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Chapter 9: Architectural Pattern

of an Animal

9.1 Hierarchical Organization

of Animal Complexity 3. Cell-Tissue • cells are grouped
• five major groups of organization together and perform
• each grade is more complex then their common functions
the preceding as a highly coordinated
unit called tissue
• animals at or beyond
Grades of Organization in Organismal this grade are termed
Complexity enumetazoans
• the supportive tissues
1. Protoplasmic • unicellular are its stroma
organism
• perform all 4. Tissue-Organ • tissues are assembled
functions of life into larger functional
seen in more units called organs
complex animals • usually one type of
• possesses distinct tissue performs an
supportive organ’s chief function,
structures, as muscle tissue does
locomotor in the heart; other
devices, and tissues—epithelial and
simple sensory connective— perform
structures supportive roles
• cytoplasm, nucleus • flatworm
• protozoan • the chief functional
cells of an organ are
2. Cellular • not capable of called parenchyma
independent
existence 5. Organ- • different organs
• cells demonstrate System operate together as an
division of labor organ system
but are strongly
associated to form
a specific
collective function
• metazoan called
volvox

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9.2 Animal Body Plans Types of Symmetry

• animal body plans differs in:
✓ grade of organization 1. •
Spherical means that any
✓ number of embryonic plane passing
germ layers through the center
✓ number of body cavities divides a body
• body symmetry can be determined into equivalent, or
by: mirrored halves
✓ external appearance • found in unicellular
✓ dissection forms
✓ microscopy • rare in animals
• S y m m e t r y ; re f e r s t o b a l a n c e d • best suited for
proportions or correspondence in floating and rolling
size and shape of pars on opposite
sides of a median plane 2. Radial • forms that can be
divided into similar
halves by more
than two planes
passing through
the longitudinal
axis
• tubular, vase, or
bowl shaped
• the end of the axis
is usually the oral
surface
• e.g. jellyfish, hydra
sponges
• in sessile forms,
such as sea
anemones the
basal attachment
disc is the aboral
surface
• variant form is
biradial symmetry,
only two planes
passing through
the longitudinal
axis produce
mirrored halves
(e.g.comb jellies)
• advantage of it is
that it can snare a
prey from any
direction
• primary radial as
adults are called
Radiata

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3. Bilateral • animals that can be 9. Frontal divides body into dorsal

divided along a (Coronal) and ventral halves by
saggital plane into running through
two mirrored anteroposterior axis and
portions—right and right-left axis at right
left halves angles to the saggital
• better fitted for plane
directional
movement 10. Saggital left and right
• more active a. midsaggital-
demands more in dividing
terms of exactly at the
reproduction, middle
digestion
• form a
11. Transverse cuts through a
monophyletic
(Cross dorsoventral and a right-
group called
Section) left axis at right angles to
Bilateria
• both the saggital and
associated with
frontal planes and would
cephalization,
separate anterior and
differentiation of a
posterior portions
head
• cephalization
12. Axial central axis bones
produces an
efficient
13. Pectoral chest region associated
positioning of
with the anterior pair of
organs for sensing
appendages
and responding to
the environment 14. Pelvic hip region associated
with the posterior pair of
appendages
Regions of Bilaterally Symmetrical
Animals

1. Anterior head end

(Cranial)

2. Posterior tail end

(Caudal)

3. Dorsal back/upper side

4. Ventral front/ belly side

5. Medial midline

6. Lateral sides

7. Distal farther from the middle

8. Proximal nearer

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Body Cavities and Germ Layers • animals such as sea anemones and
• Body Cavity; an internal space jellyfish develop from these two
- e.g. gut cavity digestive tract germ layers and are called
• most animals have an additional diploblastic
cavity - the fluid-filled blastocoel
- when the second cavity is fluid- persists in the diploblasts, but
filled, it may cushion and in others it is filled with a third
protect the gut from forces germ layer, mesoderm
exerted on the body • Triploblastic animals that have:
- for some animals such as 1. Ectoderm
earthworms, it also forms part 2. Mesoderm
of hydrostatic skeleton used in 3. Endoderm
locomotion ‣ most are bilaterally
• sponges in cellular grade do not symmetrical
have gut and body cavity
- develops from a zygote to a
blastula stage
- a spherical blastula is
composed of a layer of cells
surrounding a fluid-filled cavity
- this cavity, a blastocoel, has no
external opening, so it could
not serve as a gut
- after the formation of blastula,
the cells become embedded in
an extracellular matrix and
s u r ro u n d a c h a m b e r c a l l e d
spongoel, through which water
and nutrients flow
• in animals, the development
proceeds from a blastula to a
gastrula stage, as one side of the
blastula pushes inward making a
depression
- the depression becomes a gut
cavity called gastrocoel
(archenteron)
- the external opening to the
depression is the blastopore
that typically becomes a mouth
or anus
- the gut lining is endoderm
- surrounding the blastocoel is
ectoderm
• the embryo now has two cavities :
1. Gut Cavity
2. Blastocoel

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Methods of Mesoderm Formation 3. Eucoelomate

• cells forming mesoderm are • the coelomate body plan develops
derived from endoderm via:
• two ways that a middle layer of A. Schizocoelous
mesoderm can form: ‣ mesoderm cells fill the
1. Acoelomate blastocoel forming a
‣ mesoderm cells solid band of tissue
completely fill the around the gut cavity
blastocoel, leaving the ‣ through programmed
gut as the only body cell death, space opens
cavity hence no space inside the mesodermal
‣ does not suspend band called a coelom
organs ‣ the embryo has two
‣ the region between the body cavities:
ectodermal epidermis (1) Coelom
and the endodermal (2) Gut Cavity
digestive tract is filled B. Enterocoelus
with a spongy mass of ‣ functionally the same
space-filling cells, schizocoelous
parenchyma ‣ both are represented in
‣ parenchyma is derived the eucoelomate, or
from embryonic simply coelomate body
connective tissue and is plan
important in assimilation ‣ both body cavities are
and transport of food aligned with a
and in disposal of peritoneum, a thin
metabolic waste cellular membrane
2. Psuedocoelomate derived from mesoderm
‣ mesoderm cells line the ‣ mesodermal mesenteries
outer edge of the suspend organs in the
blastocoel leaving two coelom
body cavities: ‣ having pouches
(1) blastocoel ‣ a psuedocoelom lacks
(2) gut cavity peritoneum
‣ the blastocoel is now
called a pseudocoelom
‣ false coelom refers to
mesoderm only partially
surrounding the cavity
instead of completely
surrounding it, true
coelom

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A Comp lete Gut a nd

D e v e lo p m e n t a l O r ig in s o f B o d y Se gm e nt at ion
Plans in Triploblasts • most of diploblastic and
• triploblastic animals follow one of triploblastic have blind incomplete
several major developmental gut
pathways: • Incomplete Gut; food enter and
1. Radial Cleavage exit at the same opening
‣ typically accompanied • Complete Gut; makes possible a
by three other traits: one-way flow of food from mouth
(1) t h e b l a s t o p o r e to anus
becomes an anus - gut tube within another tube
and a new • Segmentation; a serial repetition
opening makes of similar body segments
the mouth - Metamere (Somite); each
(2) the coelom forms segment called
via enterocoely - in earthworms segmentation is
(3) c l e a v a g e is present both in the external
regulative and internal structures
‣ animals with these - there is a repetition of muscles,
features are called blood vessels, nerves, some
deuterostomes even sex organs
‣ including sea urchins, - permits greater body mobility
chordates
2. Spiral Cleavage
‣ produces an embryo
whose developmental
patter ns contrast with
those described for
deuterostome
(1) t h e b l a s t o p o r e
becomes the
mouth
(2) c l e a v a g e is
mosaic
(3) i f c o e l o m i s
present, it is
made via
schizocoely
‣ animals under this
developmental pathway
are called
lophotrochozoan
protostomes
‣ including mollusks,
segmented worms

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9.3 Components of Animals Cellular Components: Tissue

