes plants that produce offspring
identical to the parent plant for a particular trait; now reflux backflow of food from the stomach into the
known to be homozygous for the gene determining the esophagus
trait
624 Glossary
rennin enzyme in a child’s stomach that clots milk to slow S

its passage through the digestive tract
S (synthesis) phase period of genetic information
replication duplication of DNA before mitosis or meiosis duplication before mitosis
residual volume amount of air that the lungs retain after salivary amylase enzyme that breaks down starch in the
maximal expiration mouth
resolving power measure of the ability of an optical salivary gland gland that secretes saliva
instrument to distinguish two objects as separate
saprobe organism that obtains its nourishment from dead
respiratory system group of organs that work together to or decaying matter
exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide between an
organism and its environment
respirometer instrument that measures the vital capacity sapwood the outer, most recent layer of xylem that con-
of the lungs ducts water in a woody stem
restriction enzyme bacterial enzyme that cuts up foreign saturated fat substance, solid at room temperature,
DNA; used in genetic engineering to create recombinant formed mainly of saturated fatty acids
DNA saturated fatty acid fatty acid, solid at room temperature,
reticulum second chamber of a ruminant stomach formed by carbon atoms that bond to hydrogen atoms
at every available bond; no double bonds present
retrovirus RNA virus that reproduces by transcribing its
RNA into DNA, which it then inserts into the host cell’s scale thin, flat, light protective structure that forms part of
DNA the covering of some vertebrates
rhizoid hypha that extends from a fungal mould into a sclerenchyma parenchyma tissue made up of thick-walled
food source and absorbs water and sugars cells that contain lignin and strengthen a plant
rhizome thick, fleshy stem that grows below the ground scolex head of a cestode that has suckers and hooks to
attach it to the inside of a host’s intestine
ribbon diagram computer-generated representation that
highlights a certain area within a molecule screen negative normal hormone levels diagnosed by a
maternal serum screening
ribonucleic acid nucleic acid made of a single strand of
nucleotides; involved in protein synthesis screen positive abnormal hormone levels diagnosed by a
maternal serum screening
ribosome organelle in cytoplasm that is the site of protein
synthesis scurvy disease caused by a vitamin C deficiency
ribs bones that make up the rib cage in the thoracic cavity secondary growth growth in plant width that primarily
results from cell division in the vascular cambium
risk group category of individuals susceptible to a certain
genetic abnormality secondary oocyte larger of two cells produced by the
unequal division of cytoplasm in a female during
RNA see ribonucleic acid meiosis
RNA virus virus whose genetic material is RNA rather secondary structure pattern of coils or pleated sheets in a
than DNA polypeptide, representing the second level of protein
root hair extension of a specialized epidermal cell on a structure
plant root, which absorbs water and minerals secondary succession gradual development of a plant
root pressure upward force exerted on water in the xylem community in a disturbed area that still has soil; see
in the roots of some plants ecological succession
rough endoplasmic reticulum portion of endoplasmic secretin hormone secreted by the small intestine that
reticulum with ribosomes that make proteins; see signals the pancreas to secrete a digestive enzyme to
endoplasmic reticulum neutralize stomach acid
roughage nutritional fibre that aids digestion seed mature fertilized ovule enclosed within the fruit of an
angiosperm
rugae (singular, ruga) folds in the stomach
seed cone female cone that produces ovules in a
rumen first chamber of a ruminant stomach gymnosperm; see cone
ruminant mammal with a four-chambered stomach segmentation movement alternate contraction and
containing bacteria that digest cellulose relaxation of parts of the small intestine to mechanically
digest chyme
segmented body division of the body of some animals
into segments that repeat or specialize
Glossary 625
selective breeding human selection of certain individual somatic cells general body cells; have the diploid number
organisms with desirable traits to breed and produce of chromosomes
offspring with those traits, creating a new variety of a
source according to the pressure-flow theory, cells that
species
manufacture carbohydrates in plants
selectively permeable describes a membrane that
space-filling model three-dimensional representation of
controls the passage of substances through it
the surface shape of a molecule
self-pollination fertilization of a plant egg cell by pollen
species taxon containing a group of organisms that share
from the same plant; see pollination
similar structures and can interbreed in nature to
semiconservative describes the production of two produce fertile offspring; second part of the two-part
identical DNA molecules through replication, each scientific Latin name of an organism
molecule containing one of the two strands of the
specific heat amount of energy required to raise the
original molecule; see conservative
temperature of one gram of a substance by 1°C
seminal receptacle small sac in a female crustacean that
spermatid one of four cells produced by a male after
receives sperm from the male to fertilize the eggs
meiosis that differentiates into a sperm cell
sepal modified leaf that helps form a protective covering
spermatogonium (plural, spermatogonia) cell that
over the flower before it opens
produces sperm in the testis
septum muscular tissue that separates the left and right
sphygnomanometer instrument that measures blood
sides of the heart
pressure
serosa connective tissue that separates the digestive tract
spina bifida congenital defect in which the spinal column
from other abdominal organs
does not close completely during embryonic develop-
sessile describes an organism that stays fixed in one place ment and leaves the spinal cord exposed
set point normal level or range of a variable spindle pole bodies structures in yeast cells that are anal-
ogous to centrioles in animal cells
setae (singular, seta) stiff bristles that extend from the
parapodium of an annelid worm spiracle tiny opening in the air sac of an insect that
allows air to pass through
sexual reproduction fusion of the sex cells of two
individuals to form an offspring that inherits genetic spirillum (plural, spirilli) spiral-shaped bacterium
information from both parents
spleen body organ that stores red blood cells
shell hard coat that surrounds an animal egg; hard
spongy layer layer of loosely-spaced mesophyll cells in a
covering that encloses some invertebrates and
leaf
vertebrates
spontaneous generation outdated theory that living or-
shock shutdown of vital organs that results from
ganisms could be generated from non-living matter
inadequate blood circulation following physical or
emotional trauma sporangium (plural, sporangia) case-like reproductive
structure that produces spores in a zygomycete fungus
sickle cell anemia inherited disorder caused by abnormal
or on the underside of a fern frond
hemoglobin; characterized by abnormally-shaped red
blood cells that block capillaries and damage other red spore asexual reproductive cell that can grow into an
blood cells, restricting oxygen transport in the blood adult plant or fungus without fusing with another cell
sieve tube cell elongated phloem cell that connects with sporophyte diploid plant generation that produces haploid
others to form a conducting tube in a plant spores
sieve tube member see sieve tube cell sporozoan non-motile, parasitic protist that produces
spores
simple development maturation of an animal from an egg
to an adult in which the body plan stays the same spring ephemeral herbaceous plant that blooms in early
spring before the forest canopy blocks sunlight
sink according to the pressure-flow theory, cells that re-
ceive carbohydrates in plants stamen male reproductive structure of a flower
sinoatrial node see pacemaker starch complex carbohydrate; the major form of carbohy-
drate storage in plant
small intestine organ that chemically digests and absorbs
chyme from the stomach stem cell cell that can divide and differentiate
smooth endoplasmic reticulum portion of endoplasmic sternum breastbone in many vertebrates
reticulum that lacks ribosomes and makes lipids; see steroid lipid made up of four rings of carbon atoms; forms
endoplasmic reticulum cholesterol and certain sex hormones
sodium/potassium (Na+/K+) pump specialized protein in stethoscope instrument used for listening to sounds of the
a cell membrane that transports sodium ions out of a heart, lungs, and other internal organs
cell and potassium ions into a cell against their
concentration gradients stigma part of an angiosperm carpel that receives pollen
626 Glossary
stomata (singular, stoma) pores that allow gases to pass telson tail of a crustacean
through the epidermis of a leaf
tentacle flexible arm-like structure that extends from the
stomach organ that receives, partially digests, and mouth region and carries food to the mouth
temporarily stores food from the esophagus
teratogen environmental agent that causes a congenital
stool see feces defect
strand of DNA one of two base-pair chains that link to tertiary structure overall folded shape of a polypeptide,
form a DNA molecule representing the third level of protein structure
stroke inadequate supply of oxygen to the brain caused by test cross mating of an individual of unknown genotype
a blocked or damaged blood vessel with an individual that is homozygous recessive for a
certain trait
stroma thick fluid containing enzymes, enclosed within
the inner membrane of a chloroplast testis (plural, testes) male vertebrate reproductive organ
that produces sperm
structural formula representation of a compound that
shows the positions and bonds between atoms testosterone steroid hormone that maintains the male
reproductive system
submucosa layer of connective tissue that supports the
vessels and nerves of the digestive tract tetrad paired set of homologous chromosomes, each chro-
mosome with two chromatids, four chromatids total
substrate substance that an enzyme binds to in a reaction
tetraploid (4n) describes a cell or an organism with four
succession see ecological succession
sets of chromosomes
sucker cup-shaped structure for attachment or food gath-
thermophile organism that lives in a hot, acidic
ering found on some animals
environment
sucrose disaccharide formed by a glucose molecule and a
thigmotropism directional plant growth response to touch
fructose molecule
thoracic cavity region above the diaphragm that contains
superior vena cava large vein that conveys oxygen-poor
the lungs and the heart
blood from the upper body to the heart
three-chambered heart amphibian heart that receives
surface area total external surface of an object
both oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in a common
Sutton-Boveri hypothesis suggestion that chromosomes chamber
carry genes and that meiosis separates allele pairs
tidal volume volume of air that passes into and out of the
during gamete formation
lungs in one breath
swim bladder large sac that helps suspend an
tissue group of similar cells that perform a specific
osteichthyan in water
function
swimmeret appendage on the abdomen of a crustacean
total lung capacity maximum amount of air that the
that helps the animal swim
lungs can hold
sympatric speciation coexistence of more than one
toxin substance that kills or causes disease
species in the same area
trace element element that an organism requires in small
synapsis pairing of duplicated homologous chromosomes
amounts
during meiosis; crossing over may occur at this stage
trachea tube that branches from the pharynx and leads to
systemic circuit high-pressure system that conveys blood
the bronchi
from the heart to the rest of the body
tracheal tube insect respiratory tube that conveys air to
systole contraction stage of the cardiac cycle that expels
body cells
blood from the heart chambers
tracheid type of elongated xylem cell that conducts water
and provides support
T
tracheophyte plant with conducting tissues that transport
taproot long, thick primary root that grows straight
water and nutrients
downwards, from which secondary roots emerge
trans fatty acid lipid produced when hydrogen atoms are
taxon (plural, taxa) taxonomic group of any size
added to an unsaturated fat through hydrogenation
taxonomy science of naming and classifying organisms
transcription production of a messenger RNA molecule
into groups based on shared structural characteristics
(the protein-making instructions) from the DNA tem-
telophase fourth phase of mitosis; the nuclear envelope plate; represents the first step of protein synthesis
reforms, the chromosomes uncoil and the nucleoli
transfer RNA (tRNA) form of RNA that brings amino
reappear
acids to the ribosome during protein sysnthesis; links
with mRNA
Glossary 627
transgenic organism organism that contains DNA from valve structure that opens and closes to permit the flow of
another organism a substance in one direction only
translation formation of a protein from the instructions vascular bundle strand of xylem, phloem, and associated
encoded on an mRNA molecule at the ribosome, repre- tissues in a plant
senting the second step of protein synthesis
vascular cambium meristematic tissue layer that
translocation attachment of a chromosome fragment to a produces new xylem and phloem in a plant stem; see
nonhomologous chromosome during crossing over; cambium
transport of carbohydrates in plants
vascular cylinder central area of a plant root, that
transpiration loss of water from leaves through contains conducting tissues
evaporation
vascular plant common name for a tracheophyte
transpiration pull see leaf pull
vegetative reproduction cloning of plants by asexual
transposon segment of DNA that can move from one methods
place to another on the chromosomes and influence the
vein in an animal, a vessel that conveys blood from a
activity of a neighbouring gene
venule to the heart; in a plant, a vascular bundle
tricuspid valve see atrioventricular valve containing xylem and phloem in a leaf
triglyceride glycerol molecule bonded to three fatty acids ventral lower side of a bilaterally symmetrical organism
triploid (3n) describes a cell or an organism with an extra ventral vessel main vessel that conveys blood along the
set of chromosomes under surface of an earthworm
trisomic describes an individual with an extra ventricle heart chamber that pumps blood out of the heart
chromosome
venule vessel that conveys blood from a capillary to a vein
tRNA see transfer RNA
vertebrate animal that has a backbone
tropism plant growth response to an external stimulus
vesicle membrane-enclosed sac that transports materials
trypsin enzyme secreted by the pancreas that digests throughout a cell
proteins in the intestine
vessel element xylem cell that connects with others to
tuber enlarged underground stem that stores food form a tube that conducts water and minerals in an
angiosperm
tuberous sclerosis disease, caused by a single-gene that
affects the expression of many genes, characterized by viable describes the ability to survive to maturity
epileptic seizures, delayed development, and benign
villi (singular, villus) finger-like extensions of the inner
tumour development in many areas of the body
surface of the small intestine
tumour mass of abnormal cells that result from
virulent describes an organism that causes disease
uncontrolled cell division
virus non-cellular particle of DNA or RNA surrounded by
a protein coat, that lives as a parasite within a host cell
U
visceral mass fleshy part that contains the internal organs
ulcer hole in the lining of the stomach of a mollusk
ulcerative colitis inflammation of the rectum that spreads vital capacity maximum amount of air that the
back through the large intestine respiratory system can expel without impairing lung
ultrasound technique that uses sound waves to produce function
an image of the fetus in the uterus vitamin organic nutrient required by an organism in small
unsaturated fatty acid fatty acid, liquid at room amounts, and usually functions as a coenzyme
temperature, that has one or more double bonds vitamin deficiency disease disease caused by a deficiency
between the carbon atoms or absence of a vitamin
uropod flattened appendage on the telson of a crustacean vocal cord elastic fold of tissue in the larynx that vibrates
uterus internal vertebrate structure that retains fertilized and produces sound when air exhaled from the lungs
eggs; in mammals, it also incubates young rushes past it
V W
vacuole membrane-enclosed sac within a cell walking legs appendages that a crustacean uses to move
van der Waal’s interaction weak attraction between water mould aquatic, fungus-like protist that decomposes
atoms or molecules caused by random fluctuations in dead organic matter
their electron distribution white blood cell blood cell that helps to protect the body
from disease and infection
628 Glossary
wing cover hardened coat that covers the front wing of Z

