f-Chart Method April 12, 2010

The f-Chart Method for Solar Outline

Collectors • Review heat exchangers
• Solar collector performance equations
Larry Caretto • Derivation of f-chart method
Mechanical Engineering 496ALT • Demonstration of f-chart results
Alternative Energy • Main reference: Duffie and Beckman,
Solar Engineering of Thermal
April 12, 2010 Processes, Wiley, 2006
• See http://www.fchart.com/ for f-chart
software information 2

Heat Exchangers
ΔTmax
• Used to transfer energy from one fluid to ΔTmax
another
– U = overall heat transfer coefficient, W/m2·K
• One fluid, the hot fluid, is cooled while
the other, the cold fluid, is heated
• May have phase change: temperature of
one or both fluids is constant
• Simplest is double pipe heat exchanger
– Parallel flow and counter flow
Figure 11-1 from Çengel,
• More complex designs may be used Heat and Mass Transfer
3 4

Compact Heat Exchangers III Shell-and-Tube Exchanger

• Counter flow exchanger with larger

surface area; baffles promote mixing
5 6
Figure 11-3 from Çengel, Heat and Mass Transfer Figure 11-4 from Çengel, Heat and Mass Transfer

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f-Chart Method April 12, 2010

Shell and Tube Passes II Shell and Tube Passes III

Tube flow has
three complete
changes of
direction giving
four tube
passes

Tube flow has one complete Shell flow

change of direction giving two changes
tube passes direction to
give two shell
7
passes 8
Figure 11-5(a) from Çengel, Heat and Mass Transfer Figure 11-5(b) from Çengel, Heat and Mass Transfer

Effectiveness-NTU Method Effectiveness, ε

• Analysis approach for heat exchangers Q& Q& Cmin = min (Ch , Cc )
ε= & =
when not all temperatures are known Q max Cmin (Th.in − Tc ,in ) NTU = UA / Cmin
– Based on ratio of actual heat transfer to
maximum possible heat transfer • In effectiveness-NTU method we find ε,
then find Q& = εQ
& max
– Maximum possible temperature difference for
one fluid, ΔTmax is Th,in – Tc,in
&
– Use CminΔTmax to find Q max

– Subscripts c and h for cold and hot – C1ΔT1 = C2ΔT2 or ΔT2 = C1ΔT1/C2
– Only one fluid, the one with the smaller value – If ΔT1 = ΔTmax and C1/C2 > 1, ΔT2 > ΔTmax
& cp, can have ΔTmax
of m – CminΔTmax is maximum heat transfer
– Define Cc = (m& cp)c and Ch = (m & cp)h without impossible T < Tc,in or T > Th,in
9 10

Effectiveness Equations More Effectiveness Equations

UA
• Double pipe parallel flow NTU = • Shell and tube One shell pass Cmin
Cmin and 2, 4, 6, … c=
− NTU (1+ c )
1− e tube passes Cmax
ε=
1+ c ⎧ ⎫
−1
C
c = min ⎪ 1 + e − NTU 1+ c 2
⎪
• Double pipe counter flow ε = 2⎨1 + c + 1 + c 2 ⎬
Cmax
⎩⎪ 1 − e − NTU 1+ c 2 ⎪⎭
1 − e − NTU (1−c )
ε= • Any geometry with c = 0
NTU =
UA
1 − ce − NTU (1−c ) ε = 1− e − NTU Cmin
11 12
Figures from Figure 11-26 from Çengel, Heat and Mass Transfer Figure from Figure 11-26 from Çengel, Heat and Mass Transfer

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f-Chart Method April 12, 2010

Find ε Chart ε
Example chart From chart
for finding for counter
effectiveness flow:
from NTU =
UA/Cmin and NTU = 2.5
Cmin/Cmax ratio Cmin/Cmax =
For NTU = 1.5 0.16
and Cmin/Cmax ε = 0.89
= 0.25, ε = ?
.7
Figure 11-26 from
Çengel, Heat and
Mass Transfer 13 14