• animal components are derived • Tissue; group of similar cells
from three embryonic germ layers specialize for performance of a
1. Ectoderm common function
2. Medoderm • Histology (Microanatomy); study
3. Endoderm of tissues
4. Extracellular Components • Types of Tissue:
1. Epithelial
Ext r ac el l ul a r Co mp o ne nt s ‣ a sheet of cells that cover
• metazoan animals contain an external or internal
important noncellular components: surface
1. Intracellular Space ‣ tightly packed for
‣ within the body cells defense
2. Extracellular ‣ protective covering
‣ outside the body cells ‣ lines all organs of the
‣ in animals with closed body cavity as well as
vascular systems ducts or passageways
e x t r a c e l l u l a r f l u i d a re ‣ transport molecules
subdivided: ‣ supported by an
(1) Blood Plasma underlying basement is a
➡ f l u i d membrane of connective
portion of tissue
the blood ‣ modified glands that
(2) Interstitial/ Tissue produce:
Fluid (1) Mucus
➡ o c c u p y (2) Hormones
t h e i n t e r- (3) Enzymes
cellular ‣ Types of Epithelium:
s p a c e (1) Simple; one layer of cells
surroun- a. S i m p l e S q u a m o u s
ding the Epithelial
cells ➡ composed of
‣ supportive material of flattened cells
the organism that ➡ e.g. forms lining
provides mechanical of blood
stability and protection: capillaries, lungs
(1) Connective ➡ found where
(2) Cartilage diffusion of
(3) Bone gasses and
(4) Cuticle transport of
3. Intercellular molecules happen
b. S i m p l e C u b o i d a l
Epithelial
➡ short boxlike
➡ e.g. lines ducts
and tubules like
kidneys and
salivary glands

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c. Simple Columnar (2) Stratified; many layers
Epithelial a. S t r a t i f i e d S q u a m o u s
➡ r e s e m b l e s Epithelium
cuboidal but cells ➡ adapted to
are taller and withstand mild
have elongated m e c h a n i c a l
nuclei abrasion and
➡ e.g. occurs in distortion
absorptive such ➡ basal layer cells
as intestinal and u n d e rg o m i t o t i c
reproductive tract d i v i s i o n
➡ has fingerlike producing cells
projections called the continually
microvilli move toward the
surface
➡ e.g. lines the oral
cavity, esophagus,
anal canal, vagina
➡ contain keratin
for protection and
waterproofing
b. Transitional Epithelium
➡ specialized to
accommodate
stretching
➡ e.g. occurs in the
urinary tract,
bladder
➡ relaxed state: 4-5
layers
➡ stretched state:
2-3 layers

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2. Connective (4) Cartilage
‣ serve various binding and ➡ composed of firm
supportive functions matrix containing
‣ composed of extracellular c e l l s
components (chondrocytes)
‣ composed of: located in pockets
(1) Extracellular Fibers called lacunae and
(2) Ground Substance collagen and/or
➡ fibers are elastic fiber
s u s p e n d e d ➡ Hyaline cartilage is
together called the most common
matrix ➡ due to lack of
‣ two kinds of connective b l o c k s u p p l y, i t
tissue: heals slowly after
(1) Loose damage
➡ also called areolar (5) Bone
connective tissue ➡ strongest
➡ packing material ➡ composed of a
➡ contains different calcified matrix
fiber types: ➡ small pockets
a. c o l l a g e n (lacunae) within
f i b e r : the matrix
(purple and containing bone
black) cells, osteocytes
b. e l a s t i c ➡ o s t e o c y t e s
fiber :(black communicate with
a n d each other by
branching) means of tiny
formed of network of
p r o t e i n channels called
elastin canaliculi
(2) Dense
➡ forms tendons,
ligaments, fasciae
‣ in a tendon, the fibers are
extremely long and
tightly packed made of
collagen
‣ collagen useful for
flexibility and resistance
to stretching
‣ other connective tissues:
(1) Blood
(2) L y m p h ( Va s c u l a r
Tissue)
➡ composed of
distinctive cells in
a fluid substance,
plasma
(3) Adipose (Fat)

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3. Muscular ➡ Sarcoplasm;
‣ most abundant tissue in cytoplasm of
the body muscle fibers
‣ originates from the ➡ M y o f i b r i l s ;
mesoderm c o n t r a c t i l e
‣ Muscle (Fiber); unit proteins within the
‣ Striated Muscle; appears fiber
transversely striped with
alternating dark snd light 4. Nervous
bands ‣ specializes for reception
(1) Skeletal of stimuli and conduction
➡ composed of long o f i m p u l s e s f ro m o n e
cylindrical fibers region to another
➡ voluntary muscle ‣ two basic types of cells:
➡ controlled by; (1) Neuron
a. Stimulatory ➡ basic functional
b. Inhibitory unit
(2) Cardiac (2) Neuroglia
➡ involuntary muscle ➡ a nonneuronal cell
➡ contracts when type that insulates
stimulated by neuron membranes
nerves and serves various
➡ found in the heart s u p p o r t i n v e
➡ cells are shorter function
➡ Uninucleate; once ‣ Soma; nucleated cell
nucleus per cell body
‣ Obliquely Striated Muscle ‣ Dendrites; receive
(3) Smooth (Visceral) impulses
➡ lack the ‣ Axon (Nerve Fiber);
characteristic of carries signal away from
alternating bands the cell body
➡ long and tapering ‣ Myelin Sheath; increases
containing a the speed at which
central nucleus electrical signals are
➡ most common in transmitted
invertebrates that ‣ Synapse; junction that
serves as body- separates neuron from
w a l l m u s c u l a t u re each other
and surrounds
ducts and
sphincters
➡ in vertebrates,
smooth muscle
surrounds blood
vessel sand
internal organs
such as intestine
and uterus
➡ involuntary muscle
controlled by
autonomic nerves

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9.4 Complexity and Body

Siz e
• an animal becomes larger, the
body surface increases as:
✓ the square of body length
(length 2 )
✓ volume increases
✓ increases as cube of body
length (length 3 )
• large animal has less surface area
relative to its volume than does a
small animal of the same shape
• the surface area of a large animal
may be inadequate to provide
enough respiratory gas exchange
and nutrients for cells located deep
within the body, as a solution:
1. Fold or invaginate the body to
increase surface area t
‣ allows a body to
become large without an
increase in internal
complexity
2. Flatten the body into a ribbon
or disc so that no internal
space is far from the surface
• large size:
✓ buffers an animal against
fluctuations]
✓ provides greater protections
against predation
✓ uses more oxygen
✓ cost of maintaining body
temperature is less
✓ less heat energy is lost
✓ less energy cost is lost during
movement

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Chapter 10: Taxonomy and

Phylogeny of Animals

10.1 Linnaeus and Taxonomy • Aristotle first to group organisms

• science of taxonomy
according to their structural
(“arrangement law”)
similarities
- produces a formal system for
• Carolus Linnaeus produced a
naming and grouping species
system for taxonomy both plants
to communicate this order
and animals
- the study of taxonomy
- Systema Naturae used
predates evolutionary biology
morphology the (comparative
• taxonomy is part of the broader
study of organismal form) for
science of systematics
arranging specimens in
- comparative biology, in which
collection
studies of variation among
- divided the animal kingdom
animal populations are used to
into species and gave each one
reveal their evolutionary
a distinctive name
relationships

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Sy stem at i za ti on V er sus Cl a s s i fi c a t i o n Binomial Species Nomenclature

A. Systematization • each species has a latinize name
‣ taxonomists asks whether the composed of two words (printed in
characteristics of a species italics (or underlined if handwritten
confirm or reject the or typed) and written with a capital
hypothesis that it descends initial letter
from the most common • this system for naming is more
ancestor precise than are “common names,”
‣ represent units of common which vary culturally and
evolutionary descent is geographically
systematization 1. Genus;
‣ forms a branch of the ✓ first word
phylogenetic tree of life ✓ noun
‣ The species of a group thus ✓ must only refer to single
formed constitute a system of group of organisms
common descent, not a class 2. Species Epithet;
defined by possession of an ✓ identifies the species
essential characteristic. It within the genus
re m a i n s c o m m o n , a l t h o u g h ✓ written in lowercase
technically erroneous, for ✓ adjective must agree in
systematists to call their gender with the genus
taxonomic systems ✓ same species epithet
classifications can be used in different
B. Classification genera
‣ taxonomists asks whether a • e.g. the species epithet
species being classified “carolinensis” is used in other
contains the essence (common genera for the species Poecile
features) of a particular carolin- ensis (Carolina chickadee)
taxonomic class a n d A n o l i s c a ro l i n e n s i s ( g re e n
‣ denotes the construction of anole, a lizard) to mean “of
classes, groupings of Carolina
o rg a n i s m s t h a t p o s s e s s a n
essence

