AEM Chapter17ComplexVariablesV48 PDF

EEEE709 Advanced Engineering Math
Dr. Eli Saber

Department of Electrical and Microelectronic Engineering
Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science
Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY 14623 USA
esseee@rit.edu
Functions of a Complex
Chapter 17
Variable
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 2

Ch. 17 Outline
17.1 Complex Numbers (Low Priority)

17.2 Powers & Roots (Medium Priority)
17.3 Sets in the Complex Plane (Medium Priority)
17.4 Functions of a Complex Variable (Medium Priority)
17.5 Cauchy-Riemann Equations (High Priority)
17.6 Exponential & Logarithmic Functions (High Priority)
17.7 Trigonometric & Hyperbolic Functions (Medium Priority)
17.8 Inverse Trigonometric & Hyperbolic Functions (Self Study)
Prerequisite: Math 381 - Complex Variables or Equivalent

Section 17.1
Chapter 17
Complex Numbers

17.1 Complex Numbers
Solve:
• 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 = −2 or sin(𝑥𝑥) = 5 or −9
Not possible in real analysis but perfectly correct & ordinary in complex analysis.
How about:
∞ 2𝜋𝜋 ∞
𝑥𝑥 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 1 1
� 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 � 2
𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 � 2 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
−∞ 𝑥𝑥 + 9 0 2 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃 −∞ (𝑥𝑥 + 1)(𝑥𝑥 + 9)
Or:
• Inverse Z-Transforms
• Inverse Fourier Transforms
• Inverse Laplace Transforms
Definition: A complex number is any number of the form
𝒛𝒛 = 𝒙𝒙 + 𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋
where “x” and “y” are real numbers and “j” is the imaginary unit [Note: 𝑗𝑗 2 = −1]
⇒ 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑦𝑦
Example: 𝑧𝑧1 = 1 + 2𝑗𝑗 ; 𝑧𝑧2 = 2 − 3𝑗𝑗; 𝑧𝑧3 = 4𝑗𝑗

Purely Imaginary
Definition - “Equality”: Complex numbers 𝑧𝑧1 and 𝑧𝑧2 are equal (i.e. 𝑧𝑧1 = 𝑧𝑧2 ) if
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑧𝑧1 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑧𝑧2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑧𝑧1 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑧𝑧2

Example: 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧1 = 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦1 and 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦2
Then: 𝑧𝑧1 = 𝑧𝑧2 iff 𝑥𝑥1 = 𝑥𝑥2 and 𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑦𝑦2
e.g. 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 0 if 𝑥𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑦𝑦 = 0

Let 𝑧𝑧1 = 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦1 and 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦2
 Addition:
𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑧𝑧2 = (𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦1 ) + 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦2 𝑧𝑧1 +𝑧𝑧2 = (𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑥𝑥2 ) + j 𝑦𝑦1 + 𝑦𝑦2
 Substraction:
𝑧𝑧1 − 𝑧𝑧2 = (𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦1 ) - 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦2 𝑧𝑧1 − 𝑧𝑧2 = (𝑥𝑥1 − 𝑥𝑥2 ) + j 𝑦𝑦1 − 𝑦𝑦2
 Multiplication:
𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 = (𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦1 ) 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦2 = 𝑥𝑥1 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑥𝑥1 𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑥𝑥2 𝑦𝑦1 + 𝑗𝑗 2 𝑦𝑦1 𝑦𝑦2 (𝑗𝑗 2 = -1)
𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑥𝑥1 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑦𝑦1 𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑗𝑗(𝑥𝑥1 𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑥𝑥2 𝑦𝑦1 )
 Division: 𝑧𝑧�2
𝑧𝑧1 𝑥𝑥1 +𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦1 𝑥𝑥1 +𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦1 𝑥𝑥2 −𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦2 𝑥𝑥1 𝑥𝑥2 −𝑗𝑗𝑥𝑥1 𝑦𝑦2 +𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦1 𝑥𝑥2 +𝑦𝑦1 𝑦𝑦2 𝑥𝑥1 𝑥𝑥2 +𝑦𝑦1 𝑦𝑦2 +𝑗𝑗[𝑦𝑦1 𝑥𝑥2 −𝑥𝑥1 𝑦𝑦2 ]
= = = =
𝑧𝑧2 𝑥𝑥2 +𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦2 𝑥𝑥2 +𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦2 𝑥𝑥2 −𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦2 𝑥𝑥22 −𝑗𝑗𝑥𝑥2 𝑦𝑦2 +𝑗𝑗𝑥𝑥2 𝑦𝑦2 +𝑦𝑦22 𝑥𝑥22 +𝑦𝑦22
𝑧𝑧1 𝑥𝑥1 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑦𝑦1 𝑦𝑦2 𝑦𝑦1 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 𝑦𝑦2