Basic Collector Performance Flat Plate Collector

k = absorber thermal
• Energy balance on collector conductivity 2L = distance
between outside
• Useful energy gain = solar energy input of flow tubes
adsorbed by collector – losses by heat D = flow tube
transfer to ambient outer diameter
t = absorber
• Look at variation throughout year to get plate thickness
overall performance w = distance
– Detailed hour-by-hour computer analysis between flow
for large installations tube centerlines
= 2L + D
– Simplified f-chart method for residences Di = flow tube
15 inner diameter 16

Useful Energy Gain Heat Removal Factor, FR

• Qu = rate of useful heat into collector • Ac and Uc defined on previous chart
• Ac = collector area • (m & c p ) = product of mass flow rate and
c

• Ha = solar energy absorbed = Hiτα heat capacity of collector fluid

• Uc = collector overall heat-loss coefficient • F’ = collector efficiency factor
• Tf,in = inlet collector fluid temperature • Tf,out = outlet collector fluid temperature
• Ta = ambient temperature
( )
m& c p ⎢
⎡ −
F ' AcU c ⎤
(m& c p )c ⎥
• Energy balance
on collector fluid
FR = c
1− e
( )( )
• FR = collector heat removal factor
AcU c ⎢ ⎥ Q = m& c T
[
Qu = Ac FR H a − U c (T f ,in − Ta ) ] ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ u p c f ,out − T f ,in

17 18
Hottel-Willier-Bliss equation

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f-Chart Method April 12, 2010

FR/F' Chart
1
Collector Efficiency Factor
0.95
Thermal resistance between absorber plate and ambient
F'=
Thermal resistance between collector fluid and ambient 0.9
1 Uc
F'=
⎡ 1 1 1 ⎤ 0.85
w⎢ + + ⎥
⎣U c (2 LF + D ) C B hc ,iπDi ⎦

FR/F'
0.8

• F = tanh(mL)/mL m2 = Uc/tk, t, k = absorber

0.75
plate thickness, thermal conductivity
• CB = bond conductance = kBwB/kB 0.7

• hc,i = flow tube internal heat transfer 0.65

coefficient
19 0.6
(m& c p )c 20
1 10 Ac F 'U c 100

F-chart Water Heating Only System with Solar Air Heating

21 22

Qu = ε c (m& c p )min (T f ,out − Tw,in ) = (m& c p )s (Tw,out − Tw,in )

F-Chart Water and Space Heating
Tf,out
εc = heat-exchanger
effectiveness
Tf,in

Tw,out (C)ollector
(S)torage fluid loop
fluid loop

( )
m& c p min =
Tw,in
[( ) ( ) ]
min m& c p s , m& c p c

23 24
http://starfiresolar.com/db2/00144/starfiresolar.com/_uimages/solardiagramallred.jpg

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f-Chart Method April 12, 2010

Combine Equations Heat Exchanger

[
Qu = Ac FR H a − U c (T f ,in − Ta ) ] Qu = ε c (m& c p ) (T − T ) ⇒ T = T
min f ,out w,in f ,out w,in + Qu ε c (m& c p )min

Qu = (m& c p )c (T f ,out − T f ,in ) ⇒ T f ,in = T f ,out −

Qu • Substitute into previous Qu equation,
(mc p )c
& rearrange, and define F’R
• Eliminate Tf,in in favor of Tf,out ⎡ AFU ⎤
Qu ⎢1 − c R c ⎥ = Ac FR H a − Ac FRU c (T f ,out − Ta )
⎡ Qu ⎤
⎣⎢ (m& c p )c ⎦⎥
Qu = Ac FR H a − Ac FRU c ⎢T f ,out − − Ta ⎥
⎣⎢ (m& c p )c ⎦⎥ (
= Ac FR H a − Ac FRU c Tw,in + Qu ε c (m& c p )min − Ta )
⎡ AFU ⎤ ⎡ AFU AFU ⎤
Qu ⎢1 − c R c ⎥ = Ac FR H a − Ac FRU c T f ,out − Ta
( ) ( ) Qu ⎢1 − c R c + c R c ⎥ = Ac FR H a − Ac FRU c (Tw,in − Ta )
(m& c p )c ε c (m& c p )min ⎦⎥
⎢⎣ m& c p ⎥
c ⎦
⎣⎢
25 Qu = Ac FR' [H a − U c (Tw,in − Ta )] 26