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10.2 Species Sp ec ies Dis tr ibu ti on

• while discussing Darwin’s book, On • Geographic Range; distribution
the Origin of Species, in 1859, through space, can either be
Thomas Henry Huxley asked, “In continuous or disjunct
the first place, what is a species?“ • Evolutionary Duration; distribution
• certain criteria for identifying through time
species: • species differ greatly from each
1. Common Descent other in both dimensions:
‣ members of a species A. Cosmopolitan
must trace their ancestry ✓ species having very
to a common ancestral large geographic ranges
population or worldwide
‣ species are thus distributions
historical entities ✓ widespread
2. Smallest Distinct Groupings B. Endemic
‣ organisms sharing ✓ those with very
patterns of ancestry and restricted geographic
descent distributions
‣ m o r p h o l o g i c a l • throughout the evolutionary
characters have been duration of a species, its
important in identifying geographic range can change many
such groupings, but times
chromosomal and
molecular characters
now are used extensively
for this
3. Reproductive Community
‣ members of a species
must form a
reproductive community
that excludes members
of other species
‣ for sexually reproducing
p o p u l a t i o n s ,
interbreeding is critical
for maintaining a
reproductive community
‣ for organisms whose
reproduction is asexual,
reproductive community
entails occupation of a
particular ecological
habitat in a particular
place so that a
reproducing population
responds as a unit to
evolutionary forces such
as natural selection and
genetic drift

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Types of Species Concept
A. Typological
✓ divine being created species
✓ designating a type specimen
that is labeled and deposited
in a museum to represent the
ideal form or morphology for
the species
✓ when scientists obtained
additional specimens and
wanted to assign them to a
species, the type specimens of
described species were
consulted
✓ Small differences: considered
accidental imperfections
✓ Large differences: would lead
a scientist to describe a new
species with its own type
specimen
✓ type specimen serves only as a
guide to the general
morphological features that
one might expect to find in a
particular species as we
observe it today.
B. Biological
✓ formulated by Theodosius
Dobzhansky and Ernst Mayr
✓ Mayr stated this concept as
follows: “A species is a
re p ro d u c t i v e c o m m u n i t y o f
p o p u l a t i o n s ( re p ro d u c t i v e l y
isolated from others) that
occupies a specific niche in
nature.”
✓ a species is an interbreeding
population of individuals
having common descent and
sharing intergrading
characteristics
✓ the criterion of the niche
recognizes that members of a
reproductive community are
expected also to have common
ecological properties
✓ occurrence of cryptic or sibling
species, which are too similar
in morphology to be diagnosed
as separate species by
morphological characters alone
✓ it must follow the criterion:
1. can/ will interbreed in
nature
2. c a n p r o d u c e f e r t i l e
offspring
✓ problems in this concept:
1. lacks an explicit temporal
dimension
2. p r o p o n e n t s o f t h e
biological species
concept often disagree
on the degree of
reproductive isolation
necessary for considering
two populations separate
species, thereby revealing
further ambiguity in the
concept
3. since interbreeding is the
criterion of reproductive
community, it denies the
existence of species in
groups of organisms that
reproduce only asexually
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Evo lut i ona r y a nd Co he s i o n S p e c i e s D. Cohesion Species Concept

Concepts ✓ Alan Templeton (geneticist)
C. Evolutionary Species Concept updated this concept to make
✓ George Gaylord Simpson explicit the expectation that
(mammalian palaeontologist) populations of a species
p ro p o s e d t h e e v o l u t i o n a r y evolve as a genetically
species concept to add an cohesive unit by natural
evolutionary time dimension to selection and genetic drift
the biological species concept ✓ defined species as follows: the
✓ defined species as: a single most inclusive population of
lineage of ancestor-descendant individuals having the potential
populations that maintains its for phenotypic cohesion
identity from other such through intrinsic cohesion
lineages and that has its own mechanisms
evolutionary tendencies and ✓ the cohesion mechanisms
historical fate include:
✓ reproductive cohesion; the 1. g e n e f l o w a c r o s s t h e
means by which a species geographic expanse of
m a i n t a i n s i t s i d e n t i t y f ro m the species
other such lineages and keeps 2. s h a r e d l o s s o f a l l e l e s
its evolutionary fate separate through genetic drift
from other species 3. shared genetic changes
✓ applies to both sexually and caused by natural
asexually reproducing forms selection
✓ as long as continuity of ✓ any individual in a species is a
diagnostic features is possible common ancestor of
maintained by the evolving the entire species at some
lineage, it is recognized as a future time
species
✓ abrupt changes in diagnostic
features mark the boundaries
of different species in
evolutionary time
✓ adds the evolutionary time
dimension lacking in biological
species concept
✓ it must follow the criterion:
1. phylogeny = evolutionary
history
2. species = distinct cluster
of organisms
3. uses evidence of ancestry
and descent

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E. Phylogenetic Species Concept
✓ Joel Cracraft (or nithologist)
defined the last concept that
we present: the phylogenetic
species concept
✓ defined as: an irreducible
(basal) grouping of organisms
diagnosable distinct from other
s u c h g ro u p i n g s a n d w i t h i n
which there is a parental
pattern of ancestry and
descent
✓ this concept emphasizes the
criterion of:
1. common descent
2. both asexual and sexual
groups
3. a phylogenetic species is
a single population
lineage with no
detectable branching
4. re c o g n i z i n g s p e c i e s a s
the smallest groupings of
organisms that have
undergone independent
evolutionary change
✓ the phylogenetic species
concept would treat as
separate species
✓ a greater number of species
would be described using the
phylogenetic species concept
than by any other species
concept
✓ disregards details of
evolutionary process and gives
us a criterion without the need
of studying the evolutionary
process
D y n a m is m o f S p e c ie s C o n c e p t s
✓ Kevin de Quiroz (herpetologist)
a rg u e s t h a t v a r i o u s c o m p e t i n g
concepts of species have a
common underlying principle
despite their differences
✓ species constitutes a segment of a
population-level lineage, called the
general lineage concept of
species
✓ emphasizes the common goal of
identifying the phylogenetic history
of population-level lineages in
detail
✓ disagreement is sign of dynamic
research
✓ cannot predict which species
concept will be useful in the future
✓ no one species concept is final
D NA B a r c o d in g o f S p e c ie s
• a technique for identifying
organisms to species using
sequence information from a
standard gene present in all
animals
• the mitochondrial gene encoding
cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1
(COI), which contains about 650
nucleotide base pairs, is a standard
“barcode” region for animal
• DNA barcoding does not solve the
controversies regarding use of
different species concepts, but it:
✓ permits the origin of a
specimen to be identified to a
particular local population
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10.3 Taxonomic Characters
a n d P h y lo g e n e t ic
Reconstruction
• a major goal of systematics is to
i n f e r t h e e v o l u t i o n a r y t re e o r
phylogeny that relates all extant
and extinct species
• through identification of organismal
features, formally called characters,
that vary among species
- Character; is any feature that a
taxonomist uses to study
variation within and among
species
• taxonomists find characters by
observing patter ns of similarity
among organisms in features of:
1. Morphological
2. Chromosomal
3. Molecular Features
• character similarity does not always
reflect common ancestry
• Homology; character sharing that
results from common ancestry
- e.g arm of a human, wing of a
bird or a bat, leg of a dog and
flipper of a dolphin or whale all
have different purposes but are
anatomically same structures
• Homoplasy (Non-Hmologous);
character similarity that
misrepresents common descent
- e.g. wings of insects, birds and
bats are all needed for flying
Using Character Variation to
Reconstruct Phylogeny
• to infer the phylogeny of a taxon
using characters that vary among
its species
✓ identify for each character,
which character state was
present in the most recent
common ancestor of the taxon
• Ancestral; character state that is
present in the most recent common
ancestor of the taxon
• Derived Character State;
contrasting state of the character
arose later within the group
• Polarity; refers to identifying which
one of its contrasting states is
ancestral and which one(s) derived
- e.g. consider as a character the
teeth of vertebrates (reptiles,
birds, and mammals), presence
versus absence of teeth in the
jaws constitute alternative
character states
• Outgroup Comparison; method
used to examine the polarity of a
variable character
• Outgroup; an additional group of
organisms that is phylogenetically
close but not within the taxon
being studied
• Ingroup; the taxon being studied
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• Clade; fundamental unit of So u rc es of Phyl og en et ic I nf o rm a tion
phylogenetic grouping of species; A. C o m p a r a t i v e M o r p h o l o g y ;
it comprises an common ancestral examines the varying shapes and
lineage and all species descended sizes of organismal structures
from that lineage ✓ uses specimens obtained from
• Cladogram; a branching diagram b o t h l i v i n g o rg a n i s m s a n d
• Nested Hierarchy; pattern formed fossilized remains
by the derived states of all
characters within the ingroup
• Plesiomorphic; character states
ancestral for a taxon
• Symplesiomorphy; sharing of
ancestral states among species
• Synapomorphy; derived character
shared uniquely by all members of
a clade
• the cladogram is not strictly
equivalent to a phylogenetic tree,
w h o s e b r a n c h e s re p re s e n t re a l
lineages that occurred in the B. Comparative Biochemistry; uses
evolutionary past sequences of amino acids in proteins
• to obtain a phylogenetic tree we and the sequences of nucleotides in
must add to the cladogram: nucleic acids
1. i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g ✓ usually indirect, involving
ancestors immunological or allozymic
2. d u r a t i o n s o f e v o l u t i o n a r y methods, or inferences from
lineages DNA sequences of protein-
3. amounts of evolutionary change coding genes
that occurred on the lineages