= + 𝑗𝑗
𝑧𝑧2 𝑥𝑥22 + 𝑦𝑦22 𝑥𝑥22 + 𝑦𝑦22

• Commutative Laws: 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 +𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 = 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 + 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 and 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 = 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏
Proof: 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 + 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 = (𝑥𝑥1 +𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦1 ) + ( 𝑥𝑥2 +𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦2 ) = (𝑥𝑥1 +𝑥𝑥2 ) + 𝑗𝑗(𝑦𝑦1 + 𝑦𝑦2 )
= 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦1 = 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 + 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏
Proof: 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 = (𝑥𝑥1 +𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦1 )( 𝑥𝑥2 +𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦2 ) = 𝑥𝑥1 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑥𝑥1 𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑥𝑥2 𝑦𝑦1 + 𝑗𝑗 2 𝑦𝑦1 𝑦𝑦2
= 𝑥𝑥1 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑥𝑥2 𝑦𝑦1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦2 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑗𝑗 2 𝑦𝑦1 𝑦𝑦2
= 𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦2 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦1 = (𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦2 ) 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦1 = 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏
• Associative Laws: (Can be similarly proven)

• 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 + 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 + 𝒛𝒛𝟑𝟑 = (𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 +𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 ) + 𝒛𝒛𝟑𝟑
• 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 𝒛𝒛𝟑𝟑 = (𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 )𝒛𝒛𝟑𝟑
• Distributive Laws: 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 + 𝒛𝒛𝟑𝟑 = 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 + 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 𝒛𝒛𝟑𝟑

Proof: 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 + 𝒛𝒛𝟑𝟑 = (𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦1 ) 𝑥𝑥2 +𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑥𝑥3 +𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦3
= (𝑥𝑥1 +𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦1 )(𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦2 ) + (𝑥𝑥1 +𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦1 )(𝑥𝑥3 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦3 ) = 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 + 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 𝒛𝒛𝟑𝟑

Zero: 𝒛𝒛 = 𝟎𝟎 + 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃 𝟎𝟎
Unity: 𝒛𝒛 = 𝟏𝟏 + 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃 𝟏𝟏
Let 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
• Zero is the Additive Identity:

𝒛𝒛 + 𝟎𝟎 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 0 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑎𝑎 + 0 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 0 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝒛𝒛
• Unity is the Multiplicative Identity:

(𝒛𝒛)(𝟏𝟏) = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑎𝑎 + 0 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 0 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝒛𝒛
• Additive Inverse: −𝑧𝑧 = −𝑎𝑎 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

𝒛𝒛 + −𝒛𝒛 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + −𝑎𝑎 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝟎𝟎
1
• Multiplicative Inverse: 𝑧𝑧 −1 = 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 −1 = 1 𝑧𝑧 ≠ 0
𝑧𝑧
1 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑎𝑎 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑎𝑎2 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 𝑏𝑏2 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏2

𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛−𝟏𝟏 = 𝑧𝑧 = = = = = 𝟏𝟏
𝑧𝑧 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑎𝑎 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑎𝑎2 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 𝑏𝑏2 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏2
Example 1:
Let 𝑧𝑧1 = 2 + 4𝑗𝑗 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧2 = −3 + 8𝑗𝑗 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧3 = 1 − 3𝑗𝑗
• 𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑧𝑧2 = 2 + 4𝑗𝑗 + −3 + 8𝑗𝑗 = 2 − 3 + 𝑗𝑗 4 + 8 = −1 + 12𝑗𝑗
• 𝑧𝑧1 − 𝑧𝑧2 = 2 + 4𝑗𝑗 − −3 + 8𝑗𝑗 = 2 + 3 + 𝑗𝑗 4 − 8 = 5 − 4𝑗𝑗
• 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 = 2 + 4𝑗𝑗 −3 + 8𝑗𝑗 = −6 + 16j − 12j + 32𝑗𝑗 2

= −6 − 32 + 𝑗𝑗 16 − 12 = −38 + 4𝑗𝑗
• 𝑧𝑧1 (𝑧𝑧2 + 𝑧𝑧3 ) = 2 + 4𝑗𝑗 −3 + 8j + 1 − 3j

= 2 + 4𝑗𝑗 −2 + 5𝑗𝑗 = −4 + 10𝑗𝑗 − 8𝑗𝑗 − 20 = −24 + 2𝑗𝑗
𝑧𝑧1 2+4𝑗𝑗 2+4𝑗𝑗 −3−8𝑗𝑗 −6−16𝑗𝑗−12𝑗𝑗+32 26−28𝑗𝑗 26 28

• = = = = = − 𝑗𝑗
𝑧𝑧2 −3+8𝑗𝑗 −3+8𝑗𝑗 −3−8𝑗𝑗 9+64 73 73 73
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 10

Let 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗. Its conjugate is: 𝑧𝑧̅ = 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 (Other Notation: 𝑧𝑧 ∗ )
Example: 𝑧𝑧 = 2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗 → 𝑧𝑧̅ = 2 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑧𝑧 = 7 → 𝑧𝑧 = 7 + 𝑗𝑗0 → 𝑧𝑧̅ = 7 − 𝑗𝑗0 = 7
𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵: 𝒛𝒛 = 𝒛𝒛� for real numbers
Properties:
𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 + 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 = 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 + 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐
Proof:
𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 + 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 = 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦1 + (𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦2 ) = 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑗(𝑦𝑦1 + 𝑦𝑦2 ) = x1 + x2 − j(y1 + y2 )
= 𝑥𝑥1 − 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦1 + 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦2 = 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 + 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 11

𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 − 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 = 𝒛𝒛� 𝟏𝟏 − 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐
Proof
𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 −𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 = 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦1 − (𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦2 ) = 𝑥𝑥1 −𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑦𝑦1 −𝑦𝑦2
= 𝑥𝑥1 −𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑗𝑗 𝑦𝑦1 − 𝑦𝑦2 = 𝑥𝑥1− 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗1 _ 𝑥𝑥2− 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗2 = 𝒛𝒛� 𝟏𝟏 − 𝒛𝒛� 𝟐𝟐
𝑧𝑧̅1 𝑧𝑧̅2
𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 = 𝒛𝒛� 𝟏𝟏 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐
Proof
𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 = 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦1 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦2 = 𝑥𝑥1 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑥𝑥1 𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦1 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑦𝑦1 𝑦𝑦2
= 𝑥𝑥1 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑦𝑦1 𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑗𝑗(𝑥𝑥1 𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑦𝑦1 𝑥𝑥2 ) = 𝑥𝑥1 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑦𝑦1 𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑗𝑗 𝑥𝑥1 𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑦𝑦1 𝑥𝑥2
= 𝑥𝑥1 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑦𝑦1 𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑗𝑗𝑥𝑥1 𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦1 𝑥𝑥2 = 𝑥𝑥1 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦1 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦2
= 𝑥𝑥1 − 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦1 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦2 = 𝒛𝒛� 𝟏𝟏 𝒛𝒛� 𝟐𝟐
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 12

𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏
= 𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏:
𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 𝑥𝑥1 +𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗1 (𝑥𝑥1 +𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦1 )(𝑥𝑥2 −𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦2 )
= =
𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 𝑥𝑥2 +𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗2 (𝑥𝑥2 +𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦2 )(𝑥𝑥2 −𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦2 )
𝑥𝑥1 𝑥𝑥2 −𝑗𝑗𝑥𝑥1 𝑦𝑦2 +𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗1 𝑥𝑥2 +𝑦𝑦1 𝑦𝑦2 𝑥𝑥1 𝑥𝑥2 +𝑦𝑦1 𝑦𝑦2 𝑗𝑗 𝑦𝑦1 𝑥𝑥2 −𝑥𝑥1 𝑦𝑦2
= = +
𝑥𝑥22 +𝑦𝑦22 𝑥𝑥22 +𝑦𝑦22 𝑥𝑥22 +𝑦𝑦22
𝑥𝑥1 𝑥𝑥2 +𝑦𝑦1 𝑦𝑦2 𝑗𝑗 𝑦𝑦1 𝑥𝑥2 −𝑥𝑥1 𝑦𝑦2 𝑥𝑥1 𝑥𝑥2 +𝑦𝑦1 𝑦𝑦2 𝑦𝑦1 𝑥𝑥2 −𝑥𝑥1 𝑦𝑦2
= − = − 𝑗𝑗
𝑥𝑥22 +𝑦𝑦22 𝑥𝑥22 +𝑦𝑦22 𝑥𝑥22 +𝑦𝑦22 𝑥𝑥22 +𝑦𝑦22
𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 𝑥𝑥1 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗1 𝑥𝑥1 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗1 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗2 𝑥𝑥1 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗1 𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗1 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑦𝑦1 𝑦𝑦2 𝑥𝑥1 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑦𝑦1 𝑦𝑦2 𝑦𝑦1 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 𝑦𝑦2
= = = = − 𝑗𝑗
𝒛𝒛� 𝟐𝟐 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗2 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗2 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗2 𝑥𝑥22 + 𝑦𝑦22 𝑥𝑥22 + 𝑦𝑦22 𝑥𝑥22 + 𝑦𝑦22
𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧�1
⇒ =
𝑧𝑧2 𝑧𝑧�2
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 13

• 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑧𝑧̅ = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 2𝑥𝑥 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑧𝑧̅ = 2 Re 𝑧𝑧 = 2𝑥𝑥
• z 𝑧𝑧̅ = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 𝑦𝑦 2 z 𝑧𝑧̅ = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2
• 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑧𝑧̅ = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 − 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 − 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 2𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑧𝑧 − 𝑧𝑧̅ = 2𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼(𝑧𝑧)
• z + z� = 2𝑥𝑥 = 2 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧+2 𝑧𝑧̅

𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵: 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 & 𝑦𝑦 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑧𝑧
𝑧𝑧̅
• z − 𝑧𝑧̅ =2jy=2 j Im(z) 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧−
2𝑗𝑗
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 14

• To divide 𝑧𝑧1 by 𝑧𝑧2 , we multiply & divide by the complex conjugate of 𝑧𝑧2
𝑧𝑧1 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗1 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗1 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗2 𝑥𝑥1 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗1 𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗1 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑦𝑦1 𝑦𝑦2
= = =
𝑧𝑧2 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗2 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗2 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗2 𝑥𝑥22 + 𝑦𝑦22
𝑧𝑧1 𝑥𝑥1 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑦𝑦1 𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑗𝑗(𝑦𝑦1 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 𝑦𝑦2 )

=
𝑧𝑧2 𝑥𝑥22 + 𝑦𝑦22
Example: 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧1 = 2 − 3𝑗𝑗 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧2 = 4 + 6𝑗𝑗
𝑧𝑧1 2 − 3𝑗𝑗 2 − 3𝑗𝑗 4 − 6𝑗𝑗 8 − 12𝑗𝑗 − 12𝑗𝑗 − 18 −10 − 24𝑗𝑗 −5 6

= = = = = − 𝑗𝑗
𝑧𝑧2 4 + 6𝑗𝑗 4 + 6𝑗𝑗 4 − 6𝑗𝑗 16 + 36 52 26 13
1 1 1 2+3𝑗𝑗 2+3𝑗𝑗 2+3𝑗𝑗 1 2 3