F'R/FR Chart
1
Heat Exchanger II
0.9
⎡ AFU Ac FRU c ⎤
−1
⎡ A F U ⎛ m& c p ( )c ⎞⎟⎤ −1
= FR ⎢1 − c R c + = FR ⎢1 + c R c ⎜ ⎥
FR'
⎢⎣ (
m& c p)c
(
ε c m& c p) ⎥
min ⎥
⎦ ⎢⎣ ( ) (
m& c p ⎜ ε c m& c p
c ⎝
)min − 1⎟⎠⎥⎦ 0.8
ratio = 0.9
0.7
F'R/FR

ratio = 0.8
• F’R/FR about 0.97 (Hodge – for water) ratio = 0.7
• If Tw,out > Tmax = 100oC, water is vented 0.6 ratio = 0.6
ratio = 0.5
• Define Qd as solar heat delivered ratio = 0.4
[ ]
0.5
⎧max (m& c p ) (Tw,out − Tw,in ),0 Tw,out ≤ Tmax ratio =
( )
ε c m& c p min
ratio = 0.3
⎪ s
0.4 (m& c p )c
ratio = 0.2
Qd = ⎨ ratio = 0.1
⎪ (m& c ) (T − T ) Tw,out > Tmax
⎩ p s max w,in 0.3
(m& c p )c
1 10 100
27 28
Ac FRU c

Storage Tank Energy Change f-chart Method Development

dT
Mc p s = Qd − QL,s − Qw,s − QTL dTs
dt ∫ Mc p dt ∫ ∫
dt = Qd dt − QL, s dt − Qw, s dt − QTL dt ∫ ∫
• Mcp = mass * cp for storage tank liquid Δt Δt Δt Δt Δt
0
• QL,s = space heating supplied by solar • For a long time period, the initial = –QS
• Qw,s = water heating supplied by solar transient term is negligible
• QTL = storage tank heat loss • The tank loss warms the house and
• t = time contributes to the home heating load
• f-chart method integrates this equation • The last three integrals are the total
over some time period (1 month) energy supplied by solar, Qs
29 30

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f-Chart Method April 12, 2010

f-chart Method Development II f-chart Method Development III

Qs 1
∫
0 = Qd dt − Qs ∫
⇒ Qs = Qd dt ⇒ f = =
D D ∫
Qd dt • The absorbed solar radiation, Ha, is the
incident radiation, Hi, times the factor τα
Δt Δt Δt

• D = total energy demand – τ is the fraction transmitted through the

glass cover(s)
• f = fraction of total supplied by solar
– α is the fraction absorbed
• Use the definition of Qs, total energy
• Set Ha = Hiτα and multiply the last term,
supplied by solar from previous slide
top and bottom, by Tref - Ta
Qd dt = ∫ Ac FR' [H a − U c (Tw,in − Ta )]dt
Qs 1 1
A F' ⎡ T −T ⎤
D D Δ∫t f = s = c R ∫ ⎢ H iτα − U c (Tref − Ta ) w,in a ⎥dt
f = = Q
D Δt
D D Δt ⎢⎣ Tref − Ta ⎥⎦
31 32

f-chart Method Development IV What are X and Y?

∫ ( )
• Cannot evaluate integral because of the Ac FR'
X= U c Tref − Ta dt
dependence of Ts on other variables D
Δt
– Use engineering judgment to identify
Ac FR'
important variables and form empirical
parameters based on f equation
Y=
D ∫ H i ταdt
Δt
T −T
U c (Tref − Ta ) w,in a dt
Ac FR' Ac FR' • X is ratio of reference collector loss to
f =
D ∫ H iταdt −
Δt
D Δt ∫ Tref − Ta total heating load
• Y is ratio of absorbed solar energy to
∫ ( )
Ac FR' Ac FR'
Y=
D ∫ H i ταdt X=
D
U c Tref − Ta dt total heating load
Δt Δt 33 34

f-chart Method Development V f-chart Method Development VI

• Integrate X and Y to get averages FR (τα )n Ac FR' τα F ' τα H i ,total
= FR (τα )n R
Y
Y= H i ,total ⇒
FR (τα )n D Ac FR (τα )n D
Ac FR' Ac FR' τα A F ' τα
Y=
D ∫ H i ταdt = D ∫
H i dt = c R H i ,total
D X=
FR Ac FR' U c
( )
Tref − Ta Δt ⇒
X F ' Δt
= FRU c R (
Tref − Ta )
Δt Δt FR D Ac FR D