C. Comparative Cytology (Karyology);

uses variation in the numbers,
shapes, and sizes of chromosomes
and their parts
✓ used exclusively on living
organisms

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10.4 Theories of Taxonomy • the relationship between a

• theory of taxonomy establishes the taxonomic group and a
principles that we use to recognize phylogenetic tree or cladogram is
and to rank taxonomic groups: important for both theories that
1. E v o l u t i o n a r y T a x o n o m y ; can take one of three forms:
predates phylogenetic 1. Monophyly
systematics and retains many ‣ if it includes the most
aspects of Linnaean taxonomy; recent common ancestor
for this reason, it is sometimes of the group and all
called “traditional evolutionary descendants of that
taxonomy” ancestor
‣ the terms “monophyletic
group” and “clade” are
synonymous
2. Paraphyly
‣ if it includes the most
recent common ancestor
of all members of a
group and some but not
all descendants of that
ancestor
3. Polyphyly
2. P h y l o g e n e t i c S y s t e m a t i c s ; ‣ if it does not include the
replacement for evolutionary most recent common
t a x o n o m y, w h i c h s o m e ancestor of all members
systematists considered arbitrary of a group
and misleading ‣ requires that the group
has had at least two
separate evolutionary
origins, usually requiring
i n d e p e n d e n t
evolutionary acquisition
of similar features
• monophyletic and paraphyletic
groups share the property of
c o n v e x i t y, w h i c h d i s t i n g u i s h e s
them from polyphyletic groups
- if you can trace a path between
any two members of the group
on a phylogenetic tree without
leaving the group
• Similarities of the two theories: - not convex is the formal
✓ accept monophyletic groups criterion for considering the
✓ reject polyphyletic groups group polyphyletic
• Difference of the two theories:
✓ on acceptance of paraphyletic
groups

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Evo lut i ona r y T a xo n om y
• retains the basic structure of
Linnaean taxonomy; species are
grouped in a nested hierarchy of
increasingly more inclusive higher
taxa
• the taxonomy is evolutionary
because all taxa must:
✓ have a single evolutionary
origin
✓ include the most recent
common ancestor of all
members of the taxon
✓ be convex on the phylogenetic
tree
• according to Simpson and Mayr, a
particular branch on an
evolutionary tree is considered a
higher taxon if it represents a
distinct adaptive zone
- “a characteristic reaction and
mutual relationship between
environment and organism, a
way of life and not a place
where life is led”
• a taxon that constitutes a distinct
adaptive zone is termed a grade
- e.g. penguins as a distinct
a d a p t i v e z o n e w i t h i n b i rd s
seeing that penguins
underwent changes in the form
of the body and wings to
switch from aerial to aquatic
locomotion
๏ (Figure 10.9). The pongid genera
Pan and Gorilla share more recent
common ancestry with the
Hominidae. This arrangement
makes the family Pongidae
paraphyletic because it excludes
humans, who also descend from
the most recent common ancestor
of all pongids.
• evolutionary taxa may be either
monophyletic or paraphyletic
Phylogenetic Systematics/ Cladistics
• Willi Hennig (entomologist)
formulated cladistic principles,
phylogenetic systematics called
Hennigian Systematics
must be monophyletic
• (Figure 10.9). Cladistic taxonomists
have discontinued use of the
traditional family Pongidae, placing
all of under family Pongidae
(chimpanzees, gorillas, and
orangutans) are grouped together
with humans in the family
Hominidae.
๏ e.g. What does it mean then to say
that humans evolved from apes?
➡ To an evolutionary taxonomist,
apes and humans are different
adaptive zones or grades of
organization; to say that
h u m a n s e v o l v e d f ro m a p e s
states that organisms of large
brain capacity evolved from
o rg a n i s m s o f s m a l l e r b r a i n
capacity
➡ To a cladist, it says that humans
evolved from a grouping of
species that lack the distinctive
characteristics of humans
• D a r w i n ’s T h e o r y o f C o m m o n
Descent states that evolution is a
branching process with no linear
scale of increasing perfection along
a single branch
• to express the common descent is
to find what is called the sister
group
✓ t w o d i ff e re n t m o n o p h y l e t i c
taxa are each other’s sister
group
✓ if they share common ancestry
with each other
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Current State of Animal Taxonomy
• the formal taxonomy of animals
that we use today was established
using the principles of evolutionary
systematics and has been revised
recently in part using the principles
of cladistics
• introduction of cladistic principles
changes includes:
✓ replacement of paraphyletic
groups with monophyletic
subgroups
✓ abandonment of Linnaean
ranks
• A new taxonomic system called
PhyloCode is being developed as
an alternative to Linnaean
taxonomy:
- this system replaces Linnaean
ranks with codes that denote
the nested hierarchy of
monophyletic groups conveyed
by a cladogram
- presents a rank-free taxonomy
• when discussing patterns of
descent we avoid:
✓ statements such as “mammals
evolved from reptiles” that
imply paraphyly and instead
s p e c i f y a p p r o p r i a t e s i s t e r-
group relationships
✓ calling groups of living
organisms primitive, advanced,
specialized, or generalized
because all groups of animals
contain combinations of
primitive, advanced,
specialized, and generalized
features
✓ calling a living species or
group of living species “basal,”
because no species or group is
more basal than its sister taxon
10.5 Major Divisions of Life
• a cladistic classification of all life-
forms has been proposed based on
phylogenetic information obtained
from molecular data
• W o e s e , K a n d l e r, a n d W h e e l i s
recognized three Monophyletic
Domains:
1. Eucarya (all eukaryotes)
2. Bacteria (the true bacteria)
3. Archaea (prokaryotes differing
from bacteria in membrane
structure and ribosomal RNA
sequences)
• a cladistic classification of all life-
forms has been proposed based on
phylogenetic information obtained
from molecular data
10.6 Major Subdivisions of the
Anima l King d om
• animal species occupy one of 34
currently recognized phyla
• each group is monophyletic
• Taxon Bilateria:
✓ comprises all phyla except
Placozoa, Porifera, Cnidaria,
and Ctenophora
✓ separates it into two taxa,
Deuterostomia and
Protostomia
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Chapter 11: Unicellular