some insects
zone of elongation region in a root above the apical
woody describes a hard, tough plant stem that increases meristem where new cells enlarge
in diameter every year
zone of maturation region in a root where new cells
differentiate and mature
X
zooflagellate animallike protist with one or more flagella
xenotransplantation transplantation of an animal organ
into a human zygospore spore formed by conjugation between two
zygomycete fungi
XX genotype of a female describing the sex chromosomes
in humans zygote union of gametes that produces the first cell of a
new organism
XY genotype of a male describing the sex chromosomes in
humans
xylem vascular tissue that conducts water and minerals
from the roots to the leaves of a tracheophyte
Glossary 629
A N S W E R S TO N U M E R I C A L Q U E S T I O N S
UNIT I Chapter 3 UNIT 2
Chapter 3 Review
Chapter 1 1. b 2. a 3. c 4. a 5. d 6. b 7. d Chapter 5
Chapter 1 Review 8. c 9. b 10. d Section 5.2 Review
1. c 2. c 3. d 4. a 5. c 6. a 7. b 11. 16 combinations
8. c 9. d 10. d Chapter 4 12. 1/32
Section 4.1 Section 5.3 Review
Chapter 2 8. 28 min; 136 min; 265 min; 40 min 7. 63
Section 2.1 Chapter 4 Review Chapter 5 Review
3. 8 cm3; 192 cm2 1. d 2. d 3. b 4. a 5. c 6. c 1. b 2. a 3. c 4. a 5. c
4. a) 32; 32 the same 7. b 8. c
12. (SEE TABLE BELOW)
b) 72; 100
17. 2.08 x 1011 red blood cells per day
c) 2.25:1; 3.125:1 Unit 1 Review
Chapter 2 Review 1. d 2. c 3. d 4. d 5. a 6. c 7. b
8. d 9. b 10. d 11. d 12. d 13. c
Chapter 6
1. a 2. d 3. b 4. c 5. a 6. a 7. d
14. a 15 d Section 6.1 Review
8. c 9. c 10. d
5. 3:1; 1:2:1
22. 7. 9:3:3:1; 4:2:2:2:2:1:1:1:1
Dimenisons of Surface Area Volume SA : Volume Index = SA/V Section 6.2 Example 1
“cube” cell (cm) (cm2) (cm2) (ratio)
Practice Problem,
0.5 0.5 0.5 1.5 0.125 1.5/0.125 12:1 12 genotypic ratio 1:2:1; AA: Aa: aa phe-
notypic ratio 3:1 pigmented: albino
111 6 1 6/1 6
Section 6.2 Example 2
1.5 1.5 1.5 13.5 3.375 13.5/3.375 4:1 4
Practice Problem,
2.0 2.0 2.0 24 8 24/8 3:1 3
The grey mice are Gg.
2.5 2.5 2.5 37.5 15.625 37.5/15.625 2:4:1 2.4
3.0 3.0 3.0 54 27 54/27 2:1 2
Practice Problem,
a) 3/16 b) 1/4 c) 1/4 d) 3/8 e) 1/8 f) 0
Section 6.2 Review
2. a) 1; T b) 2; T, t c) 4; TR, Tr,
tR, tr d) 1; Tr e) 2; tR, tr
f) 8; TRS, TRs, TrS, Trs, tRS, tRs,
trS, trs
3. a) 2x2 b) 4x4 c) 8x8 d) 4x2
6. a) 1/16 b) 1/4
Organism Diploid Haploid Number of chromosomes Number of pairs Number ofchromosomes Number of chromosomes Number of chromosomes
number number in daughter cells of mitosis of homologs in meiosis, prophase I in meiosis at telophase I in meiosis at telophase II
Cotton 52 26 52 26 52 26 26
Fruit fly 8 4 8 4 8 4 4
Horse 64 32 64 32 64 32 32
Toad 36 18 36 18 36 18 18
Chicken 78 39 78 39 78 39 39
Goldfish 94 47 94 47 94 47 47
630 Answers to Questions

7. a) all Tt; all tasters b) 1:2:1, TT: b) 1:1 (XRXr: XRY); All of the F1
Tt: tt; 3:1 tasters: non-tasters red eyes
UNIT 3
c) 1:1 (TT:Tt); all tasters; c) 1:1:1:1 (XRXR: XRXr: XRY: XrY) Chapter 8
8. a) 3/4 b) all of them c) 3/16 ; 2:1:1 (red-eyed females: red-
d) 1/8 eyed males: white-eyed males) Section 8.1 Review
9. a) 1/4 b) 3/8 c) 1/4 d) 1:1:1:1 (XRXr: XrXr: XRY: XrY) ; 5 a)
10. Bb; 2/3 1:1:1:1 (red-eyed female: white-
eyed female :red-eyed male: Group Daily Energy
Section 6.3 Example 4 white-eyed male); Requirement (kJ)
Practice Problem, e) 1:1 (XRXr: XrY) ; 1:1 (red-eyed
Male Female
A, B, D, E, C, F females: white-eyed males)
f) 1:1 (XrXr: XrY) ; 1:1 (white- Age 13–15 12 012 10 045
Section 6.3 Review
eyed females: white-eyed males)
2. 1:2:1; 1:2:1 Age 16–19 14 021 9 208
7. 50% crossover Adult office worker 10 045 8 790
Chapter 7 Review
8. a) 1:1 (blue:white); 1:1 (Bb:bb)
1. c 2. c 3. d 4. a 5. d Adult construction worker 17 998 12 012
b) 1:1 (black:blue); 1:1 (BB:Bb)
c) 1:2:1 (black:blue:white); 1:2:1 17. a) 0; b) 1
(BB:Bb:bb) 19. a) 3/8 ; b) 1/8 ; c) 1/2 6. Breakfast 732.5 kJ; walk 400 kJ
9. Set 1, O; Set 2, B; Set 3, A ; 20. 4 out of 64 7. The chicken burger; total Calories
Set 4, AB 366
22. RrSs; red eye, straight wing; F2
red eye with straight wing; red Section 8.2 Review
Chapter 6 Review eye with curved wing; sepia eye 8 b) 2.0
1. b 2. d 3. a 4. b 5. c with straight wing; sepia eye with
curved wing; 9:3:3:1 Section 8.3 Review
10. 4; ABc, Abc, aBc, abc; 1/4
6 a) 4.6
11. AaBb
Unit 2 Review Chapter 8 Review
12. 1/2
1. c 2. d 3. c 4. b 5. c 6. c 7. a 1. a 2. b 3. b 4. a 5. d
16. AEFCBD 8. b 9. d 10. c
14 b) pH 8.0
17. a) IBIB IAi b) IBi IAi c) IBi ii 13. a) 2 b) 23 c) 2
d) IAIB IBIB e) IBi IBi
26. 1 Gg; 2 Gg; 3 GG; 4 GG or Gg
f) IAIB IBi
18. The genes for height and colour
32. a) 1/32 b) 1/32 c) 5/16 Chapter 9
are linked. The TtRr plant has T 33. a) 1/16 b) 3/4
Section 9.2 Review
linked with r and t linked with 34. 9:3:3:1 (black with short hair:
5. 240
R. recombination frequency is black with long hair, brown with
18%. short hair, brown with long hair Section 9.4 Review
20. 1, B; 2, D; 3, C; 4, A 37. Cell 1 B; Cell 2 D; Cell 3 A; 8. 21%
22. Total 816 For one possible Cell 4 C
hypothesis χ2 1.21 38.
T p = 6/10 t q = 4/10
Chapter 7
2
T p = 6/10 TT p = 36/100 Tt pq = 24/100
t q = 4/10 Tt pq = 24/100 tt q2 = 16/100
Practice Problem,
a) 1/2 b) 1/4 c) 1/8 d) 0
40. Baby A, parents #3; Baby B. par-
Section 7.1 Review ents # 2; Baby C, parents #4;
3. 1/2 Baby D, parents #1
41. A E C B F D
Chapter 9 Review
8. 1:1 (XXc:XcY) ; 1:1 (normal
daughter: colour-blind son); 1. b 2. d 3. c 4. b 5. c
42. XR Xr Ll XRY Ll (could also be
10. a) 1:1 (XRXR:XRY); All of the F1 written as X Xwv X Y v) 22. 180 more breaths per hour.
red eyes
Answers to Questions 631

Chapter 10 29. 22 crackers Unit 4 Review

30. 5.76 L/min 1. a 2. c 3. d 4. b 5. d
Section 10.1 Review
31. a) 6720 6. b 7. a 8. d 9. b 10. a
11 mL
b) 11.2 min–assuming pulse rate
Section 10.2 Review running is 150 beats/min Chapter 15 Review
2. 6L/ min 32. d) 64 beats/ min 1. d 2. b 3. a 4. b 5. c
8. c) 75% 43. a) 6L/ min
b) 21.45 L/min Chapter 16 Review
Chapter 10 Review c) 90mL 1. b 2. a 3. d 4. a 5. c
1. d 2. b 3. d 4. b 5. d 6. c 7. b
8. a 9. d 10. a
Chapter 11 Review Chapter 17 Review
18. 1:767
1. d 2. c 3. c 4. c 5. d 1. a 2. d 3. b 4. b 5. c
20. a) 15 times heavier
23. 7949 L/ day
Chapter 12 Review Unit 5 Review
1. d 2. b 3. d 4. d 5. c 1. d 2. c 3. c 4. b 5. c 6. d 7. a
Unit 3 Review
8. a 9. b 10. a 11. b 12. c 13. b
1. d 2. b 3. a 4. a 5. c 6. d 7. d 14. a 15. d
Chapter 13 Review
8. b 9. a 10. b
1. b 2. d 3. b 4. c 5. c
26. 1.8288; 95.3kg
27. 6L/ min
Chapter 14 Review
28. 720 beats
1. b 2. b 3. d 4. a 5. c
632 Answers to Questions