X=
Ac FR'
D ∫ (
A F'U
)
U c Tref − Ta dt = c R c Tref − Ta
D
( ) • (τα)n = value of the τα product for
Δt normal radiation measured in tests
• Rearrange equations to introduce
• Hi,total is available from NREL data for Δt
factors FRUc and FR(τα)n available from
= 1 month
standard collector test results
35 36

ME 483 Alternative Energy Engineering II 6

f-Chart Method April 12, 2010

Solar Collector Efficiency Tests

Collector Efficiency Equations 1
0.9 1-cover, black

• From March 22-24 lecture 0.8 intercept = FR (τα )n 1-cover, selective

Qu = (m& c p )c (T f ,out − T f ,in )

2-cover, black
0.7
2-cover, selective

= FR (τα )n
Qu

Efficiency
0.6
η=

[
Qu = Ac FR H i (τα )n − FRU c (T f ,in − Ta ) ]
0.5 Ac H i
⎛T −T ⎞
0.4 − FRU c ⎜⎜ i a ⎟⎟
0.3 ⎝ Hi ⎠
⎛T −T ⎞
η = u = FR (τα )n − FRU c ⎜⎜ f ,in a ⎟⎟
Q 0.2 slope = − FRU c
0.1
Ac H i ⎝ Hi ⎠ 0
• Plot of η versus (Tf,in – Ta)/Hi is straight line 0 0.05 0.1 0.15

with slope = –FRUc and intercept FR(τα)n

37 38

Sample Rating Sheet Sample Rating Sheet II

slope = –FRUc
intercept = FR(τα)n

39 40
http://www.builditsolar.com/References/Ratings/SRCCRating.htm

f-Chart
3.0
Back to f Equation
2.5
• Had equation for f depending on factors
like X and Y 2.0 f = 0.9

• Form empirical relationship between f, f = 0.8

f = 0.7
X, and Y 1.5 f = 0.6
Y

f = 0.5
• This is basis for f-chart method f = 0.4

1.0 f = 0.3

• For water heating: f = 1.029Y – 0.065X f = 0.2

f = 0.1
– 0.245Y2 + 0.0018X2 + 0.0215Y3 0.5

• Klein, Beckman and Duffie developed

method and software 0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
41 42
X

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f-Chart Method April 12, 2010

Computing X (dimensionless) Computing Y (dimensionless)

⎡ F ' Δt
X = Ac ⎢ FRU c R ( )⎤
Tref − Ta ⎥
• Ac = collector ⎡ F ' τα H i ,total ⎤
Y = Ac ⎢ FR (τα )n R ⎥
• Ac = collector
⎣ FR D ⎦ area (m2) ⎣ FR (τα )n D ⎦ area (m2)
• FRUc (W/m2·K) from slope of collector • FR(τα)n from intercept of collector test
test data
• F’R/FR computed or assumed = 0.97
• F’R/FR computed or assumed = 0.97
• Usual averaging period, Δt = 1 month, • Ratio τα / (τα )n = 0.94 (October – March),
converted to seconds = 0.90 (April – September) or computed
• D = heating demand for averaging • Hi,total is available from NREL data for Δt
period (J) = 1 month (convert to J/m2)
• Tref = 100oC; Ta from NREL data • D is heating demand J
43 44

NREL Data NREL Solar Data

• National Renewable Energy Laboratory
• Collector data for 1961-1990 for 360
individual months and monthly averages
– Available for variety of collectors
• Flat plate collector data for several angles
• TMY3 data: Typical Meteorological Year
• 1961-1990 measured data for 239 sites
– 56 sites measured; other had some modeled data
• 1991-2005 update for 1,454 locations
– 99% of sites contain modeled data
– Van Nuys Airport is in this update, but LAX is only
LA site in original data set
– Data format different from 1961-1990 data