Eukaryotes
• means of locomotion was used to
11.1 Naming and Identifying distinguish unicellular eukaryotes:
Unicellular 1. Flagellates
• evidence suggests that the origin
‣ use flagella
of the first eukaryote was followed
‣ long
by great diversification, the well-
2. Ciliates
supported clade Opisthokonta
‣ travel via ciliated body
includes the:
surface
1. Unicellular Choanoflagellates
‣ short
2. Multicellular Animals
3. Pseudopodia
3. Fungi
‣ protrusion of the surface
• clade Plantae includes the:
of an amoeba to move
1. Unicellular
a. Lobopodia;
2. Multicellular Members
➡ blunt-tipped
3. Red Algae
b. Filipodia;
4. Green Algae
➡ thin and sharply
5. Bryophytes
pointed
6. Vascular Plants
c. Rhizopodia;
• the two concepts, plantlike and
➡ b r a n c h e d
animal-like, refers to the way food
filaments
is gathered:
d. Reticulopodia;
1. Autotrophic
➡ b r a n c h e d
‣ synthesize their own
filaments, that
organic constituents
merge to form a
from inorganic
netlike structure
substrates
e. Axopodia;
‣ photosynthesis
➡ thin, pointed
2. Heterotrophic
pseudopodia that
‣ obtain organic
contain a central
molecules synthesized
longitudinal (axial)
by other organisms
filament of
‣ may ingest their food in:
microtubules
a. Phagocytosis;
called an
➡ particulate food is
axoneme
acquired via
• some investigators have preferred
infolding or
to call them both undulipodia
invagination of
(ciliates and flagellates) but:
the plasma
✓ cilium propels water parallel to
membrane to
the surface to which the cilium
surround a visible
is attached
food particle
✓ flagellum propels water parallel
➡ c a l l e d
to the main axis of the
p h a g o t ro p h s o r
flagellum
holzoic feeders
• a m o e b a s t h a t m a k e s h e l l s a re
b. Osmotrophy;
called testate
➡ ingest soluble
- Arcella and Difflugia have their
food
delicate plasma membrane
➡ c a l l e d
covered with a protective test
osmotrophs or
• amoebas without shells are called
saprozoic feeders
naked amoeba

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Characteristics of Unicellular Eukaryotes 10. Habitat • aquatic or terrestrial

habitat
1. Unicellular • some colonial, and • free-living or
some with symbiotic mode of
multicellular stages in life
their life cycles
• coloniality occurs 11. Reproduction • asexually by:
when cells divide, but - fission
remain together - budding
• multicellularity - cysts
requires: • sexually by:
1. coloniality - conjugation
2. cells capable - syngamy
of (union of male
reproduction and female
gametes to
2. Mostly • some are large form a zygote)
Microscopic enough to see with
the unaided eye

3. Symmetry • all symmetries

represented in the
group

4. No Germ
Layer

5. Specialized • no organs or tissues,

Organs but specialized
organelles are found
• nucleus single or
multiple

6. Symbiosis • free-living, mutualism,

commensalism,
parasitism

7. Locomotion • pseudopodia,
flagella, cilia, and
direct cell 

movements
• some sessile

8. Structure • some provided with a

simple endoskeleton
or exoskeleton, but 

most are naked

9. Nutrition • all types:

1. Autotrophic
2. Heterophic
3. Saprozoic

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11.2 Form and Function • the current explanation for

ciliary and flagellar movement
is the sliding-microtubule
Locomotion
hypothesis:
1. Cilia and Flagella
✓ the movement is
• internal structure:
powered by a release of
✓ each flagellum or cilium
chemical bond energy in
contains nine pairs of
ATP
l o n g i t u d i n a l
✓ two “arms” of dynein
microtubules arranged in
proteins are on each of
a circle around a central
the pairs of peripheral
pair
microtubules in the
✓ few notable exceptions,
axoneme and these bear
this “9 + 2” tube of
the enzyme adenosine
microtubules in a
triphosphatase (ATPase)
flagellum or cilium is
✓ when bond energy in
covered by a membrane
ATP is released, the
called axoneme
dynein proteins “walk
✓ the tube consists of nine
along” one of the
triplets of microtubules
microtubules in the
and is called a
adjacent pair, causing it
kinetosome (basal
to slide relative to the
body)
other microtubule in the
✓ kinetosomes may
pair
function as centrioles
✓ shear resistance,
✓ typical eukaryotic
causing the axoneme to
flagella and cilia have a
bend when the filaments
kinetosome at their base
slide past each other, is
• small metazoans use cilia:
provided by radial
1. Locomotion
“spokes” of another
2. To create water currents
microtubule-associated
for their feeding and
protein from each
respiration
doublet to the central
pair of fibrils

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2. Pseudopodia • pseudopodia vary in
• extensions of the cell composition:
cytoplasm used in locomotion 1. Lobopodia
and feeding ‣ large, blunt
• the cytoplasm is not extensions of the
homogeneous; can be cell body
distinguished as: ‣ containing both
1. Endoplasm endoplasm and
‣ appears more ectoplasm
granular and ‣ forms an
contains the extension of
nucleus and ectoplasm called
cytoplasmic hyaline cap
organelles 2. Filopodia
‣ more fluid ‣ thin branching
endoplasm in the extensions
sol state (solids ‣ c o n t a i n i n g
are suspended in ectoplasm
liquid) 3. Reticulopodia
2. Ectoplasm ‣ form a netlike
‣ appears more mesh
t r a n s p a re n t 4. Axopodia
(hyaline) ‣ long, thin
‣ bears the bases of ‣ supported by
the cilia or axial rods of
flagella microtubules
‣ more rigid in the
gel state of a
colloid (liquid is
suspended in
solid)

• the mammalian body depends

on ameboid white blood cells
for defense against disease,
movement by pseudopodia
occurs

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Fun c ti ona l C om po ne n ts o f Ce l l s o f II. Mitochondria

Unicellular Eukaryotes • an organelle used in recovering
I. Nucleus energy from carbon bonds of
• membrane-bound structure fuel molecules
whose interior communicates • oxygen serves as the terminal
with the cytoplasm by small electron acceptor
pores • contains DNA
• genetic material (DNA) is borne • Cristae; internal membranes of
on chromosomes a mitochondrion:
• c h ro m a t i n c l u m p s t o g e t h e r ✓ flat
irregularly, leaving some areas ✓ tubular
within the nucleus clear called ✓ discoid
vesicular ✓ branched (ramifying)
• in dinoflagellates, • cristae is considered a
chromosomes are visible homologous character
through interphase - used to describe
• within the nucleus, one or more particular taxa
nucleoli represent active • Hydrogenosomes; in cells
transcription of ribosomal RNA without mitocondria are
• ciliates possess two kinds of organelles that perfor m a
nuclei: re s p i r a t o r y f u n c t i o n i n t h e
1. Micronucleus absence of oxygen
‣ a germ line - mitochondria that lack
nucleus DNA are collectively
2. Macronucleus called mitosomes
‣ somatic nucleus - kinetoplasts is also a
‣ only genes of the mitochondrial derivative
macronucleus are
transcribed III. Golgi Compleex
‣ compact and • part of the endomembrane
condensed system that participates in:
✓ cellular secretory
processes
✓ intracellular digestion of
ingested food vacuoles
• also called dictyosomes

IV. Palastids
• containing a variety of
photosynthetic pigments
• occurred when cyanobacteria
was not digested
• chloroplasts contain different
versions of chlorophylls:
✓ a, b, or c
• gained by secondary
endosymbiosis