INDEX
2,4,5-T (chemical) 570 life cycle 471 anti-G suit 329

2,4-D (chemical) 569–70 amphibian populations, declining 12 antibiotic(s) 46–7, 395, 431–2
amylase, salivary 271 antihistamines 521
pancreatic 272 antioxidants and cancer 521
A anabolic steroids, effects of 20 anus 264, 272, 275, 277
abalones 463
anabolism 8 aorta 326, 328
abdomen 295, 466–7
anaerobes, facultative 393 aortic valve 327
abnormal chromosome number. See
obligate 393 apical: dominance 569
aneuploidy.
anaerobic methanogens 396 meristems 543
abscisic acid (ABA) 568, 571
respiration (fermentation) 100, appendix 264
abscission layer 569
102, 429 apple, Macintosh 506
Acetabularia sp. 40
anaphase 123 aquatic plants
acetylsalycilic acid (ASA) 520, 522
anaphylactic shock 292 leaves of 540
and heart attack 522
ancestor-descendant relationships 377 arachidonic acid 248
achondroplasia 153, 205
Anderson, Judy 193 arachnids 466
acid 11
anemia 320. See also sickle-cell Archaebacteria 45, 369, 374, 389–91,
rain 12
anemia. 396
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
anemones 456 Aristotle 371
(AIDS) 389, 404
aneuploidy 139, 203 arterioles 326, 328
activation energy 90
angina 335. See also heart. artery 326, 328
active site 90
angiogram 337, 339 brachial, 332–3
adenine 26, 27, 88, 195
angioplasty 337 disease 21
adenosine deaminase (ADA) 410
angiosperm 440-4, 530, 542 left anterior descending 326
deficiency 220
life cycle 440 left circumflex 326
adenosine diphosphate (ADP) 27–8,
animal(s) 15, 369, 375, 452, 457 pulmonary 325
88–9
body plan of 452 arthropods 465
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) 27–8,
characteristics common to all body plan 465–6
48, 53, 72, 76–7, 88–9, 98–100,
452 artificial selection 379
275, 287, 317
definition of 452 ASA. See acetylsalycilic acid.
adhesion 546
evolution of 452 ascospores 429
aerobes, obligate 393
kingdom 450 ascus 428–9
aerobic respiration 98, 100, 562
joint-legged 465 asexual reproduction 119, 143, 380
ageing process 51
radially symmetrical marine asters 123
agent orange 570
(phylum Echinodermata) 464 asthma 300
agriculture 495, 507, 561
simple 452 astral rays 123
AIDS. See acquired immunodeficiency
simplest (phylum Porifera) 453 astronauts 298
syndrome.
species in plant succession 501 atherosclerosis 335, 339
air sacs 467
two-layered (phylum Cnidaria) athletes 323
alanine (ala) 23, 30
454 athlete’s foot 432
albumin (egg white) 31
with a shell (phylum mollusca) atoms 5, 6
alcohol 100
462 ATP. See adenosine triphosphate.
alfalfa 507, 511
with an exoskeleton (phylum ATPase 27
algae 15, 54, 419, 425–6, 434
arthropoda) 465 atrioventricular (AV): nodes 330
multicellular 426
with an internal skeleton valve 324
alimentary canal 256
(phylum Chordata) 469 atrium (atria) 324
alkaloids 520
wormlike 457 atropine 521
allele(s) 131, 157, 160, 163
See also: autosomal recessive inheritance 207
allelism, multiple 169
amphibians autosomes 189, 207
alveoli 69, 288, 292
birds autotrophs 97, 392
gas exchange in 296
fish auxins 568–70
amaranth 504
mammals AZT 389
amino acids 23–4, 30, 49, 248
marsupials.
essential 248
animallike protists 421
structure 23
Anopheles mosquito 520
B
amino group (NH2) 23 baby (infant) formula 16
anorexia nervosa and bulimia 251–3
ammonium compounds 558 bacillus 391, 396
antennae 466
amniocentesis 214 bacteria 3, 6, 39, 45–7, 389–91, 393,
anther 441
amoeba 42, 55, 275, 421 399, 407
anthrax 398
digestion in 275 aerobic 393
anti-cancer drugs 522
amphibian 12, 471 anaerobic 101
Index 633
and purification of oil 2–3 digestion in 276 Callaghan, John C. 332

characteristics of 390 lungs 474 calorie 246
classification of 391 Biuret reagent 31 cancer 21, 52, 128, 130, 214, 521–2
gas-exchange mechanisms in bivalves 463 predisposition to 214
393 Black Death 398 cap 430
in ecosystems 397 blood 288, 317–19 capillary 69, 326, 328
lactic acid 399 colour 25 action 546, 550
mutation rate 394 groups (types), human 169–70, carapace 466
non-virulent strain of 194 320 carbohydrates 5, 7, 13–14, 29, 44, 53,
nutritional patterns of 392 human 11 99, 246–7, 271
pathogenic 398 vessels 328 building block model 14
recombinant DNA 407 See also plasma. complex 14–15, 99, 247
reproduction 394 blood pressure 332–3, 327–8, 335–7 catabolism 8
sewage treatment by 398 for men and women at different carbon 6, 7, 13
structure 391 ages 347 chain 17
virulent strain of 194 blood sugar 269 dioxide 100, 287, 317, 328,
waste management with 398 regulation of 269–70 537, 571
See also eubacteria. blue whale 476 molecule 7
baking 429 body mass index (BMI) 317 carbon/oxygen cycle 397
Banting, Frederick 73, 270 body plan 462–4 carbon-hydrogen bonds 17
bark 535 features 476 carboxyl group (COOH) 23
barley 503 bond 6, 7, 9–11, 17, 24, 248 cardboard 514
Barr body 194 ionic 6 cardiac: catheterization 337
Barr, Murray 194 polar 10 contractions 330
base pairs 27, 198 bone marrow 320, 321 cycle 327
complementary 27 book lungs 466 output 328
bases 11 boreal forest 564 See also heart.
basidia 428, 430 succession in a 499 careers in biology 108, 234, 358, 484,
basidiomycota 430 botulism 398 580
beans 503 Boyd, Douglas 337 carnivores 258
beetles, scarab 366 breast milk 16 carpel 441
beginnings of life 390 breathing 288, 295–6 cartilaginous fish 470
Benedict’s solution 31 coordinated by chemoreceptors caselike fungi 428
benefits of regular exercise 339 296 Casparian strip 533
beriberi 250 regulation of 295 castor bean oil 516
Best, Charles 73, 270 breeding 210 catalysts 90
Bethune, Norman 299 controlled or selective 210 cecum 264
Bhatia, Micki 57 strategies, traditional 210 cell 2, 6–7, 13, 39, 43, 57, 65, 93
bicuspid (mitral) valve 325 See also: amoeboid 453
Bigelow, W.G. 332 pure-breeding blood 48, 317, 319–21, 328
bilateral symmetry 457 inbreeding. classification 43
bilaterally symmetrical animals 457 bronchi 291 collar 453
bile 267, 272 bronchiodilators 300, 302 compounds 33
binary fission 394, 422 bronchioles 292 cycle 121
binding sites 42 bronchitis 300 daughter 120
biochemistry 6 Brown, Alan 252 division 120–1
biodiversity 366, 369, 496, 522 bryophyte (non-vascular plant) 419, egg 136
succession and 501 435–6, 550 embryonic 57
biological pest control 507 importance of 436 epithelial 256, 453
biome 498 life cycle of 436 eukaryotic 98
Ontario biomes 500 budding 429 functions 2–3
biopharmaceuticals 408 bulbs 536 human 17
bioremediation technology 43 bulimia 251–3 membrane 17, 20, 23, 38, 42–4,
biosphere 370 bundle of His 330 65–6
portion of Earth’s mass 370 bypass surgery 337. See also heart. mesophyll 538
biotechnology 43, 92, 129, 273, 389, metabolism 7, 15
405 muscle 16
birds (avians) 276, 473
C nerve 457
caffeine 520
bones of 474 organelles in plants and
calcium 5, 251, 559
634 Index
animals 61 crossing over of genes on 380 competitive inhibitors 90

parent 120 homologous (homologs) 131 complementary base pairs 27
plant 45, 126 maternal set 131 compounds 5–7, 558
plate 126 paternal set 131 inorganic 7
processes 10–11, 65 random assortment of organic 7
respiration 87–8, 98–100, 244, homologous 380 structual formula 14
247, 287–9 structure, abnormal 140 concentration gradient 68, 72–3
sex 131–2, 139, 173 chyme 261 condensation reaction 14
sieve tube 542 cilia 55, 422 congenital defects 201
size and shape 40 ciliates 422 conidia 429
sperm 136 circulation 316 coniferous forest 498
stem 57, 220, 410 coronary 326 species in 501
structure 41–2, 45 circulatory system 242–3, 316, 318, conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) 18, 21
transplant 3 341, 470 conjugation 394–5, 423
transport 64 closed 341 contamination 539
walls 45–6 double 325, 354 contractile vacuoles 71
xylem 541 earthworm 341 corals 456
cellular: recycling 51 fish 342 cork 535, 544
slime moulds 424 frog 343 cambium 544
cellulose 14, 15, 47, 126, 247–8, 434, grasshopper 342 oak (Quercus suber) 544
542 human 318 corn 503, 510
fibre 516 in various organisms 341 coronary circulation 326
centipedes 468 in plants 343 cotton 516
centrioles 123 open 341 covalent bond 6, 10
centromere 123 pulmonary circuit of 324 polar 7, 9
cephalization 457 systemic circuit 325 crabs 466–7
cephalopods 463 clams 463 crayfish 466
cephalothorax 466 class 372 Crick, Francis 195
cestodes 458 classification: keys 375 cristae 53
characteristics 452, 469 Linnean system of 372–3 Crohn’s disease 264
common to all animals 452 of cells 41 crop 275
genetic 205 of plants 444 cross-pollination 441
inherited 152 systems 371–2 crossing over of genes on
chelipeds 466 climate 565 chromosomes 380
chemical: pest control 507 climax community 497 crustaceans 466
substances 519 cloning 223 cuttings 506
chemistry 5, 6 technique 506 cyanobacteria 393, 419
chemoautotrophs 97, 392 vector 407 cystic fibrosis 74–5, 202, 205, 301
chemoreceptors 296 clostridium 396 cytokinesis 121, 126
chemotherapy 130 club mosses 437 cytokinins 568, 571
chemotropism 572 club-like fungi 430 cytoplasm 47, 121
chiasmata 133 cnidarians 455 cytosine 26–7, 195
chilopod 468 life cycle 455 cytoskeleton 42, 55, 93
chitin 465 cnidocytes 454 cytosol 47, 51
chlorophyll 54, 393, 424 co-dominance 169
chloroplasts 53–4, 536–7 coal 518
chocolate 503 cocaine 520
D
daffodils 536
cholecystokinin (CCK) 267 coccus (plural: cocci) 391
dairy products (foods) 18, 399
cholera 305 codeine 521
daisy 530
cholesterol 17, 20–1, 44, 76, 335, 339 coelom 452, 457
dandelions 531
chondrichthyans 470 development of 460
Darwin, Charles 159, 379, 381, 569
chordates 469 coenzymes 249
Darwin, Francis 569
key characteristics 469 cohesion 10
DDT (insecticide) 507
chorionic villus sampling (CVS) 216 water 547
de Vries, Hugo 139, 140
chromatid 123 colchicine 189
dead space 297
chromatin 47, 123, 189 coleoptile 568
degree of saturation 17–8
chromosomal puffs 199 colitis, ulcerative 264
dehydration synthesis 14, 23, 26, 30
chromosome 47, 119, 120–1, 128, collenchyma 542
density 11
140, 187, 380 colour blindness 193
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) 26–7, 41,
abnormalities 203 commercial logging 501
50, 53–4, 92–3, 120–1, 128–31,
characteristic number 128 comparison of prokaryotes and
194–9, 201, 216, 218, 226, 367,
colchicine treatment of 189 eukaryotes 420
390, 394, 396, 401, 403–4, 406–8,
Index 635
476, 508, 510, 521, 559 down (feathers) 474 hydrolytic 50