• = = = = = +
𝑧𝑧1 13 13
𝑗𝑗
𝑧𝑧1 2−3𝑗𝑗 2−3𝑗𝑗 2+3𝑗𝑗 4+9 13
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 15

𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗; 𝑧𝑧1 = 2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗; 𝑧𝑧2 = −2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 Imaginary axis
𝑧𝑧2 4 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
Other Forms of Notation: 𝑧𝑧1 = 2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 2

�,3 3 𝑧𝑧1
-2 2 𝑥𝑥 Real axis
Not as clear or concise
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2
Definition: Modulus or Absolute Value
The Modulus or Absolute Value of z = 𝒙𝒙 + 𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋 is denoted by 𝑧𝑧 . 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 is a real number
𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧̅ 𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵: 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦 2
𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬: 𝑧𝑧1 = 2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗 ⇒ 𝑧𝑧1 = 4 + 9 = 13
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 16

Properties L𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 ; z1 = 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗1 ; z2 = 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗2
• 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧̅ = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2

2 ⟹ 𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧̅ = 𝑧𝑧 2 ⟹ 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧�
𝑧𝑧
• 𝑧𝑧 2 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2
• 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 = (𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗1 )(𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗2 ) = 𝑥𝑥1 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑥𝑥1 𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑥𝑥2 𝑦𝑦1 − 𝑦𝑦1 𝑦𝑦2
= 𝑥𝑥1 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑦𝑦1 𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑗𝑗(𝑥𝑥1 𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑥𝑥2 𝑦𝑦1 ) = 𝑥𝑥1 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑦𝑦1 𝑦𝑦2 2 + 𝑥𝑥1 𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑥𝑥2 𝑦𝑦1 2
= 𝑥𝑥12 𝑥𝑥22 − 2𝑥𝑥1 𝑥𝑥2 𝑦𝑦1 𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑦𝑦12 𝑦𝑦22 + 𝑥𝑥12 𝑦𝑦22 + 2𝑥𝑥1 𝑥𝑥2 𝑦𝑦1 𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑥𝑥22 𝑦𝑦12 = 𝑥𝑥12 𝑥𝑥22 + 𝑦𝑦12 𝑦𝑦22 + 𝑥𝑥12 𝑦𝑦22 + 𝑥𝑥22 𝑦𝑦12
• 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦1 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗2 = 𝑥𝑥12 + 𝑦𝑦12 𝑥𝑥22 + 𝑦𝑦22 = (𝑥𝑥12 +𝑦𝑦12 )(𝑥𝑥22 + 𝑦𝑦22 )
= 𝑥𝑥12 𝑥𝑥22 + 𝑥𝑥12 𝑦𝑦22 + 𝑦𝑦12 𝑥𝑥22 + 𝑦𝑦12 𝑦𝑦22
𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2
• If 𝑧𝑧1 = 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑧𝑧 ⇒ 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 becomes: 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧 2 = 𝑧𝑧 2
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 17

𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧1
𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕: =
𝑧𝑧2 𝑧𝑧2
𝑧𝑧1 𝑥𝑥1+𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗1 𝑥𝑥1+𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗1 𝑥𝑥2−𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗2
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆: = =
𝑧𝑧2 𝑥𝑥2+𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗2 𝑥𝑥2+𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗2 𝑥𝑥2−𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗2
𝑥𝑥1𝑥𝑥2−𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗1𝑦𝑦2+𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗2𝑦𝑦1+𝑦𝑦1𝑦𝑦2 𝑥𝑥1𝑥𝑥2+𝑦𝑦1𝑦𝑦2+𝑗𝑗(𝑥𝑥2𝑦𝑦1−𝑥𝑥1𝑦𝑦2)
= =
𝑥𝑥22 +𝑦𝑦22 𝑥𝑥22 +𝑦𝑦22
𝑥𝑥1𝑥𝑥2+𝑦𝑦1𝑦𝑦2 𝑥𝑥2𝑦𝑦1−𝑥𝑥1𝑦𝑦2 𝑥𝑥1𝑥𝑥2+𝑦𝑦1𝑦𝑦2 2 𝑥𝑥2𝑦𝑦1−𝑥𝑥1𝑦𝑦2 2 𝑥𝑥1𝑥𝑥2+𝑦𝑦1𝑦𝑦2 2 + 𝑥𝑥2𝑦𝑦1−𝑥𝑥1𝑦𝑦2 2