– Hourly data on radiation components • TMY3 data: Typical Meteorological Year

– Hourly data on radiation components
– Compute resultant for given collector
– Compute resultant for given collector geometry
geometry
• http://www.nrel.gov/rredc/solar_data.html
45 46

NREL Collector Types ’61-’90 NREL Collector Types ’61-’90 II

• Data available at
different tilt levels for
flat-plate collectors
facing south
– Horizontal (0o)
– Latitude – 15o
– Latitude
– Latitude + 15o
– Vertical (90o)
47 48

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f-Chart Method April 12, 2010

NREL Collector Types ’61-’90 III NREL 1961-1990 LAX Average

SOLAR RADIATION FOR FLAT-PLATE COLLECTORS FACING SOUTH AT A
FIXED-TILT (kWh/m2/day) Percentage Uncertainty = 9
Tilt(deg) Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
0 Average 2.8 3.6 4.8 6.1 6.4 6.6 7.1 6.5 5.3 4.2 3.2 2.6 4.9
Minimum 2.3 3.0 4.0 5.5 5.7 5.6 6.4 6.1 4.4 3.8 2.7 2.1 4.7
Maximum 3.3 4.4 5.6 6.8 7.2 7.7 8.0 7.0 5.8 4.5 3.6 3.0 5.1
Lat - 15 Average 3.8 4.5 5.5 6.4 6.4 6.4 7.1 6.8 5.9 5.0 4.2 3.6 5.5
Minimum 2.9 3.6 4.5 5.8 5.7 5.4 6.3 6.3 4.7 4.4 3.4 2.7 5.2
Maximum 4.6 5.7 6.4 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.9 7.2 6.6 5.6 4.9 4.3 5.7
Lat Average 4.4 5.0 5.7 6.3 6.1 6.0 6.6 6.6 6.0 5.4 4.7 4.2 5.6
Minimum 3.3 3.8 4.7 5.6 5.4 5.0 5.9 6.1 4.8 4.7 3.7 3.0 5.3
Maximum 5.4 6.4 6.7 7.2 6.8 6.7 7.3 7.0 6.7 6.0 5.6 5.0 5.9
Lat + 15 Average 4.7 5.1 5.6 5.9 5.4 5.2 5.8 6.0 5.7 5.5 5.0 4.5 5.4
Minimum 3.4 3.8 4.5 5.2 4.8 4.4 5.2 5.5 4.5 4.7 3.9 3.1 5.1
Maximum 5.9 6.6 6.6 6.7 6.1 5.8 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.1 6.0 5.4 5.7
90 Average 4.1 4.1 3.8 3.3 2.5 2.2 2.4 3.0 3.6 4.2 4.3 4.1 3.5
Minimum 2.9 3.0 3.1 2.9 2.3 2.1 2.3 2.8 2.9 3.5 3.2 2.7 3.3
Maximum 5.2 5.4 4.5 3.6 2.7 2.3 2.5 3.2 4.1 4.7 5.2 5.0 3.7
49 50

LAX Solar Radiation 1961-1990

8 o
Flat-plate titted at latitude = 34

6
Fchart
Input
Radiation (kWh/m /day)

5
data
2

4 screen
3 30-year average
Individual years
2

http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/old_data/nsrdb/redbook/sum2/23174.txt
1
http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/old_data/nsrdb/redbook/mon2/23174.txt
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Month 51 52

Sample Fchart Output

53 54

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f-Chart Method April 12, 2010

Adjustments Another Adjustment

• Adjust X for storage capacity, M, in L/m2
X’ = X(75/M)1/4
• Adjust Y for load heat exchanger factor,
Z: Y’ = Y(0.39 + 0.65e-0.139/Z)
– εL = heat exchanger effectiveness
– mass flow times heat capacity and UA
factors defined previously
(
Z = ε L m& c p )min (UA)L
• For systems with only water heating
– Tw = water temperature to household
– Tm = cold water supply temperature
– Ta = monthly average ambient temperature
• Multiply X by correction factor, CF,
below
11.6 + 1.18Tw + 3.86Tm − 2.32Ta
CF =
100 − Ta

55 56

ME 483 Alternative Energy Engineering II 10