complementary pairing in Down syndrome 139, 203–5 lock and key model of action 90
195–6 and maternal age 204 lysosomal 52
and diversity of species 186 Drake, Theo 252 pancreatic 271
nucleotide 26, 195, 197 Drosophila 175, 201 restriction 217
profiling 224 Drosophila melanogaster. See fruit See also coenzymes.
replication of 197 flies. enzyme-substrate complex 90
strands of 197 drug: addiction 79 epidermis, 532
structure 26 research in plants 521 of the root 532
deserts 561 Duchenne muscular dystrophy 191, epiglottis 259, 290
diabetes 3, 269–70 205 erthrocytes (red blood cells) 320
diaphragm 294 duodenum 262 erythropoetin (EPO) 323
diastole 327 dye 517 esophagus 259
diatoms 425 Essential Understandings 33, 61, 83,
dichotomous key 384 105, 149, 183, 231, 283, 313, 355,
dicots 530, 534–5, 551
E 385, 415, 447, 481, 525, 553, 577
E. coli 367, 394
diet 14, 252–3 estrogen 20, 521
earthworm 275, 341–2, 459–6
low-fat 18 ethanol 100, 102, 518
digestion in 275–6
differentiation 126 as alternative to fossil fuels 102
ECG. See electrocardiogram.
diffusion 68, 293 ethics 226
echinacea 493, 521
facilitated 72 of genetics 154
echinoderms 464
digestion 11, 244, 258, 275–7 ethylene 568, 571
body plan 464
accessory organs of 267 eubacteria 369, 374, 390–1, 396–7,
reproduction 464
chemical 258 419
ecological succession 497
mechanical 258 phylogenetic groups 397
ecosystems 366, 496, 529
segmentation movements in Eucalyptus oil 524
ectoderm 454
262 Euglena 55
edible oils 503
digestive system 15, 242–3, 245, euglenoids 424
egg with a shell 472
256–65, 282 eukaryotes 37, 42, 48, 374, 420
electrocardiogram (ECG) 331, 337
accessory organs 257 evolution 452
electron micrograph 388
amoeba 275 exercise 339
electron microscope 22
birds 276–7 effects on circulatory system
embryo 377
earthworm 275 338
embryonic cells in the treatment of
jellyfish 275 stress test 337
disease 57
organs of 259 exergonic reaction(s) 28, 88
emphysema 300
plants 276–7 exhalation 288, 294
emulsify 272
ruminants 276–7 exocytosis 77
endangered species 486
summary of 282 exoskeleton 465
endergonic reactions 28, 88
digitalis 520–1 exotoxins 398
endocardium 324. See also heart.
dihybrid (cross) 158 extracellular fluid 251
endocytosis 75, 421
dinoflagellates 425 eyes 466
types of 76
diphtheria 398
endodermis 533
diplococci 391
diploid 138, 141–3, 435
endoplasmic reticulum 49–50, 65 F
endoscopy 272 family 372
number 128, 131, 132, 139
endoskeleton 464 farmers 502
diplopods 468
endosperm 442 fat(s) 17–18, 246–8, 271
disaccharides 14, 247
endospore formation 396 saturated 18, 21, 248
disease 21, 51, 59, 202, 250, 264,
endosymbiosis 55 unsaturated 18, 248
326, 335, 398, 404
theory 54 fatty acid(s) 17, 18, 29, 66, 248
dissection 349
endotoxins 398 associated with health problems
dissociation 11
energy: activation 90 18
disulphide bridges 25
equation for release of 287 essential 18, 21
diuretics 335
flow on Earth 99 saturated 17, 18
diversity of living things 186, 366
from plants 518 unsaturated 17, 18, 21
DNA See deoxyribonucleic acid.
requirements of men and See also trans-fatty acids.
Dolly (cloned sheep) 223
women 246 feathers 474
dominance 569
energy-providing molecule of the cell. contour 474
dominance, incomplete 168. See also
See ATP. feces (stools) 264
co-dominance.
environment 170, 381, 558, 563–4 Fedoruk, Sylvia 338
dominant trait 156
enzyme 16, 23, 43, 90–2, 248, 270–2, feedback, negative 269
dormancy 561
562 fermentation 100–1, 429, 518
double helix 27, 195
human digestive 270 alcoholic 100
636 Index
importance of 101 sac-like 428–31 history of 176

ferns 434, 437 structure 430 population 204
fertilization in angiosperms 442 funguslike protists 424 genome(s) 221, 222
fertilizers 560 number of genes in 221
fetal pig dissection 349 sequencing of 222
fibre 330, 516
G See also human genome
galactose 247
dietary 15 project.
Galapagos Islands 379, 381
fibrin 321 genotype 157, 160, 189
gallbladder 267
fibrous roots 530 genus 372
gametes 131–2, 137, 160, 381
filaments, intermediate 55. See also geotropism 571
gametophyte generations 435
microfilaments. German measles (Rubella) 201
gangliosidosis 52
fins 470 germination 561–2
gas-exchange mechanisms in bacteria
fish 306, 342, 470–1 required environmental
397
farms 382 conditions 558
gasohol 518
fission 394 gibberellins 568, 570
gastrodermis 454
flagella 55, 391 and fruit development 570
gastrointestinal tract. See alimentary
flatworms (phylum Platyhelminthes) gills 307, 430, 467, 470–1
canal.
458 capillaries of 342
gastropods 463
flax 515–6 gizzard 275
gastrovascular cavity 458
Fleming, Sir Alexander 46, 431 glands 94, 267
gene 131, 157, 163, 171, 377, 380
Flemming, Walter 47 glucagon 269
identification of 171
flies 467. See also fruit flies. glucose 13, 15–16, 28–9, 31, 72, 88,
interactions 170
flower(s) 440–1, 530 99, 247, 317
linkage 172–3
flowering plants 434, 440, 565 glutamine (gln) 23
map 175
fluid mosaic model 42 glycerol 18, 29–30
mapping in humans 175
flukes 458 glycine 30
operator 200
food: dairy 18, 399 glycocalyx 66
pool 204
inorganic 246 glycogen 8, 14–16
regulator 200
irradiation of 508 storage 15–6
smart 172
novel 511 glycolysis 98
splicing 407
organic 246 glycoproteins 44
structural 200
plants 503–4 glycosides 520
therapy 218, 220, 221
production, and land available golden rice 582
generation(s) 156, 435
for 502 Golgi complex 50, 63, 77, 94
F1 (first filial) 156
transport in vascular and non- grafting 506
F2 (second filial) 156
vascular plants 548–50 Graham, Robert K. 137
P (parent) 156, 158
vacuole 422 grains 530
alternation of in plants 435
See also “Frankenfood.” Gram, Hans Christian 392
spontaneous 38
foolish seedlings 570 Gram stain 392
sporophyte 435
forest 497–8, 564 grasses 498, 530
genetic: abnormalities 212
fires 500, 564 grasshopper 342
cloning 408
products 514 grassland 497
continuity, 120
secondary growth 544 gravitropism 571
counselling 211
fossil fuels 102 greenhouse 557
determination of intelligence
“Frankenfood” 582 group(s) 469, 473, 475
172
Franklin, Rosalind 195 heme 25
disorders 201, 205, 410
frogs 12, 307, 343, 471 linkage 173
engineering 407, 410, 411
fronds 438 guanine 26, 195
recombination 133
fructose 247 guttation 546
screening 211
fruit 440, 442, 503 gymnosperms 439–40, 444
types and characteristics 205
simple 442
variation 369, 380–1
fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster)
52, 161, 172–3, 175, 190
See also phylogenetic tree. H
genetically modified (GM): crops 493, habitat 496, 501
fruiting bodies 424
511 hairs 532
fungus 45, 369, 374, 419, 427–8,
monkey 476 halophiles 397
430–2
organisms 367 haploid 132
bracket 430, 431
plants 495, 508, 510 hardwood 514
case-like 428
super weeds 493 head 466–7
characteristics 427
See also “Frankenfood.” healthy eating 252
club-like 430
genetics 116, 153, 176, 210, 226 heart 336, 522
imperfect 431
application of 210 attack 326, 336, 522
reproduction 428
ethics in 226 cycle 327
Index 637
disease 21, 326, 335 molecules 66 Jennings, Harry 44

human 324 hydrophobic (water-hating) 19, 20 Jeon, Kwang 54
rhythm, control of 331 interactions 10 jute 516
sounds 328 hydroponic cultivation 557
structures, mammalian 354 hydrotropism 572
valves 327 hydroxide ions (OH–) 11
K
kangaroo (marsupial) 475
See also: hydroxyl groups 18
kapok 516
coronary circulation, hypercholesterolemia 76
karyotype 186, 189, 215
myocardium. hypertension 335. See also blood
Key Terms 33, 61, 83, 105, 149, 183,
heartwood 534 pressure.
231, 313, 355, 385, 415, 447, 481,
helicobacter pylori 262 hypertonic solution 69
525, 553, 577
helix 27, 195–7 hyphae 428
kidneys 71
heme group 25 hypocotyl 562
kinases 67
hemochromatosis 212 hypotonic solution 70
kingdom(s) 369, 372–5, 378, 419–21,
hemocoel 465–6
450
hemoglobin 5, 25, 202, 320
hemophilia 190–1, 202, 205, 321
I Klinefelter syndrome 194, 203, 205
IAA. See indoleacetic acid. koala 475
hemp (Cannabis sativa) 493, 516
ice 11 Kurosawa, Ewiti 570
henna 517
ileocecal valve 262, 264
hepatitis 404
ileum 262
herbicides 501
immune: function 21
L
herbivore (plant eater) 248, 258 lactic acid, 100
system 44
hereditary formation. See genetic Lactobacillus 100
immunosuppressents 273
continuity. lactose 247
immunotherapy 130
heterotrophs, heterotrophic 392 lamella 307
imperfect fungi 431
organisms 97 larva 455, 467
inbreeding 211
heterozygous 158 larynx 290
indoleacetic acid (IAA) 569
high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) 14 latex 517
infants 16
hitchhiker’s thumb 153 Law of Independent Assortment 158
infection 398
HIV. See human immunodeficiency Law of Segregation 157
inflammatory bowel disease 264
virus. laxatives 265
influenza 404
homeostasis 256, 269, 276, 296 leaching of metals 12
inhalation 288, 294
homogeneity 211 leaf 530–1, 536–8
inheritance: autosomal dominant 207
homologous structures 377 compound 537
autosomal recessive 207
homozygous 157, 202 simple 537
blending theory of 155
honey 503 pull 547
sex-linked see X linkage.
Hooke, Robert 2, 38 specialized 540
X-linked recessive 208
Hopps, John C. 332 legumes 503, 511
inherited characteristics 152
hormones 20, 23, 249 Lemieux, Raymond 11, 252
inorganic compounds 250
estrogen, 20, 521 lemon juice 11, 250
essential for cell metabolism 7
plant 562, 568–71 lentils 503
insect(s) 306, 342, 465, 467, 510
sex 17, 20 leprosy 398
bodies 467
testosterone 5 leucocytes (white blood cells) 320
insulin 3, 22, 73, 77, 269–70
hornworts 435, 550 leukemia 321, 521
intelligence 171–2
human genome 176 lichen(s) 393, 432–3, 498
genetic determination of 171–2
project 175, 176, 221, 226 structure of 433
interphase 121–2
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) life cycle 435–6, 440, 455
intestine: large 264
388–9, 404 life kingdoms, six 369
small 257, 262
humans (homo sapiens) 6, 15, 475 lignin 45
intracellular communication 67
humus 558 limpets 463
invertebrates 451, 462
Hurler syndrome 52 linkage groups 173
iodine 31
hybridization 211, 505 Linnaeus, Carolus 372
ionic bond 6
hybrids 156 Linnean system of classification
ions 5, 7, 9, 11, 25
vigour of 211 372–3
Irish potato blight 512
hydrases 269 linoleic acid 17–18, 21, 248
iron 25, 320
hydrochloric acid 261 linseed oil 516
isotonic solution 69
hydrogen 6, 13 lipases 269, 272
Ivanovsky, Dimitri 401
bonds 9, 11 lipid 5, 7, 17–19, 31, 99, 248, 335
ions (H+) 11 role of in human body 18
hydrogenation 19, 516 J solubility 68
hydrolysis 14–15, 28, 271 jejunum 262 See also:
hydrophilic (water-loving) 19, 20 jellyfish 275 fat
638 Index
fatty acids membrane 38, 42, 69, 293 monohybrid 158