= 𝑥𝑥22 +𝑦𝑦22
+ 𝑗𝑗 𝑥𝑥22 +𝑦𝑦22
= 𝑥𝑥22 +𝑦𝑦22 2
+ 𝑥𝑥22 +𝑦𝑦22 2
= 𝑥𝑥22 +𝑦𝑦22 2
𝑥𝑥12 𝑥𝑥22 +𝑦𝑦12 𝑦𝑦22 +2𝑥𝑥1𝑥𝑥2𝑦𝑦1𝑦𝑦2+𝑥𝑥22 𝑦𝑦12 +𝑥𝑥12 𝑦𝑦22 −2𝑥𝑥1𝑥𝑥2𝑦𝑦1𝑦𝑦2

= 𝑥𝑥22 +𝑦𝑦22 2
𝑥𝑥12 𝑥𝑥22 +𝑦𝑦12 𝑦𝑦22 +𝑥𝑥22 𝑦𝑦12 +𝑥𝑥12 𝑦𝑦22 𝑥𝑥22 𝑥𝑥12 +𝑦𝑦12 +𝑦𝑦22 𝑥𝑥12 +𝑦𝑦12 𝑥𝑥12 +𝑦𝑦12 𝑥𝑥22 +𝑦𝑦22
= 𝑥𝑥22 +𝑦𝑦22 2
= 𝑥𝑥22 +𝑦𝑦22 2
= 𝑥𝑥22 +𝑦𝑦22 2
𝑥𝑥12 +𝑦𝑦12 𝑥𝑥12 +𝑦𝑦12 𝑥𝑥1+𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗1 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧1

= = = = ⇒ =
𝑥𝑥22 +𝑦𝑦22 𝑥𝑥22 +𝑦𝑦22 𝑥𝑥2+𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗2 𝑧𝑧2 𝑧𝑧2 𝑧𝑧2
𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨: 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧1 = 𝑟𝑟1𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑟𝑟2𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗2

𝑧𝑧1 𝑟𝑟1𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗1 𝑟𝑟1 𝑗𝑗 𝜃𝜃 −𝜃𝜃 𝑟𝑟1 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧1
⇒ = = 𝑒𝑒 1 2 = = ⇒
𝑧𝑧2
=
𝑧𝑧2 (See Section 17.2)
𝑧𝑧2 𝑟𝑟2𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗2 𝑟𝑟2 𝑟𝑟2 𝑧𝑧2
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 18

• Distance between two points in the Complex Plane ℂ is: 𝑦𝑦
𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑧𝑧2
𝑧𝑧2
𝑧𝑧2 − 𝑧𝑧1 = (𝑥𝑥2 −𝑥𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦𝑦2 −𝑦𝑦1 )2
𝑧𝑧1
• Triangle Inequality: 𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑧𝑧2 ≤ 𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑧𝑧2 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑧𝑧2 0

Vector Sum 𝑥𝑥
𝑦𝑦
𝑧𝑧2
𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹: 𝑧𝑧 2 = 𝑧𝑧 2
; 𝑧𝑧 2
= 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧̅ = 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 ∗ ; 𝑧𝑧1𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 𝑧𝑧2 − 𝑧𝑧1
𝑧𝑧1
2 2 0
⇒ 𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑧𝑧2 + 2 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑧𝑧12 + 𝑧𝑧22 + 2 𝑧𝑧1𝑧𝑧2 ≥ 𝑧𝑧12 + 𝑧𝑧22 + 2𝑧𝑧1𝑧𝑧2 Vector difference 𝑥𝑥
⇒ 𝑧𝑧1 2 + 𝑧𝑧2 2 + 2 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 ≥ 𝑧𝑧12 + 𝑧𝑧22 + 2𝑧𝑧1𝑧𝑧2 𝑦𝑦

