o In an experimental investigation of a dynamic system, if cause and

effect are proportional, thus implying that the principle of

superposition holds, then the system can be considered linear.

Linear Time-Invariant Systems & Linear Time-Varying Systems :

A differential equation is linear if the coefficients are constants or

functions only of the independent variable. (1)

o Dynamic systems that are composed of linear time-invariant

lumped-parameter components may be described by linear time-
invariant differential equations—that is, constant-coefficient
differential equations. Such systems are called linear time-invariant
(or linear constant-coefficient) systems.
o Systems that are represented by differential equations whose
coefficients are functions of time are called linear time-varying
systems. An example of a time-varying control system is a spacecraft
control system. (The mass of a spacecraft changes due to fuel
consumption.)
Modeling of Dynamic Systems:

1. Differential Equation
A differential equation is a mathematical equation for an unknown
function of one or several variables that relates the values of the
function itself and its derivatives of various orders. (2)

2. Block Diagram
A block diagram is a diagram of a system, in which the principal parts
or functions are represented by blocks connected by lines that show
the relationships of the blocks. (3)

They are heavily used in the engineering world in hardware design,

electronic design, software design, and process flow diagrams. The
block diagram is typically used for a higher level, less detailed
description aimed more at understanding the overall concepts and less
at understanding the details of implementation.
For example, a controlled system can be described by the following:
3. Transfer function
A transfer function (also known as the system function or network
function) is a mathematical representation, of the relation between the
input and output of a linear time-invariant (LTI) system. (4)

o Transfer functions are commonly used in the analysis of systems

such as single-input single-output (SISO) filters, typically within the
fields of signal processing, communication theory, and control
theory.
The term is often used exclusively to refer to linear time-invariant
(LTI) systems. Most real systems have non-linear input/output
characteristics, but many systems, when operated within nominal
parameters (not "over-driven") have behavior that is close enough to
linear that LTI system theory is an acceptable representation of the
input/output behavior. In its simplest form for continuous-time input
signal r(t) and output c(t), the transfer function G(s) is the linear
mapping of the Laplace transform of the input R(s) to the Laplace
transform of the output C(s):
4. State-space equations
For single-input, single-output (SISO) systems, the state-space
representation is given by the equations:

𝑥 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑢 and 𝑦 = 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷 𝑢 (5)

o where 𝑥 is an n by 1 vector representing the state (commonly

position and velocity variables in mechanical systems), u is a scalar
representing the input (commonly a force or torque in mechanical
systems), and y is a scalar representing the output.
The matrices 𝐴 (𝑛 × 𝑛) , 𝐵 (𝑛 × 1) , 𝐶 (1 × 𝑛) and D (scalar)
determine the relationships between the state and input and output
variables. Note that there are n first-order differential equations. State
space representation can also be used for systems with multiple inputs
and outputs (MIMO).

Example: Suppose we have a simple mass, spring, and damper system

as shown below. Find the models of the system.
a. Differential Equation
The modeling equation of this system is:

M𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝐹 (6)

b. Transfer Function
Taking the Laplace transform of the modeling equation:
M 𝑠 2 𝑋 𝑠 + 𝑏𝑠𝑋 𝑠 + 𝑘𝑋 𝑠 = 𝐹(𝑠) (7)

The transfer function between the displacement X(s) and the input
F(s) then becomes :
𝑋(𝑠) 1
=
𝐹(𝑠) 𝑀𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑘 (8)

Let M = 1kg, b = 10 Ns/m, k = 20 N/m. If the input force is unit impulse

force, F(s) = 1. Plug these values into the above transfer function:
𝑋(𝑠) 1
= 2
𝐹(𝑠) 𝑠 + 10𝑠 + 20 (9)
c. Block Diagram
Taking the Laplace transform of the modeling equation:

The plant transfer function is (with input 𝑢 = 𝐹, output 𝑌 = 𝑋):

𝑌(𝑠) 1
= 2
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑠 + 10𝑠 + 20 (10)
Partial-Fraction Expansion:
o Before we present MATLAB approach to the partial-fraction
expansions of transfer functions, we discuss the manual approach to
the partial-fraction expansions of transfer functions.

o In control theory, we usually have:

(11)

where 𝑝𝑖 and 𝑧𝑖 are either real or complex quantities, but for each
complex 𝑝𝑖 or 𝑧𝑖 there will occur the complex conjugate of 𝑝𝑖 or 𝑧𝑖 ,
respectively.
To find the inverse Laplace transform of a complicated function, we can
convert the function to a sum of simpler terms for which we know the
Laplace transform of each term. The result is called a partial-fraction
𝑁(𝑠)
expansion. If 𝐹1 𝑠 = , where the order of 𝑁(𝑠) is less than
𝐷(𝑠)
the order of 𝐷(𝑠), then a partial-fraction expansion can be made.

Case 1: Partial-Fraction Expansion when F(s) Involves Distinct Poles

Only.

If 𝐹 𝑠 involves distinct poles only, then it can be expanded into a sum

of simple partial fractions as follows:

(12)
where 𝑎𝑘 ’s are constant and are called residue at the pole at 𝑠 = −𝑝𝑘

(13)

Since 𝑓(𝑡) is a real function of time, if 𝑝1 and 𝑝2 are complex conjugates,

then the residues 𝑎1 and 𝑎2 are also complex conjugates. Only one of
the conjugates, 𝑎1 or 𝑎2 , needs to be evaluated.
 (a)

where 𝑎1 and 𝑎2 are found as:

(14)

Thus, from Eq. (a)

 (15)

Case 2: Partial-Fraction Expansion when F(s) Involves Multiple Poles

Instead of discussing the general case, we shall use an example to

show how to obtain the partial-fraction expansion of F(s).

The partial-fraction expansion of this 𝐹(𝑠) involves three terms,

 (16)

Multiplying (𝑠 + 1)3 on both sides, one has:

Therefore, 𝑏1 = 1, 𝑏2 = 0 and 𝑏3 = 2.

(17)
 (a)

Multiply 𝑠 on both sides and let 𝑠 = 0, then we have 𝑎 = 1.

Multiply 𝑠(𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 2) on both sides, then we have
2 = 𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑐 𝑠. Therefore, 𝑏 = −1, and c = −2.

Thus, from Eq. (a)

(18)
1. By using the final value theorem

(19)

2. By having partial-fraction expansion

(a)

10 5 5
𝑎1 = , 𝑎2 = − and 𝑎3 = −
3 2 6

Thus, from Eq. (a)

(20)