phospholipids permeable 69 monomer 8, 13, 15, 27
Liu, Peter 127 See also: monosaccharides 13–4, 247
liver 15–16, 267–8, 273 cell monosomy, monosomic 140, 230
and alcohol 268 plasma Moores’s Law 27
liverworts 435, 436, 550 respiratory system. Morgan, Thomas Hunt 172–3
lizards 473 Mendel, Gregor 153, 155, 159 morphine 520
Lloyd, Vett 52 Mendel’s Crosses 157 mosaic 42
lobsters 466 Mendel’s Law of Independent mosses 434–7, 498, 550
locus 131, 163 Assortment 158, 159, 164, 172 mould 427, 429, 432
Lugol’s iodine 31 Mendel’s Law of Segregation 157, acellular slime 424
lumen 256–7 159, 163 Penicillium 46, 431–2
lungs 68, 288, 292, 470, 474 meningitis 44 moulting 466
anatomical dead space 297 meristematic tissue 542 movement of solutes 68
book (in spiders) 466 meristems 543 MRI. See magnetic resonance
capacity 297, 309 mesoglea 454 imaging.
expiratory reserve volume 297 mesophyll 537–8 mRNA. See messenger RNA.
inspiratory reserve volume 297 messenger RNA (mRNA) 93, 199 mucus 257, 261
residual volume 297 metabolism 7, 8, 11, 15, 88 Mulder, Gerard Johannes 23
vital capacity 297 human 24 Murkin, John 337
See also pleura. metamorphosis 467 muscle: cells 16
lysis 402 metaphase 123–4 circular smooth 257
lysogenic cycle 403 methanogens 396 fibres 454
lysogeny 403 micro-organisms 389 longitudinal smooth 257
lysosomal enzymes 52 microfilaments 55 tissue 256
lysosome(s) 50–2, 422 micrograph, electron 2, 388 mushroom(s) 427
in human disease 51 micronucleus 422 life cycle of 430
lytic cycle 402–3 micronutrients 247, 249, 558–9 reproduction 430
microscope, microscopy 2, 22, 38–9, mussels 463
48–9 mutagen 201
M microtubules 55 mutation 143, 201–2, 394
Macintosh, John 506
microvilli 257, 263 diseases produced by 202–3
Macleod, John J.R. 73, 270
mildew 429 in sex cells 201
macronucleus 422
millipedes 468 mycelium 428, 430
macronutrients 247, 249, 558
minerals 247, 249–51 mycoplasma 40
macrophages 50, 76
mites 466, 524 mycorrhizae 433
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) 3,
mitochondria 53–4, 65, 98, 123, 287 myocardium 324
9
mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) 53
malaria 305, 422–3, 520
mitosis 118–26
maltose 14, 29
phases of 122–6
N
mammal(s) 475–6 nasal: cavity 290
mitotic spindle 123
heart structures 354 sprays 301
mitral valve 325. See also heart.
mandibles 466 natural gas 518
molecular: electronic circuits 27
maple syrup 548 natural selection, theory of 379
formulas 7
Margulis, Lynn 54 nature preserves 501
model 29
marsupials 475 nematocysts 454
switches 127
Masui, Yoshio 127 nematodes 459
molecules 5, 7, 27, 64, 66
maternal serum screening (MSS) 216 nerve net 454
biologically important 7
matrix 53 nervous tissue 256
carbon dioxide 7
maxillae 466 neurotransmitters 79
dissolved 64
maxillipeds 466 neutrophils 50
long-term energy storage 17
McClintock, Barbara 219 nicotine 520
organic 29
measles 404. See also German effects of on the heart 336
polar 9, 10
measles. See also:
water 7
medicine, nuclear 94, 338 smoke
mollusks 462
medulla oblongata 295 smoking
body plan of 462
medusa 455 tobacco.
Monera 374
mefloquine 520 nitrates 558
monococci 391
meiosis: I and II 119, 131–4, 163, nitrogen 6, 23, 511, 559–60, 565
monocots 530–1, 551
203, 380 absorption by plants 558
and dicots, differences in structure
mistakes in 139 fixation 397, 558
531
related to Mendel’s findings 163 nitrogen-fixing bacteria 511, 559, 565
monoculture 512
stages of 132 nitroglycerine 336
Index 639
nondisjunction 140, 203 oxygen 6, 13, 287, 317, 320, 328, products of 87
nuclear envelope 49 339, 537, 562 phototropism 571
nucleases 272 oysters 463 phycocyanin 393
nucleic acids 5, 7, 26 phylogenetic: groups 378, 397
nucleolus 46–7 tree 378, 469
nucleotide(s) 26–7, 88, 195–8
P phylogeny 369, 377
pacemaker 332
nucleus 46–7. See also micronucleus. phylum 373, 462
palisade layer 538
nutrients 558–9, 565 Annelida 459
palmitic acid 17
essential 248 Arthropoda 465
pancreas 268–9, 271–2
See also: Chordata 469
pancreatic juice 11, 272
macronutrients Cnidaria 454
pangenesis 155
micronutrients. Echinodermata 464
paper 514
Mollusca 462
paramecium 52, 55, 420, 422–3
Nematoda 459–60
O parasites 393, 458–9, 461
Platyhelminthes, 458
oats 503 natural 507
Porifera 453
occupational hazards 302 parasitic flowering plants 565
phytoremediation 533, 539
asbestos 302 Pawson, Tony 67
pigmy shrew 476
recycled air 302 peanuts 503
pioneer species 498
silica 302 peas 503
placentals 475
octopus 463 peat 436
plant 53, 276, 308, 343, 374, 418,
oils 516, 524 pedigrees 206–9
426, 434, 492, 495, 541
cooking 516 in human genetics 206
adaptation to different
edible 503 pellicle 422
environments 563
linseed 516 penicillin 46–7, 431–2
agricultural 502
olive 516 Penicillium mould 46, 431–2
alternation of generations in
unsaturated 516 Penninger, Josef 127
435
oleic acid 17 peppered moth 383
carnivorous 565
omnivores 258 pepsin 261, 271
classification 444
onions 536 pepsinogen 261
cool climate 565
oocytes 137 peptide bonds 24, 248
cultivation 502
oogonia 132 perfume, 68, 517
definition 434
operculum 471 peristalsis 259–60
desert 563
opium 520 permeability 66
digestion 276
opossom 475 selectively 66
diversity, determined by the
oral cavity 259 pest control 507
climate 496
order 373 petals 441
fibres 516
organ: system 256 pH 11, 12
fire 564
transplants 273 scale 11, 12
flowering 440
organelle 41–2, 47–55, 61, 65, 93, phages 400
food supply 503
121, 123 phagocytosis 76, 275
for clean-up of contaminated
organic compounds 7 pharynx 259, 290, 458
soil, sediments, and water
organisms 87, 496 phases 122
(phytoremediation) 533, 539
autotrophic 97 G1 (first gap) 122
fossilized 518
circulatory systems of 341 G2 (second gap) 122
herbaceous 534
colchicine treatment of 128 S 122, 128
history 519
common ancestry of 377 See also:
hormones 562, 568–71
living 6 anaphase
in nature 496
multicellular 242 interphase
land 434, 537
number of 371 metaphase
life cycle 435
photosynthetic 87 prophase
main varieties of 434
sessile 453 telophase
medical 519
sexually reproducing 143–4 phenotypes 156
non-vascular 435
single-celled 242 continuous and discontinuous
nutrient poor soil 565
transgenic 408 distribution of 170
nutrients 558–9
See also micro-organisms. phloem 437, 533, 538, 541–5
parasitic flowering 565
oscula 453 phospholipid(s) 17, 19–20, 44, 66
productivity 505
osmosis 65, 69, 546, 548, 550 bilayer 42–4, 66, 72, 74, 248
productivity, increasing 505
osteichthyans (bony fishes) 471 phosphorus 6, 559–60
protein 518
ovary 132, 440–2 photosynthesis 53–4, 86–8, 95–9,
protein synthesis 559
ovoviviparous 470 276, 393, 424–6, 434, 519,
providing habitats for other
ovule 441 529–30, 536–7, 542, 550, 563
organisms 496
ovum (egg) 137 and food production 95–7
640 Index
seed-producing 438 93–4, 99, 195, 198, 199, 246, replication 122
specialized structures 529 248–9, 270–1, 518, 559 reproduction 394, 428, 430, 438,
spore-producing vascular 437 carrier-assisted transport 72–4 454, 464
stems of 530, 534–5 complexed with metal ions 25 asexual 119, 143, 380
structure and function 530 functions of 249 cycle of viruses 401
succession, timber management in plants 559 sexual 119, 143, 145, 369, 380,
altering 501 in seeds 523 438
technology trade-offs 513 integral or intrinsic 44 vegetative 436
tissue, protective 544 kinases 67 reptile groups 472–3
tissues 541 molecules 66 RER. See rough endoplasmic
used to clean up contaminated structure: primary, secondary, recticulum.
soil, sediments, and water tertiary, and quaternary resistance, antibiotic 395, 432
See phytoremediation. 24–5 insect, in GM crops 510
varieties, preserving old 512 synthesis 93, 199 respiration 286
viruses 401, 405 transport 73 aerobic 98, 286–301, 562
wet environments 564 See also glycoproteins. aerobic cellular 98, 100, 288
woody 534 protists 42, 45, 55–6, 369, 374, anaerobic (fermentation) 100–1,
plantlike protists 424 420–2, 424, 426 429
plant-protist divide 426 protons 9 external 288
plasma 251, 319–20 protozoans 421 internal 288
membrane 38, 42, 72 pseudomonas 3 physiology of 294–6
See also mycoplasma. pseudopods 275, 421, 424 See also:
plasmid 217, 394 puffballs 430–1 cell respiration
Plasmodium 422–3 pulmonary circuit 324 exhalation
life cycle 423 semilunar valve 324 inhalation.
plastids 54 valve 327 respiratory system 242, 287–9, 306
platelets 319–21 veins 325 anatomy of 289–93
platypus 475 Punnett square(s) 160–6 bird 308
pleura 294 pure-breeding 156 disorders of 300–2
Pneumococcus 194 Purkinge fibres 330 fish 306
pneumothorax 299 pus 321 frog 307
polar body 137 pyruvic acid 98 functions of 288
polar covalent bond 7 insect, 308
polar molecules 9 membrane 69, 292
pollen cones 439
Q physiology of 294–8
quinine 520
pollination 438, 441 plant 308
polymer(s) 8, 13, 15 summary table 312
polyp 455 R retroviruses 404
polypeptide 24, 25, 93 R group 24 reverse transcriptase 404
chain(s) 23, 25 radiation therapy 128 rhizoids 428
polyploidy 140, 203 radicle 562 asexual and sexual
polysaccharide(s) 14–16, 99 radula 463 reproduction in 428
polysomy 140 random assortment 380 rhizomes 438, 536
populations 12, 204 Ray, John 371 ribbon diagrams 7
Porifera 453 rays 470 ribonucleic acid (RNA) 26–7, 49, 93,
potassium 276, 559, 560 receptor-mediated endocytosis (RME) 123, 195, 401, 404
potato 15, 509–10, 536, 545 76 base pairing 198
Potrykus, Igno 582 recombinant DNA 92, 216–8 nucleotides 198
pox/shingles 404 recombinants 174 structure 26
pre-meiotic S 133 recreational drugs 520 ribosomes 49, 123
prenatal diagnosis 214 marijuana 520 rice 510
prescription drugs 520 rectum 264 risk factors for heart disease 335
pressure 546 recycling materials of life 419 RNA. See ribonucleic acid.
pressure-flow theory 548–9 red blood cells 46, 319–21, 323, 328. root 530
Privé, Gil 94 See also blood, hemoglobin, sickle- adventitious 532
probability 167 cell anemia. epidermis 532
prokaryotes 37, 41, 374, 390–1, 397, red meat 18 fibrous 530
420 red tide 425–6 hair 532
prokaryotic, lack of mitochondria 98 reduction division 133. See also pressure 546
prophase 123 meiosis I. secondary and tertiary 532
proteases 269, 272 reflux 259 tissues 532
protein(s) 5, 7, 23–4, 32, 42, 44, 49, rennin 261 rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
Index 641
93–4. See also endoplasmic endodermis anabolic 20