𝑧𝑧
2 2 2 2
⇒ 𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑧𝑧2 ≥ 𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑧𝑧2 ⇒ 𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑧𝑧2 ≥ 𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑧𝑧2 𝑧𝑧1
𝑧𝑧1
⇒ 𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑧𝑧2 ≥ 𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑧𝑧2 𝑧𝑧2

0 𝑥𝑥
Generalize: 𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑧𝑧2 + ⋯ + 𝑧𝑧𝑛𝑛 ≤ 𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑧𝑧2 + ⋯ + 𝑧𝑧𝑛𝑛
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 19

Also: (Using Triangle Inequality )
𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑧𝑧2 + (−𝑧𝑧2 ) ≤ 𝑧𝑧 + −𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑧𝑧2 + 𝑧𝑧2
z 𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑧𝑧2 − 𝑧𝑧2 ≤ 𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑧𝑧2 + 𝑧𝑧2
𝑧𝑧1 ≤ 𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑧𝑧2 + 𝑧𝑧2
𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑧𝑧2 ≥ 𝑧𝑧1 − 𝑧𝑧2
 Remarks:
Let 𝑥𝑥 & 𝑦𝑦 be two real numbers and let 𝑧𝑧1 & 𝑧𝑧2 be two complex numbers:
(i) 𝑥𝑥 > 𝑦𝑦 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑦𝑦 is possible in ℝ but 𝑧𝑧1 > 𝑧𝑧2 or 𝑧𝑧1 < 𝑧𝑧2 does not have any
meaning in the Complex plane ℂ except if 𝑧𝑧1 & 𝑧𝑧2 are both real
(ii) 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 = −2 & 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥 = 5 are impossible in ℝ 𝑏𝑏ut perfectly correct and
ordinary in the complex plane ℂ as we will see later
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 20

17.1 Summary
Let 𝒛𝒛 = 𝒙𝒙 + 𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋 ; 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 = 𝒙𝒙𝟏𝟏 + 𝒋𝒋𝒚𝒚𝟏𝟏 ; 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 = 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 + 𝒋𝒋𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐
o 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 +𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 = (𝒙𝒙𝟏𝟏 + 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 ) + j 𝒚𝒚𝟏𝟏 + 𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐 o

𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 𝒛𝒛
= 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏
𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
o 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 − 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 = (𝒙𝒙𝟏𝟏 − 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 ) + j 𝒚𝒚𝟏𝟏 − 𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐
o 𝑹𝑹𝒆𝒆 𝒛𝒛 = 𝒛𝒛+�
𝟐𝟐
𝒛𝒛
o 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 = 𝒙𝒙𝟏𝟏 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 − 𝒚𝒚𝟏𝟏 𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐 + 𝒋𝒋(𝒙𝒙𝟏𝟏 𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐 + 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 𝒚𝒚𝟏𝟏 ) 𝒛𝒛−�𝒛𝒛
𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 𝒙𝒙𝟏𝟏 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 +𝒚𝒚𝟏𝟏 𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐 𝒚𝒚𝟏𝟏 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 −𝒙𝒙𝟏𝟏 𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐 o Im (z)=
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
o = + 𝒋𝒋
𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 +𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 +𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
o 𝒛𝒛 = 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 + 𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐 = 𝒛𝒛 𝒛𝒛�
o 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 + 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 + 𝒛𝒛𝟑𝟑 = (𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 +𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 ) + 𝒛𝒛𝟑𝟑
o 𝒛𝒛�𝒛𝒛 = 𝒛𝒛 𝟐𝟐
o 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 𝒛𝒛𝟑𝟑 = (𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 )𝒛𝒛𝟑𝟑
o 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 = 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐
o 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 + 𝒛𝒛𝟑𝟑 = 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 + 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 𝒛𝒛𝟑𝟑
𝟏𝟏 o 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 = 𝒛𝒛 𝟐𝟐
o 𝒛𝒛−𝟏𝟏 = ⇒ 𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛−𝟏𝟏 = 𝟏𝟏 o 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 + 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 = 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 + 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐
𝒛𝒛
o 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 + 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒛𝒛𝒏𝒏 ≤ 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 + 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒛𝒛𝒏𝒏 o 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 − 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 = 𝒛𝒛� 𝟏𝟏 − 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐
o 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 = 𝒛𝒛� 𝟏𝟏 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐
o 𝐳𝐳𝟏𝟏 + 𝐳𝐳𝟐𝟐 ≥ 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 − 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 21