V. Extrusome
• membrane-bound organelles
extrude something from the
cell
• Trichocyst; in ciliates

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Nutrition Reproduction
A. Holozoic Nutrition; food particles • diploid cells undergo meiosis =
are brought into the cell by haploid gamete
phagocytosis • haploid gametes fuse = zygote
‣ Food Vacuole (Phagosome);
- food particle is A. F i s s i o n ; c e l l m u l t i p l i c a t i o n
contained in an p ro c e s s t h a t p ro d u c e s m o re
intracellular, membrane- individuals
bound vesicle A.1. Binary
‣ Lysosomes; - two identical
- small vesicles containing individuals
digestive enzymes A.2. Budding
- where digestion begins - a progeny cell
‣ Exocytosis; smaller than the
- undigestible material parent and then
released to the outside grows to adult
‣ Cytosome; size
- site of phagocytosis A.3. Multiple Fission
- definite mouth structure (Schizogony)
‣ Cytopyge (Cytoproct); - division of the
- structure for expulsion c y t o p l a s m
of waste matter (cytokinesis) is
B. S a p r o z o i c F e e d i n g ; u p t a k e o f preceded by
dissolved salts or nutrients by several nuclear
pinocytosis or by transport of divisions
solutes directly across the outer - number of
plasma membrane individuals are
‣ direct transport across a p r o d u c e d
membrane by: simultaneously
1. Diffusion - preceded by
2. Facilitated Transport union of gametes,
3. Active Transport called sporogony
- amitotic division
Exc r eti on a nd Os m or eg ul a t i o n process
• Contractile Vacuole; functions in
osmoregulation
• smaller species (greater surface-to-
volume) have more rapid filling and
expulsion rates
• end product of nitrogen
metabolism is ammonia

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B. S e x u a l P r o c e s s ; m e a n s f o r
genetic recombination
‣ Isogametes;
- gametes look
alike
‣ Anisogametes;
- not same gametes
‣ Zygotic Meiosis;
- divisions after
fertilization are
meiotic
- i n d i v i d u a l s
p r o d u c e d
asexually In some
‣ Intermediary Meiosis;
- haploid and
d i p l o i d
generations
asexually In some
‣ Syngamy;
- fertilization of
individual gamete
‣ Autogamy;
- gametic nuclei
arise by meiosis
fusing to form
zygote
‣ Conjugation;
- gametic nuclei
occurs between
pair organisms
(conjugants)

Enc y s t me nt and Ex c y st me n t
• Cysts; survival under harsh
conditions:
✓ food deficiency
✓ desiccation
✓ increase in osmotic pressure
✓ decrease in oxygen
concentration
✓ change in pH or temperature

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11.3 Major Unicellular Phylum Axostylata

Eukaryotic T ax a 1. Parabasalid
• evolution of a eukaryotic cell was ‣ have a stiffening rod of
followed by diversification into microtubules, axostyle
clades ‣ has modified region of golgi
• clades include: complex:
✓ Opisthokonta ✓ parabasal body
✓ Stramenopiles ✓ hydrogenosome
✓ Viridiplantae ✓ unique mitosis
✓ Red Algal ‣ e.g.
a. Trichomonas vaginalis in
urogenital tract
b. Pentatrichomonas hominis
inhabits the cecum and
colon of humans
c. Trichomonas tenax lives in
the mouth

Phylum Retortamonada and

D ip lo m o n a d s
1. Retortamonad
‣ include commensal and
parasitic unicells
‣ lack mitochondria and Golgi
bodies
‣ e.g. Chilomastix and
Retortamonas
2. Diplomonad
‣ lack mitochondria
‣ mitochondrial genes occur in
the nucleus thus a secondary
loss, not a primary absence
‣ e.g. Giardia inhabit the
digestive tract
H e t e r o lo b o s e a
• naked amebas whose pseudopodia
form abruptly, called “eruptive”
manner
• the life cycle of amoeboflagellates
or schizopyrenids includes:
✓ amebic
✓ flagellated stages
• e.g.
a. Naegleria gruberi the amebic
stage feeds on bacteria, but
once all local food is exhausted,
it transforms into a flagellated
cell within 90 minutes
b. Naegleria fowleri lives in hot
pools and causes primary
amebic meningoencephalitia

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Phylum Euglenazoa 2. Kinetoplasta

• considered a monophyletic group: ‣ named for the presence
✓ persistence of the nucleoli of a unique modified
during mitosis mitochondrion, the
✓ discoid mitochondrial cristae kinetoplast
• have a series of longitudinal ‣ carries large discs of
microtubules beneath the plasma DNA
membrane that help to stiffen the ‣ all parasites of plants or
membrane into a pellicle animals
• phylum is divided into two ‣ e.g.
subphyla: ✓ T . b r u c e i
1. Euglenida gambiense and T.
‣ chlorophyll b b r u c e i
‣ e.g. Euglena viridis lives rhodesiense cause
i s f re s h w a t e r s t re a m s African sleeping
and ponds where there sickness in
is vegetation h u m a n s
‣ flagellum extends from a transmitted by
flask-shaped reservoir at tsetse flies
the anterior end (Glossina spp.)
‣ kinetosome at the base ✓ Tr y p a n o s o m a
of each flagellum cruzi causes
‣ contractile vacuole Chagas’ disease
empties into the transmitted by
reservoir “kissing bugs”
‣ paramylon granules are ✓ Leishmania cause
masses of a starchlike infection affecting
food-storage material the liver and
‣ nutrition is autotrophic s p l e e n
(holophytic), but if kept transmitted by
in the dark the organism sand flies
uses saprozoic nutrition
‣ re p ro d u c e s b y b i n a r y
fission
‣ can encyst to survive
adverse environmental
conditions

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Stram en op i l es Phylum Ciliophora

• tubular mitochondrial cristae • body surface is covered with cilia
• stramenopiles are heterokont that beat in a coordinated,
having two different flagella, both rhythmical manner
inserted at the cell anterior • free-living in freshwater or marine
✓ the forward directed flagellum habitats commensal and parasitic
is long and hairy forms do occur
✓ the other is short and smooth • usually solitary and motile, but
and trails behind the cell some are sessile and others are
• the name stramenopile refers to colonial
three-part tubular hairs covering • the pellicle of ciliates consist of a
the flagellum plasma membrane
• clade collects energy with plastid • fused into a sheet called an
or lacks it and are heterotrophs: undulating membrane or into
✓ Brown Algae smaller membranelles
✓ Yellow Algae - used to propel food into the
✓ Diatoms cytopharynx (gullet)
• e.g. P. infestans causes potato late • fused cilia forming stiffened tufts
blight and was responsible for the called cirri
Irish potato famine - used in locomotion
• Stramenopiles is also home to • in addition to the kinetosomes
labyrinthulids, Oomycetes, (basal body), forms the
heliozoan infraciliature, just beneath the
• the name heliozoan refers to pellicle
testate amebas with axopodia: • Kinety; cilia, kinetosomes, and
✓ Actinophryida other fibrils of that ciliary row
✓ Actinosphaerium • ciliates are always multinucleate:
✓ Actinophrys a. Macronucleus
‣ responsible for
Alveola ta metabolic and
• sometimes called a superphylum, developmental functions
contains three phyla: ‣ divide amitotically
1. Ciliophora b. Micronucleus
‣ alveoli produce pellicle ‣ genes are never
2. Dinoflagellata transcribed
‣ alveoli produce thecal ‣ participate in sexual
plates reproduction and give
3. Apicomplexa rise to macronuclei
‣ alveoli have structural ‣ divide mitotically
functions • have small bodies in their
• united by the shared presence of: ectoplasm between the bases of
✓ alveoli the cilia:
✓ membrane- bound sacs a. Trichocysts
‣ expel a long, threadlike
structure
b. Toxicysts
‣ release a poison that
paralyzes the prey
• ciliates are holozoic possessing
cytostome (mouth)

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Suc t or i a ns F re e- L ivin g Ci li ate s

• ciliates that is: • e.g.
a. Young ✓ Stentor trumpet-shaped and
- possess cilia and are solitary, with a bead-shaped
free-swimming macronucleus
b. Adult ✓ Vo r t i c e l l a b e l l - s h a p e d a n d
- grow a stalk for attached by a contractile stalk
attachment, become ✓ Euplotes with a flattened body
sessile, and lose their and groups of fused cilia (cirri)
cilia that function as legs
• no cytostome but feed by long, ✓ Paramecia
slender, tubelike tentacles
• paralyze their prey and then ingest
t h e c o n t e n t s t h ro u g h t u b e l i k e
tentacles
• common genera of suctorians:
✓ Anarma (without stalk or test)
✓ Squalorophrya (with stalk and
test)
✓ Podophrya
✓ Dendrosoma
✓ Acinetopsis and Ephelota are
saltwater forms
• e.g.
✓ Trichophrya occur on various
invertebrates and freshwater
fish
✓ Allantosoma inhabits the
intestine of certain mammals
✓ Sphaerophrya found in Stentor