reticulum. epidermis structure of 20
roughage (nutritional fibre) 247 gastrodermis. stigma 441
roundworms (phylum Nematoda) 459 skull 470 STM. See scanning tunnelling
rubber 517 sleeping sickness 421 microscope.
rusts 430–1 slime moulds 424 stomach 261
slugs 462–3 stomata 537–8
Sly syndrome 52 storage 17–8, 561
S Smith, Michael 73 streptococci 391
Sasaki, Takehiko 127
smoke, smoking 302–3 Streptococcus pneumoniae 398
salamanders 12, 471
smooth endoplasmic reticulum. See stroke 336
salicylic acid 520
endoplasmic reticulum. stroma 54
salivary glands 267
smuts 430–1 structural formulas 7
sand dollars 464
snails 462–3 structure 20, 23–4, 26, 141, 354, 377,
saprobes 393, 427, 431
snakes 472–3 430, 433, 528–31
saturated fatty acids 17
snapdragons 169 cell, 41
sapwood 534
sodium 5 chromosome 141
scales 471
sodium/potassium (Na+/K+) pump DNA 26
scanning electron microscope (SEM)
73–4 seed 5301, 562
48
soil 558–9, 565 submucosa 257
scanning tunnelling microscope (STM)
nutrients 558 substrates 90
22, 49
solutes 5, 68 succession 499–501
sclerenchyma 542
solvent 5, 68 primary 498
scolex 458
properties 11 secondary 500–1
scorpions 466
soy milk 503, 518 sucrose 14
scurvy 250
soybeans 503, 518 sugar 13, 14, 247, 496, 503, 537,
sea cucumbers 464
space life-support system 298 548–50, 565
sea stars 464
species 371–2 beet 503
sea urchins 464
specific heat 10 cane 503
seaweeds 426
sperm cells 136 phosphate chain 26
secretin 269
spermatids 136 See also:
seed(s) 441–4, 523, 561
spermatogonia 132 blood sugar
cones 439
sphincter, lower esophageal 259 disaccharides
dispersal 443
pyloric 261 galactose
germination 558, 561–2
sphygmomanometer 333 glucose
oils 516
spices 503 lactose
storage 512, 561
spider silk 409 monosaccharides
structure 531, 562
spiders 466 polysaccharides
SEM. See scanning electron
spina bifida 215 sucrose
microscope.
spindle pole bodies 123 sulfur 6, 559
seminal receptacle 466
spiny anteater 475 sunflower 573
sense organs 457
spirillum 391 Sung, Wing Lam 91
sepals 441
spleen 320 superior vena cava 326
serosa 257
sponges 453–4 surface area to volume ratio 40
sex determination 189–90
spongy layer 538 Sutton-Boveri hypothesis 161, 172
sexual reproduction 119, 143, 145,
sporangium 428 swim bladders 471
369, 380
spores 428, 430–1, 435 swimmerets 466–7
advantage of 380
sporozoans 422 symmetry 457
compared with asexual 143
squash 504 radial 454
in pollination 438
squids, giant 462–3 sympatric speciation 141
theory of 145
St. George-Hyslop, Peter 218 synapsis 133
sharks 470
stamen 441 synthesis 14, 23, 26, 92–3, 199, 559
shellfish 463
Staphylococcus 431 protein 92–3, 199
shock 292, 321–2
starch 13, 15, 31, 49, 247 See also photosynthesis.
shrimp 466
Starzl, Thomas 273 systole 327
shrubs 498–9
stem(s) 530, 546, 551
sickle-cell anemia 5, 202, 205, 320
herbaceous 534
sinoatrial node 327, 330
of plants 534
T
sisal 516 tRNA. See transfer RNA.
specialized 535
skates 470 tall oil 515
woody 534
skeleton 469. See also cytoskeleton, tapeworms 458–9
See also meristems.
endoskeleton, exoskeleton. taproots 530, 531
steroids 17, 20, 521
skin. See ectoderm taxonomy 369, 372–3. See also
642 Index
classification. determining the age of 529 animal viruses

Tay-Sachs disease 51, 205 rubber 517 HIV
teeth 258–9 trematoda 458 plant viruses
telophase 123 tricuspid valve 324 retroviruses.
telson 467 triglyceride 18, 248 vitamins 249–50
TEM. See transmission electron trillium 567 C (ascorbic acid) 250
microscope. trisomic 203 and minerals required in the
tentacles 454 tropical rain forests 496–7 human diet 250
teratogens 201 tropisms: negative 571 deficiency diseases 250
test cross 166 positive 571 water-soluble 249
testosterone 20 trypsin 272 vocal cords 290–1
tetanus 398 Tsui, Lap-Chee 203 vulcanization of rubber 517
tetrad 133 tuberculosis 299, 305, 398
thermophiles 397 tubers 536
thigmotropism 572 tulips 536
W
Wakarchuk, Warren 16
Thompson, Margaret 207 tumour 128
walking legs 466
thoracic cavity 294 tundra 498
water 5, 6, 8–11, 251
thorax 466–7 turbellaria 458
and food transport in the
thymine 26, 195 turgor responses 571–3
bryophytes 550
thyroid gland 94 Turner syndrome 194, 205
as a solvent 11
ticks 466 turtles 473
transport in vascular plants
Tisdall, Fred 252 twins 171
545–8
tissue 532–3, 541–2, 544, 552 tyrosine 23
Watson, James 195
connective 256
waxes 17
digested by lysosomes 52
fundamental or ground 542
U weed killers 510, 569
ulcers 261–2 weeds 510
meristematic 542
ultrasound 214 West, Lori 273
nerve 256
unsaturated fatty acids 17 wheat 503, 505
plants, protective 544
uracil 26, 198 whelks 463
vascular 541
uropods 467 white blood cells 319, 321
toads 12, 471
wing covers 467
tobacco 336
wings 467
tomato 530 V wood products 514
tonoplast 49 vaccine 44
Worton, Ronald 193
tortoises 473 vacuoles 49, 71, 422
trace elements 251 valves 262, 264, 324–5, 327
trachea 259, 290–1, 466–7 heart 327 X
tracheids 541–2 See also bivalves. X chromosomes 189, 190
tracheophytes 419 Van der Waal’s interactions 10 X linkage 190–2
traits: multifactoral 170 vascular: cambium 534, 543 and hemophilia 190, 208
dominant 156 cylinder 533 and red-green colour blindness
recessive 156 vegetables 503 190
trans-fatty acids 19 veins 326 X-rays 9, 195
transcription 93, 198–9 in plant leaves 538 xenotransplantation 273
of DNA 198 varicose 329–30 xylem 276–7, 437, 534, 541, 544–6
transfer RNA (tRNA) 93 vena cava, inferior 326 cells, types of 541
transgenic salmon 367 ventricles 324 sap movement 543
translation (protein synthesis) 93, 199 venules 329 secondary 548
transmission electron microscope Venus flytrap 566, 572
(TEM) 48 vertebrate(s) 377, 451, 470
transpiration 538 evolutionary ancestor-
Y
Y chromosome 189–90
pull 547–8 descendant relationships 469
yeast 100, 429
transplantation 273 groups 469
infections 429
liver 273 vesicle(s) 49, 50, 52, 75, 77
transport 72–5, 318 viability 157
cell 64 villi 263 Z
and exchange systems in vinegar 11 Zasloff, Michael 472
human body 318 viruses 388–405, 407, 412 zone: of elongation 562
method 83 and genetic engineering 410. of maturation 562
passive 68, 72 classification 400 zooflagellates 421
transposons (jumping genes ) 219 discovery of 401 Zygomycota 428
trees 45, 514 See also: zygospore 429
zygote 132, 435
Index 643
PHOTO CREDITS AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Photography
The publisher wishes to thank the following sources for pho- University of Rhode Island.; p. 79 © Oscar Burriel/Science Photo
tographs, illustrations, and other materials used in this book. Library/Publiphoto; p. 86 © Bob Gurr/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 94
Care has been taken to determine and locate ownership of copy- both Courtesy of Dr. Prive; p. 102 © Y. Hamel/Publiphoto; p. 109
right material used in this text. We will gladly receive informa- © Jens Haas/ CORBIS/Magma Photo.
tion enabling us to rectify any errors or omissions in credits.
Unit 2: Genetics
Unit 1: Cellular Functions p. 116 top left © Michael Newman/Photo Edit; p. 116 bottom left
p. 2 middle © CNRI/PHOTOTAKE; p. 2 left © Kevin & Betty © SPL/Custom Medical Stock Photo; p. 116 top right © Rob
Collins/Visuals Unlimited; p. 2 right © Billy E. Barnes/Photo Edit; Simpson/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 116 bottom right © Ken Cole/VALAN
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15 right © Cabisco/Visuals Unlimited; p. 16 Courtesy of Dr. Warren © B. John, Cabisco/Visuals Unlimited; p. 137 top © David M.
Wakarchuk and the National Research Council; p. 18 © Phillip/Visuals Unlimited ; p. 137 bottom left © Dr. Eileen Pyne-
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Courtesy of Dr. Vett Lloyd; p. 53 © Don W. Fawcett/Visuals left © Bettmann/ CORBIS/Magma Photo; p. 169 © Rob & Melissa
Unlimited; p. 54 © George Champman/Visuals Unlimited; p. 55 Simpson/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 171 © Tony Freeman/Photo Edit;
left © Nancy Kedersha/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p. 55 cen- p. 186 © Biophoto Associates/Science Source/Photo Researchers,
tre © Dr. Peter Dawson/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p. 55 Inc.; p. 187 © RUC/Visuals Unlimited; p. 188 Reprinted by per-
right © K.G. Murti/Visuals Unlimited; p. 56 left © 1997 Michael mission from Nature 409: 934-941 copyright © 2001 Macmillan
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World, © 2000. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p. 195 bottom © Science
Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458; p. 78 L.A. Hufnagel, Source/Photo Researchers Inc.; p. 196 top right © RUC/Visuals
"Ultrastructural Aspects of Chemoreception in Ciliated Protists Unlimited; p. 196 bottom right © Dr. Gopal Murti/PHOTOTAKE;
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Photomicrograph by Jurgen Bohmer and Linda Hufnagel, Inc.; p. 202 top & bottom © Stanley Flegler/Visuals Unlimited;
644 Photo Credits and Acknowledgements

p. 203 Canadian Press/Toronto Star–Ken Fraught; p. 204 top ©

Sean O/Brien/Custom Medical Stock Photo; p. 204 bottom © 1990
Unit 4: Diversity
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J. Alan Wilkinson/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 213 top © Robert Soumar/CORBIS/Magma Photo; p. 369 left © Corel; p. 369 top
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p. 234 AJA Productions/The Image Bank. Corel; p. 375 bottom right © Wayne Lankinen/VALAN PHOTOS;
p. 376 top from top left © J. A. Wilkinson/VALAN PHOTOS, ©
Stephen J. Krasemann/VALAN PHOTOS, © James R. Page/VALAN
PHOTOS, © Wayne Lankinen/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 376 bottom
Unit 3: Internal Systems from left © John D. Cunningham/Visuals Unlimited, © Wayne
p. 242 © Hossler, Ph.D./Custom Medical Stock Photo; p. 244 © Lankinen/VALAN PHOTOS, © Wayne Lankinen/VALAN PHOTOS,
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66217438-0; p. 254 © Mark E. Gibson/Visuals Unlimited; p. 259 PHOTOS; p. 388 © NIBSC/SPL/Publiphoto; p. 390 © WHOI, D.
© Prof. P. Motta/Dept. of Anatomy/University "La Sapienza", Foster/Visuals Unlimited; p. 391 left © Fred Hossler/Visuals
Rome/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p. 260 © Unlimited; p. 391 top right © David M. Phillips/Visuals Unlimited;
Fred E. Hossler/Visuals Unlimited; p. 265 © ISM/PHOTOTAKE; p. 391 middle right © David M. Phillips/Visuals Unlimited; p. 391
p. 272 top © G-1 Associates/Custom Medical Stock Photo; p. 272 bottom right © David M. Phillips/Visuals Unlimited; p. 392 © Jack
bottom © Keith/Custom Medical Stock Photo; p. 273 By courtesy Bostrack/Visuals Unlimited; p. 393 © Biophoto Associates/Photo
of Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto; p. 275 left © M. Researchers, Inc.; p. 395 bottom © Fred Marsik/Visuals Unlimited;
Abbey/Visuals Unlimited; p. 286 & 289 © 1994 Art Siegel/Custom p. 396 © Alfred Pasieka/Science Photo Library/ Photo
Medical Stock Photo; p. 290 © VU/Veronika Burmeister/Visuals Researchers, Inc.; p. 397 © Fritz Polking/Visuals Unlimited; p.
Unlimited; p. 292 right © Fred E. Hossler/Visuals Unlimited; p. 399 © Alan Towse/CORBIS/Magma Photo; p. 401 left © Norm
295 © Jeff Greenberg/Visuals Unlimited; p. 300 © 1992 Kevin Thomas/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p. 401 right © K.G. Murti/
Beebe/Custom Medical Stock Photo; p. 301 © Damien Visuals Unlimited; p. 404 © Kathy Merrifield/Photo Researchers,
Lovegrove/Science Photo Library/Publiphoto; p. 303 © O. Inc.; p. 410 Keith Wood, Promega, Madison, Wisconsin.; p. 412
Auerbach/Visuals Unlimited; p. 305 © George Hall/ © Geoff Tompkinson/Science Photo Library/Publiphoto; p. 418
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© David M. Phillips/Visuals Unlimited; p. 321 top left © Fred Paulin/Visuals Unlimited; p. 421 bottom © Eric Grave/Photo
Hossler/Visuals Unlimited; p. 321 top right © John Researchers, Inc.; p. 424 top © Bill Beatty/Visuals Unlimited; p.
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Phillips/Visuals Unlimited; p. 323 Larry Prosor/SuperStock; p. M. Abbey/Visuals Unlimited; p. 425 right © Arthur Strange/VALAN
328 © James King-Homes/Science Photo Library/Photo PHOTOS; p. 426 top left © Eric Grave/Photo Researchers, Inc.;
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GCA/CNRI/PHOTOTAKE; p. 339 bottom © Michael Newman/Photo Custom Medical Stock Photo; p. 431 top left © Leornard Lee Rue
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Richard Kellaway/PC Services. PHOTOS; p. 431 bottom © Len Silverman/LHS Consulting; p. 432
top left © Christine Case/Visuals Unlimited; p. 432 top right ©

