Op-Amp Applications

Comparator

Because of its huge gain, the op-amp is very sensitive to voltage differences between its inputs. A few
millivolts are enough to saturate it either way. We take advantage of this property to make a voltage
comparator, which will output either a high or low depending on the input.

Voltage Follower

The voltage follower doesn't amplify the voltage because the output is connected back to the inverting input.
However, it can be used as a buffer to isolate circuits or be used as a current amplifier.

Combining the voltage follower with the push-pull follower, we get the benefits of both: zero crossover
distortion (due to the op amp) and large output currents (due to the push-pull transistors).
Inverting Amplifier

In the amplifier circuit above, we use feedback to regulate our gain.

The result is an amplifier that will invert the input signal and apply a gain to it.
Since the non-inverting input is grounded and there is negative feedback, the voltage at the inverting input is
also at 0V, so:
VA = VB = 0
Since the op-amp inputs cannot draw current, all the current will go through R1 and R2 to get to Vout. This
enables us to write:
Vin = iR1 and Vout = − iR2
Combining these equations to eliminate i gives us

We now choose R1 and R2; their ratios will specify our gain. We typically choose values between 1k and
100k—if our resistances are too small, the circuit will waste power; if our resistances are too large, the tiny
bit of current leaking through the op-amp may start to become noticeable.

Non-Inverting Amplifier

This amplifier is similar to the inverting amplifier, except it will not invert the signal. We calculate the gain
as follows:
i = Vin / R2
Vout = Vin + iR2
Substituting the first equation into the second yields:
Summer

Summer With Gain

This summer circuit will output the inverted sum of the input voltages, after applying gains to the inputs. A
good choice for the resistors would be about 10kΩ.
Our equations:
Vout = 0 − (i1 + i2 + i3)R
i1 = V1 / R1 i2 = V2 / R2 i3 = V3 / R3

Summer Without Gain

If we do not want the summer to apply any gain to the inputs, simply choose all the resistor values to be the
same.

This summer circuit will output the inverted sum of the input voltages. A good choice for R would be about
10kΩ.
Vout = 0 − (i1 + i2 + i3)R
i1 = V1 / R i2 = V2 / R i3 = V3 / R

Question: How could you build a simple digital-to-analog converter by using different input resistances?
Differential Amplifier

This circuit will amplify the voltage difference between V2 and V1.

Inverting Integrator

We can build a circuit that will integrate voltage:

The output signal is a scaled and inverted integral of the input signal:

There is a problem with this circuit though—the integrator is only good if the Vout is less than the maximum
output voltage of the op-amp. Our integrator is thus not very useful for low frequency signals, becuase the
charge will store up on the capacitor and eventually saturate the op-amp. Even if we have a high frequency
signal, any DC offset will add up in the capacitor over time. We can remedy this problem by adding a shunt
resistor Rs across the capacitor to bleed off any long-term charges that store up in the capacitor. As a rule of
thumb, Rs should be greater than 10R1.
Input bias current flowing through R1 and Rs can generate a small DC offset, and we can try to cancel it out
by adding another resistor R2 between the non-inverting input and the ground such that

Inverting Differentiator

The differentiator will scale and invert the derivative of the input signal:
Instrumentation amplifier

An instrumentation (or instrumentational) amplifier (sometimes shorthanded as In-Amp or InAmp) is a

type of differential amplifier that has been outfitted with input buffer amplifiers, which eliminate the need
for input impedance matching and thus make the amplifier particularly suitable for use in measurement and
test equipment.

Additional characteristics include very low DC offset, low drift, low noise, very high open-loop gain, very
high common-mode rejection ratio, and very high input impedances. Instrumentation amplifiers are used
where great accuracy and stability of the circuit both short and long-term are required.

Although the instrumentation amplifier is usually shown schematically identical to a standard operational
amplifier (op-amp), the electronic instrumentation amp is almost always internally composed of 3 op-amps.
These are arranged so that there is one op-amp to buffer each input (+,−), and one to produce the desired
output with adequate impedance matching for the function.[1][2]

The most commonly used instrumentation amplifier circuit is shown in the figure. The gain of the circuit is
Logarithmic output

 The relationship between the input voltage Vin and the output voltage Vout is given by:

where IS is the saturation current and VT is the thermal voltage.

 If the operational amplifier is considered ideal, the inverting input pin is virtually grounded, so the
current flowing into the resistor from the source (and thus through the diode to the output, since the
op-amp inputs draw no current) is:

where ID is the current through the diode. As known, the relationship between the current and the
voltage for a diode is:

This, when the voltage is greater than zero, can be approximated by:

Putting these two formulae together and considering that the output voltage is the negative of the
voltage across the diode (Vout = −VD), the relationship is proven.

This implementation does not consider temperature stability and other non-ideal effects.
Exponential output

 The relationship between the input voltage Vin and the output voltage Vout is given by:

where Is is the saturation current and VT is the thermal voltage.

 Considering the operational amplifier ideal, then the negative pin is virtually grounded, so the current
through the diode is given by:

when the voltage is greater than zero, it can be approximated by:

The output voltage is given by:

Two pole low pass filter op-amp circuit
Although it is possible to design a wide variety of filters with different levels of gain and different roll off
patterns using an operational amplifier and a few additional electronic components. The filter is
straightforward, offers single electronic circuit design calculations and provides a good overall 'sure-fire'
solution.

The op amp circuit provides unity gain and a Butterworth response (the flattest response in band, but not the
fastest to achieve ultimate roll off out of band).

If a different response is required, then it is possible to undertake calculations for these, although the
electronic circuit design calculations are rather more complicated.

The calculations for the circuit values are very straightforward for the Butterworth response and unity gain
scenario. Critical damping is required for the circuit and the ratio of the resistor and capacitor values
determines this.

When choosing the electronic component values, ensure that the resistor values fall in the region between 10
kΩ and 100 kΩ. This is advisable because the output impedance of the circuit rises with increasing
frequency and values outside this region may affect the overall performance of the op amp circuit.
Phase Shift Sine Wave Oscillator / Generator

The phase shift oscillator is a format that has a number of advantages over the Wien bridge oscillator. In
particular the levels of distortion are normally lower and the frequency stability is also good, provided the
components used are sufficiently stable themselves.

The oscillator is formed around the basic phase shift network which consists of three RC sections which
provide a steep change in phase with frequency.

The simplest circuit consists of an operational amplifier, three capacitors and four resistors.

Calculating the frequency of oscillation from first principles is complex because each of the stages of the
phase shift network loads is neighbour. However the calculations can be simplified to provide a couple of
easy formulae to use.

The phase shift network resistors should all be set to the same value as should the capacitors, i.e.
R1=R2=R3=R, and C1=C2=C3=C. In this case the values can be determined from the formulae given
below.

Half Wave Rectifier

The circuit diagram above shows the usage of an

op-amp as a half wave rectifier. During the positive
cycle of voltage, diode D2 is reversed biased as the
positive signal is inverted by the op-amp. So there
will be no output. However, during the negative
cycle of the input voltage, the diode D2 is forward
biased and conducts. Therefore the above circuit
works as a half wave rectifier.