Sy mb io ti c C i l i a te s
• live as commensals, but some can
be harmful to their hosts
• e.g.
✓ Balantidium coli lives in the
large intestine of mamamals
by fecal contamination of food
or water
✓ Entodinium has very complex
structure and lives in the
digestive tract of ruminants
✓ Nyctotherus inhabits the colon
of frogs and toads
✓ Ichthyophthirius in aquarium
a n d w i l d f re s h w a t e r f i s h e s ,
causes a disease known to
many fish culturists as “ick”

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Form a nd F uncti o n i n P a r a me c i u m Reproduction in Paramecium

• described as slipper shaped • paramecia reproduce only by
• o rg a n i s m h a s a n a s y m m e t r i c a l binary fission across kineties
appearance because of the oral (ciliary rows) but have certain forms
groove, a depression that runs of sexual phenomena called
obliquely backward on the ventral conjugation and autogamy
side A. Binary Fission
• pellicle ‣ micronucleus divides
• surface is covered with cilia mitotically into two
• ectoplasm that surrounds the larger daughter micronuclei
mass of granular endoplasm ‣ macronucleus elongates
• trichocysts embedded in ectoplasm and divides amitotically
• two contractile vacuoles, each B. Conjugation
consisting of a central space ‣ temporary union of two
surrounded by several radiating individuals to exchange
canals that collect fluid and empty chromosomal material
it into the central vacuole ‣ during the union the
• number of micronuclei varies in m a c r o n u c l e u s
different species; for example, P. disintegrates
multimicronucleatum may have as ‣ the micronucleus of each
many as seven individual undergoes
• holozoic feeding process: meiosis
1. cilia in the oral groove sweep ‣ producing four haploid
food particles in the water into micronuclei, three of
the cytostome which degenerate
2. f o o d i s c a r r i e d i n t o t h e ‣ the remaining
cytopharynx by the undulating micronucleus divides
membrane into two haploid
3. store into a food vacuole that is pronuclei, one of which
constricted into the endoplasm is exchanged with the
4. indigestible food are ejected other conjugant
through the cytoproct ‣ the pronuclei fuse to
• moves forward in a spiral path restore the diploid
• Av o i d i n g R e a c t i o n ; p a r a m e c i a number of chromosomes
movement stimuli: ‣ similar to that of zygote
a. Hyperpolarize- increase forward formation, for each
ciliary rate exconjugant contains
b. Depolarize- ciliary reversal hereditary material from
two individuals
C. Autogamy
‣ process of self-
fertilization
‣ similar to conjugation
except that there is no
exchange of nuclei
‣ two haploid pronuclei
fuse to form a synkaryon
that is completely
homozygous

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Phylum Dinoflagellate
• dinoflagellate species are:
✓ photoautotrophic
✓ colorless and heterotrophic
• commonly have two flagella:
✓ equatorial
✓ longitudinal
• body may be naked or covered by
cellulose plates or valves
• e.g
✓ Ceratium has a thick covering
with long spines, into which the
body extends, but it can catch
food with posterior
pseudopodia and ingest it
✓ Noctiluca colorless, is a
voracious predator and has a
long, motile tentacle
✓ Noctiluca can produce light
(bioluminescence)
✓ Pfiesteria piscicida affect fish in
brackish waters feeding on
algae and bacteria, but
something in the excreta of
large fish schools causes it to
release a toxin killing fish
• planktonic primary producers in
freshwater and marine
environments

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Phylum Apicomplexa Toxoplasma Gondii

• endoparasites and their hosts
include many animal phyla
• presence of a certain combination
of organelles, the apical complex
distinguishes this phylum
- occurs in merozoites and
sporozoites
- rhoptries and micronemes aid
in penetrating the host’s cells
or tissues
• pseudopodia occur in some
intracellular stages, and gametes of
some species are flagellated
• life cycle includes both asexual and
sexual reproduction
- organisms develop a spore
(oocyst), which is infective for
the next host
• similar life cycle occurs in
Toxoplasma gondii, a parasite of
cats,
• ingestion of sporozoites:
1. rapid asexual reproduction in
the intestine
2. h o s t m o u n t s a n i m m u n e
response, reproduction of the
zoites slows, and becoming
enclosed in tough tissue cysts
3. bradyzoites accumulate in large
numbers in each tissue cyst
• consumption of infected meat
insufficiently cooked
• T. gondii is one of the most
important opportunistic infections
in AIDS patients

Class Coccidea
• intracellular parasites in
invertebrates and vertebrates
• e.g.
✓ Eimeria which generally affects
birds
✓ To x o p l a s m a w h i c h c a u s e s
toxoplasmosis, a disease
affecting cats and humans
✓ Plasmodium organism that
causes malaria

Ei mer i a S p eci es
• “coccidiosis” is generally applied
only to infections:
a. Isospora infections can be very
serious in AIDS patients
b. E i m e r i a c a u s e d i a r r h e a o r
dysentery
• process of schizogony:
1. schizogony produces gametes.
2. after fertilization, the zygote
forms an oocyst that exits its
host via the feces
3. sporogony occurs within the
oocyst outside the host,
producing eight sporozoites in
each oocyst

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P l a s m o d i u m: The Malarial Organism

• Plasmodium spp., causative
organisms of the most important
infectious disease of humans:
malaria (or cerebral malaria)
• four species of Plasmodium infect
humans:
✓ P. falciparum
✓ P. vivax
✓ P. malariae
✓ P. ovale
• parasite is carried by mosquitoes
(Anopheles):
1. sporozoites penetrate liver cells
and initiate schizogony
2. period when the parasites are in Cercozoa
the liver is the incubation period • members of phylum Cercozoa do
3. merozoites released as a result not share a common body plan
of liver schizogony • there are flagellated and ameboid
4. entering red blood cells, they members
become ameboid trophozoites, • ameboid members of the group
feeding on hemoglobin may be naked or testate
‣ end product of the is a • testate amebas include:
dark, insoluble pigment, ✓ Euglypha makes a test from
hemozoin collected particles
5. a trophozoite within a red blood ✓ Clathrulina has a siliceous
cell grows and undergoes capsule
schizogony, producing 6 to 36 • radiolarians are marine amebas
merozoites with silica skeletonss to a group of
6. when a red blood cell containing organisms, called desmothoracids
merozoites bursts, it releases the
parasite’s metabolic products
F or am in if e ra
7. infection of new cells by some of
• an ancient group of shelled amebas
the merozoites causes
found in all oceans
production of microgametocytes
• existed in Precambrian times
and macrogametocytes
• slender pseudopodia form a
8. when gametocytes are ingested
protoplasmic net (reticulopodia)
by a mosquito feeding on a
- in which they ensnare their
patient’s blood, they mature into
prey
gametes and fertilization occurs
• an ancient group of shelled amebas
9. z y g o t e b e c o m e s a m o t i l e
found in all oceans
ookinete, which penetrates the
• tests are many chambered and are
stomach wall of the mosquito
made of calcium carbonate
and becomes an oocyst
• they have multiple fission and
10.within the oocyst, sporogony
alternation of haploid and diploid
occurs, and thousands of
generations (intermediary meiosis)
sporozoites are produced
• about a third of the seafloor is
11.o o c y s t r u p t u r e s , a n d t h e
covered with shells of the genus
sporozoites migrate to the
Globigerina
salivary glands of the mosquito
• foraminiferans identification is
important for identifying rock strata

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Radiolaria • Volvox a green, hollow sphere