Ken Greer/Visuals Unlimited; p. 433 © Len Silverman/LHS

Consulting; p. 434 top left © V. Wilkinson/VALAN PHOTOS;
Unit 5: Plants
p. 434 top right © Stephen Krasemann/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 434 p. 492 © Mach II Stock Exchange; p. 494 salad © John
bottom left © Harold V. Green/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 434 bottom Fowler/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 494 coffee & donut © Peter Jermolow;
right © Kennon Cooke/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 436 top left © V. p. 494 ASA © John Fowler/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 494 jeans © Roger
Wilkinson/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 436 bottom left © Glenn Cole/Visuals Unlimited; p. 494-495 cereal © Peter Jermolow; p.
Oliver/Visuals Unlimited; p. 436 right © John D. Cunningham/ 495 tire © J. R. Page/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 496 © Tom W.
Visuals Unlimited; p. 437 top © Michel Bourque/VALAN PHO- Parkin/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 497 © J. A. Wilkinson/VALAN PHO-
TOS; p. 437 bottom left © Kennon Cooke/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 437 TOS; p. 498 © James R. Page/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 500 top left
bottom centre © Inga Spence/Visuals Unlimited; p. 437 bottom © V. Wilkinson/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 500 top centre © Dr. A.
right © Bill Beatty/Visuals Unlimited; p. 439 top left © Corel; p. Farquhar/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 500 top right © Albert
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VALAN PHOTOS; p. 439 bottom right © Stephen Krasemann/ VALAN PHOTOS; p. 501 © Stephen J. Krasemann/VALAN
VALAN PHOTOS; p. 441 top © Len Silverman/LHS Consulting; p. PHOTOS; p. 503 top © Ken Patterson/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 503
441 centre © Harold B. Green/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 441 bottom bottom © Wouterloot-Gregoire/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 504 © Inga
© Wayne Lankinen/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 442 © Nuridsany & Spence/Visuals Unlimited; p. 505 © Rob Young; p. 506 top © John
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PHOTOS; p. 444 left © Tom W. Parkin/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 444 Scullion/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 507 top © E. Webber/Visuals
right © V. Wilkinson/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 450 © Rudiger Unlimited; p. 507 bottom © Sylvan Wittwer/Visuals Unlimited;
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© Paul L. Janosi/VALAN PHOTOS; p. 454 © David Wrobel/Visuals Nielsen/Visuals Unlimited; p. 509 © V. Wilkinson/VALAN PHO-
Unlimited; p. 456 left © Dave B. Fleetham/Visuals Unlimited; p. TOS; p. 510 Canadian Press/Ray Smith; p. 512 top © Klaus
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Illustration
Krogh, D., BIOLOGY: A Guide to the Natural World, © 2000. 175 Fig 6.21; p. 190 Fig 7.5; p. 196 Fig 7.13; p. 198 Fig 7.17;
Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle p. 198 Fig 7.18; p. 199 Fig 7.19; p. 202 Fig 7.20; p. 203 Fig 7.23;
River, NJ 07458: p. 215 Fig 7.36; p. 217 Fig 7.38; p. 223 Fig 7.45; p. 229 Fig 7.48;
p. 6 Fig 1.2; p. 7 Fig 1.3; p. 8 Fig 1.7; p. 9 Fig 1.9; p. 10 Fig 1.10; p. 256 Fig 8.6; p. 257 Fig 8.7; p. 259 Fig 8.9; p. 261 Fig 8.14;
p. 10 Fig 1.11; p. 11 Fig 1.12; p. 12 Fig 1.13; p. 14 Fig 1.17; p. p. 262 Fig 8.15; p. 264 Fig 8.17; p. 268 Fig 8.21; p. 282 Fig 8.34;
15 Fig 1.18; p. 17 Fig 1.20; p. 18 Fig 1.21; p. 19 Fig 1.23; p. 20 p. 290 Fig 9.4; p. 292 Fig 9.10; p. 297 Fig 9.16; p. 312 Fig
Fig 1.24; p. 23 Fig 1.27; p. 23 Fig 1.28; p. 24 Fig 1.29; p. 26 9.10; p. 318 Fig 10.2; p. 319 Fig 10.3; p. 325 Fig 10.9; p. 326
Fig 1.30; p. 29 Fig 1.34; p. 36 Fig 2.1; p. 39 Fig 2.4; p. 41 Fig Fig 10.10; p. 329 Fig 10.13; p. 354 Fig 10.38; p. 372 Fig 11.7;
2.5; p. 42–43 Fig 2.6; p. 44 Fig 2.7; p. 46 Fig 2.9; p. 49 Fig 2.11; p. 377 Fig 11.12; p. 377 Fig 11.13; p. 378 Fig 11.14a); p. 378
p. 50 Fig 2.13; p. 51 Fig 2.14; p. 53 Fig 2.16; p. 54 Fig 2.17; p. Fig 11.14b); p. 380 Fig 11.16, Fig 11.17; p. 395 Fig 12.7; p. 400
55 Fig 2.18; p. 66 Fig 3.3; p. 68 Fig 3.4; p. 69 Fig 3.5; p. 70 Fig Fig 12.13; p. 402 Fig 12.16; p. 430 Fig 13.18; p. 430 Fig 13.19;
3.6; p. 72 Fig 3.8; p. 74 Fig 3.9; p. 76 Fig 3.11; p. 77 Fig 3.12; p. 433 Fig 13.26; p. 434 Fig 13.27; p. 435 Fig 13.28; p. 439 Fig
p. 77 Fig 3.13; p. 78 Fig 3.14; p. 88 Fig 4.2; p. 91 Fig 4.5; p. 93 13.38; p. 440 Fig 13.40; p. 441 Fig 13.42; p. 441 Fig 13.42; p.
Fig 4.6; p. 99 Fig 4.11; p. 120 Fig 5.2; p. 124–125 Fig 5.7; p. 126 442 Fig 13.45; p. 443 Fig 13.46; p. 530 Fig 16.3; p. 537 Fig 16.14;
Fig 5.9; p. 132 Fig 5.16; p. 134–35 Fig 5.18; p. 138 Fig 5.22; p. p. 541 Fig 16.19; p. 549 Fig 16.30; p. 562 Fig 17.10; p. 568 Fig
140 Fig 5.24; p. 156 Fig 6.5; p. 159 Fig 6.7; p. 168 Fig 6.14; p. 17.23

Back to Achievement Task
Achievement Task Rubric 1

Unit 1 Achievement Task: Health Care Research: Making Informed Decisions
Student’s Name: _____________________ Date: ________________________
Categories Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4

Knowledge/ limited information information on some accurate information thorough and precise
Understanding on a few aspects of aspects of chosen on most aspects of information on all
- facts related to chosen diseases, some diseases, some chosen diseases aspects of the chosen
cause, affected cells, inaccurate or missing inaccuracies diseases
symptoms, prognosis, information
detection and
prevention, incidence
Inquiry inappropriate or too some appropriate appropriate data; extensive, well-
- chooses and little data; limited data; some accurate analyzes data chosen data;
analyzes data re: analysis analysis accurately analysis is thorough
likelihood of cure and and insightful
social impact of
research
Communication limited clarity and moderate clarity and considerable clarity high degree of clarity
- clarity and precision precision precision and precision and precision
of presentation
including statistics
and diagrams as
needed
- use of scientific terminology has terminology has some terminology is terminology is used
terminology limited accuracy accuracy (may accurate and with precision as
(often relies on substitute general effective; may adjust appropriate for
general rather than terms in places) for audience audience
scientific terms)
- awareness of limited sense of some sense of clear sense of strong sense of
audience and audience and purpose; audience and purpose; audience and purpose; audience and purpose;
purposechoice and campaign lacks choice and choice and insightful choices of
presentation of facts impact presentation of facts presentation of facts facts and arguments
and arguments creates and arguments has and arguments has make campaign
intended impact some impact considerable impact highly effective
(public awareness)
Making Connections explains impact of explains impact of explains impact of explains impact of
- assesses the impact public awareness on public awareness on public awareness on public awareness on
of public awareness medical research with medical research with medical research with medical research with
campaigns on medical limited understanding some understanding considerable thorough
research (i.e., cure, understanding understanding
prevention, focus on
high-profile diseases)
- analyzes the social explains social and explains social and effectively explains thoroughly and
and economic impact economic impacts economic impacts most obvious social effectively explains
of directing funds to with limited with moderate and economic impacts obvious and subtle
medical research effectiveness effectiveness impacts

Unit 2 Achievement Task: Genetics and Discrimination
Student’s Name: _________________________ Date: ________________

Knowledge/ limited understanding some understanding considerable thorough
Understanding of the concepts of the concepts understanding of the understanding of the
- understanding of underlying the underlying the concepts underlying concepts underlying
concepts underlying transmission of transmission of the transmission of the transmission of
the transmission of hereditary hereditary hereditary hereditary
hereditary characteristics characteristics characteristics characteristics
characteristics
- providing sufficient limited accurate and some accurate sufficient accurate detailed accurate and
information on the relevant information relevant information and relevant relevant information
chosen genetic information
disorder to complete
the task
- applying concepts has difficulty applies some concepts applies concepts applies a thorough
correctly to explain applying concepts correctly to explain correctly to explain knowledge of
genetic technologies correctly to explain genetic technologies genetic technologies concepts to give
genetic technologies detailed explanations
of genetic
technologies
Inquiry identifies few identifies some of the identifies most of the identifies many
- researching different perspectives, relies on different perspectives different perspectives different perspectives
perspectives limited research, may on the issue, does on the issue, does on the issue, does
use own opinions some research considerable research thorough research
instead
- identifying possible identifies a few identifies some identifies several identifies many
social misuses of possible misuses of possible misuses of possible misuses of possible misuses of
genetic information genetic information genetic information genetic information genetic information
based on insightful
interpretations of both
social and scientific
factors
Communication communicates with communicates with communicates with communicates with a
- communication of limited clarity and moderate clarity and considerable clarity high degree of clarity
information and precision precision and precision and precision
recommendations
- use of scientific uses scientific uses scientific uses scientific uses scientific
terminology terminology with terminology with terminology terminology with
limited accuracy, may some accuracy, may accurately and precision
use general rather substitute general effectively
than scientific terms terms in places
…/2
-2-
Making Connections may choose an chooses a form and chooses an makes thoughtful and
- quantifying the size inappropriate form, quantifies benefits appropriate form and insightful choices
of potential benefit or quantification of and risks fairly quantifies benefits about form and
risk (e.g., in form of benefits and risks may realistically and risks realistically effectively quantifies
number of lives be unrealistic benefits and risks
affected, dollar figure,
scale of 1–5)
- estimating the has difficulty makes estimates about makes reasonable makes accurate and
probability of events estimating the the probability of estimates about the thoughtful estimates
recurring probability of events events, may be probability of events about the probability
somewhat unrealistic of events
- calculating the has difficulty calculates probability accurately calculates accurately calculates
probability values for calculating of individual events probability of most probability of all
individual events and probability values for and totals for benefits individual events and individual events and
totals for benefits and individual events and and risks, may have totals for benefits and totals for benefits and
risks totals for benefits and some inaccuracies risks risks
risks
- deciding on a decides on a decides on a decides on a decides on a
recommendation recommendation that recommendation that recommendation that recommendation that
about the future of does not follow is based on some follows logically from follows logically from
genetic research logically from the aspects of the the risk/benefit the risk/benefit
risk/benefit analysis risk/benefit analysis analysis analysis and shows
insight