• marine testate amebas with • each cell is much like a euglenid
axopodia ✓ with a nucleus
• radiolarians have a body divided by ✓ a pair of flagella
a central capsule (the test or ✓ large chloroplast
skeleton) that separates inner and ✓ red stigma
outer zones of the cytoplasm • Volvox has a complete division of
• sticky axopodia capture prey items labor:
• solitary radiolarians - small, haploid, motile,
- feed on bacteria, micro-algae photosynthetic, somatic cells
and micro-flagellates are embedded in an
• colonial radiolarians extracellular matrix (ECM) to
- collect nutrients from symbiotic form a sphaeroid body
algae - 16 large, haploid, nonmotile
• contain one or many nuclei reproductive cells called
• radiolaria identification is gonidia are embedded
important for identifying age of beneath the somatic cells
rock strata • u p o n g e r m i n a t i o n , t h e re s t i n g
stage undergoes meiosis to
Plantae produce a single viable haploid
• c l a d e P l a n t a e c o m p r i s e s t h re e “germling” that undergoes
photosynthetic lineages: cleavage to make a new sphaeroid
1. Glaucophytes • sexual reproduction takes place
2. Rhodophytes (Red Algae) only periodically
3. Viridiplantae
• Plantae is sometimes called
Archaeplastida in reference to the
ancient primary symbiosis with a
cyanobacterium that produced the
chloroplasts of photosynthetic
eukaryotes

V ir id ip la n t a e
• Chlamydomonas is a unicellular
biflagellate cell
• colony formation in green algae
occurs:
- w h e n t h e p ro d u c t s o f c e l l
division maintain cytoplasmic
bridges between cells and cells
sit within an extracellular
matrix (ECM)
• t r u e m u l t i c e l l u l a r i t y re q u i re s a
division of labor among cells: some
cells become the germ line and
others become the somatic line
• e.g.
✓ Volvox carteri
✓ Gonium
✓ Eudorina
✓ Pandorina

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Centrohelida (Heliozoa) Opisthokonta

• Heliozoa was a larger group of • Opisthokonta characterized by a
testate amebas forming axopodia combination of flatgened
• former members of Heliozoa have mitochondrial cristae and one
been moved to: posterior flagellum
1. Stramenopiles (actinophryids) • Opisthokonta contains:
2. Cercozoa (desmothoracids) ✓ animals
• Centrohelids are amebas with ✓ fungi
flattened mitochondrial cristae ✓ unicellular taxa
• s t r u c t u re o f t h e i r a x o p o d i a i s a. Microsporidians
distinctive: ➡ intracellular parasites
- microtubules within the b. Choanoflagellates
axoneme are arranged in ➡ solitary or colonial
hexagons or triangles in this eukaryotes
group ➡ sister taxon to the
• lives in freshwater animals (metazoans)
➡ used to test hypotheses
of how animal
Amoeb ozoa
multicellularity arose
• Amoebozoans include naked and
testate amebas, as well as amebas
with flagellated stages in the life
cycle
• have branched tubular
mitochondrial cristae
• e.g.
✓ Acanthamoeba castellani kills
cells of the human cornea and
is spread by contact lenses that
are not properly disinfected
✓ Entamoeba histolytica lives in
the large intestine and on
occasion can invade the
intestinal wall by secreting
enzymes that attack the
intestinal lining
✓ E. coli in the intestine
✓ E. gingivalis in the mouth

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11.4 Phylogeny and Adaptive Ad a p tive D iversifica tion

D iv e r s if ic a t io n • wide range of adaptations in this
chapter:
✓ amebas range from seafloor-
Phylogeny
• eukaryote diversified into many dwelling
morphologically distinct clades, ✓ naked species to planktonic
although the branching order for forms such as foraminiferans
diversification is still poorly and radiolarians
understood • in a single-cell body plan, the
• one must be able to distinguish an division of labor and specialization
ancient organelle through of organelles are carried furthest by
secondary symbioses structurally complex ciliates
• now assumed that all • intracellular parasitism have been
amitochondriate unicellular adopted by Apicomplexa
eukaryotes had ancestors with
mitochondria
• presence of plastids resulted from
primary endosymbiotic event with a
cyanobacterium that was followed
by secondary and tertiary
endosymbiotic events that
transferred plastids among
eukaryotic lineages
• new molecular data sets, suggests
that many eukaryotic lineages now
can be combined into a few
eukaryotic supergroups
• union of Stramenopiles, Alveolata,
and Rhizaria into the group SAR
has been proposed
• one recent study placed Plantae as
the sister taxon to SAR

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Taxonomy of Unicellular Eukaryotes 5. Phylum • with cortical

Euglenozoa microtubules
1. Phylum • mitochondria and • flagella of ten with
Retortamonada golgi bodies lacking paraxial rod
• three anterior and • mitochondria with
one recurrent discoid cristae
(running toward • nucleoli persist
posterior) flagellum during mitosis
lying in a groove • Subphylum
• intestinal parasites or Euglinida:
free-living - pellicular
• e.g. Retortamonas microtubules
that stiffen
2. Phylum • one or two pellicle
Diplomonada karyomastigonts • Subphylum
(group of Kinetoplasta:
kinetosomes with a - mitochondrion
nucleus) containing a
• individual mastigonts large disc of
with one to four DNA
flagella - paraxial rod
• mitotic spindle within • e.g. Euglena,
nucleus Leishmania,
• cysts present Trypanosoma
• free-living or
parasitic. 6. Phylum • flagellates with two
• e.g. Giardia Stramenopiles different flagella,
one long and one
3. Phylum • large Golgi bodies short
Parabasala associated with • forward flagellum is
karymastigont covered with tubular
• thousands of flagella. three-part hairs
• e.g. Trichomona • mitochondria with
• tubular cristae
• free-living and
4. Phylum • naked amebas with parasitic plant-like
Heterolobosea eruptive and animal-like
pseudopodia forms.
• life cycle includes • Oomycetes belong
both amebic and to this group.
flagellated stages • e.g. Phytophthora
• group members infestans,
called Actinosphaerium,
amoeboflagellates or Actinophrys
schizopyrenids
• e.g. Naegleria
fowleri, Naegleria
gruberi

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7. Phylum • ciliary organelles in 9. Phylum • characteristic set of

Ciliophora at least one stage of Apicomplexa organelles (apical
life cycle complex)
• two types of nuclei • cilia and flagella
• binary fission absent
involving budding • cysts often present
and multiple fission • all parasitic
• sexuality involving • phylum is within
conjugation, clade Alveolata
autogamy, and • e.g. Plasmodium,
cytogamy Gregarina, Eimeria
• nutrition
heterotrophic 10. Phylum • heterogeneous in
• contractile vacuole Cercozoa lifestyle and
present morphology
• free-living, • monophyly
commensal, parasitic • free-living, parasitic.
• phylum is within • e.g. Euglypha,
clade Alveolata Clathrulina
• e.g.Paramecium,
11. Phylum • shelled amebas
Stentor, Vorticella,
Foraminifera • slender pseudopodia
8. Phylum • two flagella, that extend through
Dinoflagellata transverse and many openings in
trailing the test, forming a
• body usually net that ensnares
grooved transversely prey
and longitudinally, • e.g. Vertebralina,
each groove Globigerina
containing a
12. Phylum • well-developed
flagellum
• Foraminifera internal skeleton of
chromoplasts
strontium sulfate or
bearing chlorophylls
silica
a and c
• axopodia are present
• nucleus having
• e.g. Tetrapyle,
chromosomes that
Pterocorys
lack or have low
levels of histones
13. Phylum • unicellular and
• mitosis intranuclear
Viridiplantae multicellular
• sexual reproduction
photoautotrophs
present
• chlorophylls a and b
• members free-living,
• e.g. Volvox, Zea
planktonic, parasitic,
mays
or mutualistic
• phylum is within
clade Alveolata
• e.g. Ceratium,
Noctiluca

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14. Phylum • flattened

Centrohelida mitochondrial cristae
• axoneme of
axopodia with
microtubules
arranged in
hexagons or
triangles
• freshwater, some
marine
• e.g. Acanthocystis,
Pterocystis,
Heterophrys

14. Phylum • naked and shelled

Amoebozoa amebas
• flagellated stages in
life cycle
• tubular and branched
cristae mitochondria,
• free-living and
parasitic
• e.g. Entamoeba

15. Phylum • flagellates with one

Opisthokonta posterior flagellum
• e.g. Penicillium,
Choanoflagellates,
fungi, animals

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