Unit 3 Achievement Task: Dissection in Science Education
Student’s Name: ____________________ Date: __________________

Knowledge/ limited knowledge of some knowledge of sufficient knowledge thorough knowledge
Understanding comparative anatomy comparative anatomy of comparative of comparative
- understanding of and physiology and physiology anatomy and anatomy and
comparative anatomy physiology physiology
and physiology
- providing sufficient limited accurate and some accurate and sufficient accurate detailed accurate and
information relevant information relevant information and relevant relevant information
alternatives to information
dissection to complete
the task
Inquiry identifies few identifies some identifies most identifies all technical
- identifying technical technical skills used technical skills used technical skills used skills used in
skills used in in dissection in dissection in dissection dissection
dissection
- identifying safety identifies safety identifies some safety identifies all identifies safety
procedures related to procedures only with procedures, may omit appropriate safety procedures in detail
formaldehyde assistance safe disposal procedures
preservative
- organizing and organizes data organizes some data organizes data organizes data
displaying data from ineffectively, may appropriately competently effectively to
research on choose inappropriate facilitate analysis
perspectives form
- communication of precision precision and precision and precision
information and ideas
- showing awareness limited sense of some sense of clear sense of strong sense of
of audience (i.e., audience audience audience audience
school board trustees)
- accomplishing establishes limited establishes some clearly establishes and establishes and
purpose sense of purpose; it is sense of purpose that accomplishes purpose accomplishes purpose
not accomplished is partially with a high degree of
accomplished effectiveness
- follows rules and demonstrates limited demonstrates some demonstrates demonstrates
conventions of a letter command of the rules command of the rules considerable extensive command
and conventions of and conventions of command of the rules of the rules and
letter writing letter writing and conventions of conventions of letter
letter writing writing
…/2
-2-
Making Connections collects limited collects some collects considerable collects thorough
- provides relevant information about information about information about information about
information about perspectives, may use perspectives, may each perspective each perspective
perspectives on own opinions instead omit one or two
dissection (i.e.,
ethical/moral, social,
economic, political,
environmental)
- evaluating may have difficulty analyzes obvious analyzes most aspects analyzes both obvious
information and analyzing the issue aspects of the issue of the issue with and subtle aspects of
alternatives with moderate considerable the issue with a high
effectiveness effectiveness degree of
effectiveness
- quantifying the size may choose an chooses a form and chooses an makes thoughtful and
of potential cost or inappropriate form, quantifies costs and appropriate form and insightful choices
benefit (e.g., dollar quantification of costs benefits fairly quantifies costs and about form and
figures, scale of 1–5) and benefits may be realistically benefits realistically effectively quantifies
unrealistic cost and benefits
- calculating totals for has difficulty calculates totals for accurately calculates accurately and
costs and benefits calculating totals for costs and benefits, totals for costs and efficiently calculates
costs and benefits may have some benefits totals for costs and
inaccuracies benefits
- using supporting uses personal opinion uses some supporting uses considerable uses thoughtful,
information to justify or limited information information to justify supporting insightful
recommendation to justify recommendation information to justify interpretation of
recommendation recommendation supporting evidence
to justify
recommendation

Unit 4 Achievement Task: Saving Endangered Species
Student’s Name: ________________________ Date: __________________

Knowledge/ has difficulty correctly applies correctly applies correctly applies
Understanding applying concepts concepts to explain concepts to explain concepts to make
- applying biological correctly to explain some reproductive most relevant detailed explanation
concepts (e.g., reproductive technologies reproductive of all relevant
meiosis) to explain technologies technologies reproductive
reproductive technologies
technologies
- applying biological has difficulty correctly applies correctly applies correctly applies
concepts (e.g., applying concepts concepts to predict concepts to make concepts to make
variability, taxonomy) correctly to predict some possible realistic predictions realistic and insightful
to predict possible outcomes outcomes about several possible predictions about
outcomes of outcomes many possible
reproductive outcomes
technologies
- defining and defines few key terms defines some key accurately defines and accurately defines and
distinguishing accurately terms accurately distinguishes between distinguishes between
between terms most key terms key terms
- provides sufficient provides limited provides some provides sufficient provides detailed
information to accurate and relevant accurate and relevant accurate and relevant accurate and relevant
complete tasks information information information information
Inquiry uses few appropriate uses some appropriate uses a variety of uses appropriate
- researching using sources; may rely on resources appropriate resources sources extensively
appropriate sources remembered
information
- organizing data for organizes data organizes some data organizes data organizes data
comparison ineffectively; form appropriately competently effectively to
may be inappropriate facilitate comparison
for comparison
Communication communicates with communicates with communicates with communicates with a
- communication of limited clarity and moderate clarity and considerable clarity high degree of clarity
information and ideas precision precision and precision and precision
- using scientific uses scientific uses scientific uses scientific uses scientific
limited accuracy; may some accuracy; may accurately and precision
rely on general rather substitute general effectively
…/2
-2-
Making Connections may choose an chooses a form and chooses an makes thoughtful and
- choosing a form for inappropriate form, quantifies benefits appropriate form and insightful choices
quantifying the size of quantification of and risks fairly quantifies benefits about form and
potential benefit or benefits and risks may realistically and risks realistically effectively quantifies
risk to biodiversity be unrealistic benefits and risks
- estimating the has difficulty makes estimates about makes reasonable makes accurate and
probability of events estimating the the probability of estimates about the thoughtful estimates
recurring probability of events events, may be probability of events about the probability
somewhat unrealistic of events
- calculating the has difficulty calculates probability accurately calculates accurately calculates
probability values for calculating of individual events probability of most probability of all
individual events and probability values for and totals for benefits individual events and individual events and
totals for benefits and individual events and and risks, may have totals for benefits and totals for benefits and
risks totals for benefits and some inaccuracies risks risks
risks
- deciding on a course decides on a course of decides on a course of decides on a course of decides on a course of
of action action that does not action that is based on action that follows action that follows
follow logically from some aspects of the logically from the logically from the
the risk/benefit risk/benefit analysis risk/benefit analysis risk/benefit analysis
analysis and shows
considerable insight

Unit 5 Achievement Task: Golden Rice: Problem or Solution?
Student’s Name: _______________________ Date: __________________

Knowledge/ has difficulty correctly applies correctly applies correctly applies
Understanding applying concepts concepts to predict concepts to make concepts to make
- applying concepts to correctly to predict some possible realistic predictions realistic and insightful
predict possible outcomes outcomes about several possible predictions about
environmental and outcomes many possible
social outcomes of outcomes
genetically modified
food
- defining and defines few key terms defines some key accurately defines and accurately defines and
distinguishing accurately terms accurately distinguishes between distinguishes between
between terms most key terms key terms
- provides sufficient provides limited provides some provides sufficient provides detailed
information to accurate and relevant accurate and relevant accurate and relevant accurate and relevant
complete tasks information information information information
Inquiry uses few appropriate uses some appropriate uses a variety of uses appropriate
- researching using sources; may rely on resources appropriate resources sources extensively
appropriate sources remembered
information
- organizing data organizes data organizes some data organizes data organizes data
(e.g., consequence ineffectively; may effectively competently effectively to
map, diagrams, PMI choose inappropriate facilitate analysis
chart) form
- identifying relevant identifies few relevant identifies some identifies many identifies a specific,
questions about the questions relevant questions relevant questions comprehensive set of
long-term effects of relevant questions
“golden rice”
- planning a method provides a limited provides a moderately provides a clear plan provides a detailed
of testing the long plan with a general clear plan including including steps and a plan with clear steps
term effects of strategy some steps; may not timeline and timelines
“golden rice” identify timeline
- communication of precision precision and precision and precision
information and ideas
- using scientific uses scientific uses scientific uses scientific uses scientific
limited accuracy; may some accuracy; may accurately and precision
rely on general rather substitute general effectively
…/2
-2-
- shows awareness of limited sense of some sense of clear sense of strong sense of
audience (i.e., summit audience audience audience audience
on world health)
- includes required includes few required includes some includes most includes all required
features (e.g., charts, features required features required features features
tables, summary
overheads,
bibliography)
Making Connections describes the science describes the science accurately describes describes the science
- connecting science concepts that underlie concepts that underlie the science concepts concepts that underlie
and technology genetic modification genetic modification that underlie genetic genetic modification
with limited accuracy with some accuracy modification with accurately and
limited accuracy thoroughly
- connecting scientific makes limited makes some makes connections makes insightful
concepts and connections between connections between between scientific connections between
environmental scientific concepts scientific concepts concepts and scientific concepts
outcomes and environmental and environmental environmental and environmental
outcomes outcomes outcomes outcomes
- identifying identifies a limited identifies some identifies most identifies many
perspectives number of obvious perspectives obvious perspectives perspectives,
perspectives; perhaps including some that
only ones in direct may not be obvious
opposition
- evaluating sources assumes most sources attempts to confirm identifies claims that thoroughly and
of information for of information are some facts, but may require support, insightfully evaluates
credibility, bias, and credible; may not consider attempts to confirm sources of
relevance recognize obvious perspective and biases key facts, considers information
exceptions of writers bias
- assessing key factors offers limited, often offers some assesses key factors assesses key factors
(e.g., safety, cost, inaccurate, competent assessment competently thoroughly
benefits to health, assessment of key of key factors
availability, factors
environmental
impact)
- analyzing trade-offs may have difficulty analyzes obvious analyzes trade-offs analyzes trade-offs
identifying trade-offs trade-offs with with considerable with a high degree of
moderate effectiveness effectiveness
effectiveness
- use of evidence bases opinions on bases opinions on bases opinions on bases opinions on
limited or some relevant sound interpretation thorough, insightful
misinterpreted evidence of evidence interpretation of
evidence evidence

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A d d i s o n We s l e y p r e s e n t s

Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education Canada Inc.

Open Student Text Quit

Addison Wesley Ray Bowers

Advisory Panel Rob Young

Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education Canada Inc., Toronto, Ontario

Publisher Production Manager

Cover Image: © Doug Struthers/Stone

Printed and bound in Canada

Curriculum and Assessment Consultant Reviewers

UNIT 1 4.3 Protein Synthesis

Exploring Careers 358

b) Scanning electron micrograph

c) Scientist studying cells through a

FIGURE 1.1 All life depends on the reactions of molecules in a watery

A ntelopes and grasshoppers, fish and Douglas fir. Life occurs in an

CHAPTER 1 The Chemistry of Life 5

1.1 The Chemical Basis of Cells

represent the structure of important biological molecules in different ways

identify and describe the structure and biological functions of water

To understand how cells work it is nec-

6 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

Sodium atom (Na) Chlorine atom (Cl)

another atom (Figure 1.3). This transfer

FIGURE 1.5 Structural formulas

WORD ORIGIN Cells are able to make these large

Water: A Polar Molecule

8 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

CHAPTER 1 The Chemistry of Life 9

10 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

Density Solid water (ice) is less dense H+ concentration

CHAPTER 1 The Chemistry of Life 11

OH– (hydroxyl radical)

12 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

Section 1.1 Review

Saccharide from the Greek

FIGURE 1.14 The structural

CHAPTER 1 The Chemistry of Life 13

Disaccharides are sugars that consist of developed to convert the glucose in

HOCH2 HOCH2 CH2OH

FIGURE 1.16 The structural formulas of maltose and sucrose

glucose glucose maltose water

CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH

FIGURE 1.17 Carbohydrates follow a building blocks model

14 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

potato liver algae

a) STARCH b) GLYCOGEN c) CELLULOSE FIGURE 1.18 Examples of

CHAPTER 1 The Chemistry of Life 15

Section 1.2 Review

16 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

1.3 Lipids: Long-Term Energy Storage

understand the varied functions of lipids in cells

relate types of lipids to their role in a balanced diet

CHAPTER 1 The Chemistry of Life 17

18 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

1. Obtain labels from fat-containing products such as potato chips, margarine,

The hidden fats are known as trans-fatty acids. These lipids

polar head nonpolar tails

FIGURE 1.23 A dual-natured molecule

a) What all steroids have in common is a four-ring carbon unit: Phospholipids

20 UNIT 1 Cellular Functions

Analyzing the Issue

CHAPTER 1 The Chemistry of Life 21