Section 17.2
Chapter 17
Powers and Roots
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 22

17.2 Powers & Roots
𝑦𝑦
 Polar and Exponential Forms
𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 ← 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑧𝑧

𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦
cos 𝜃𝜃 = ⇒ 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑟𝑟 cos 𝜃𝜃 & 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃 = ⇒ y = 𝑟𝑟 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃
𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟
𝜃𝜃 𝑥𝑥
𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦
𝑟𝑟 2 = 𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦 2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜃𝜃 = ⇒ 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 0
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
⇒ 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑟𝑟 cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑟𝑟 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑟𝑟 (cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠) ← 𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑟 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑧𝑧
Note: 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝜃𝜃 and 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 𝑟𝑟 ≥ 0 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 − 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
⇒ 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑟𝑟 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 ← 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑧𝑧 ⇒ 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑟𝑟 cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃
• 𝜃𝜃: 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑧𝑧 ⇒ 𝜃𝜃 = Arg(𝑧𝑧) ⇒ −𝜋𝜋 ≤ 𝜃𝜃 ≤ 𝜋𝜋

• Solution is not unique arg(𝑧𝑧) = 𝜃𝜃 ± 2𝜋𝜋 𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, ….
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 23

17.2 Powers & Roots
Arg(z) vs arg(z):
𝑦𝑦
• 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑧𝑧 ≡ Principal Argument −𝜋𝜋 ≤ 𝜃𝜃 ≤ 𝜋𝜋 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝑦𝑦
N𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐: 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑧𝑧 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 (𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴)
𝜃𝜃 𝑥𝑥
• 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑧𝑧 ≡ 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑧𝑧 0
𝑥𝑥
small
• I𝑛𝑛 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔: 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧 = 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑧𝑧 + 2𝜋𝜋𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, … .

• 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑧𝑧 = 0 ⇒ 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧 cannot be defined in any way that is meaningful.
𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡:

𝑧𝑧1
𝑧𝑧2
=
𝑧𝑧1
𝑧𝑧2
L𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧1 = 𝑟𝑟1𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑟𝑟2𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗2
𝑧𝑧1 𝑟𝑟1𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗1 𝑟𝑟1 𝑗𝑗 𝜃𝜃1−𝜃𝜃2

𝑟𝑟1 𝑧𝑧1 𝑟𝑟1𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗1 𝑟𝑟1 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧1
⇒ = = 𝑒𝑒 = ⇒ = = ⇒ =
𝑧𝑧2 𝑟𝑟2𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗2 𝑟𝑟2 𝑟𝑟2 𝑧𝑧2 𝑟𝑟2𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗2 𝑟𝑟2 𝑧𝑧2 𝑧𝑧2
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 24

17.2 Powers & Roots
𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 𝟏𝟏: L𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 1 − 𝑗𝑗 3 𝑦𝑦
2
• 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 1 2 + − 3 = 1+3= 4=2
5𝜋𝜋
3
− 3 5𝜋𝜋 1
• tan 𝜃𝜃 = ⇒ 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝜃𝜃 = − 𝜋𝜋⁄3 (Principal) 𝑥𝑥
1 3 −𝜋𝜋
3
− 3
5𝜋𝜋 5𝜋𝜋 −𝜋𝜋 −𝜋𝜋
⇒ 𝑧𝑧 = 2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑧𝑧 = 2 cos + 𝑗𝑗 sin( )
3 3 3 3
𝜋𝜋�
⇒ 𝑧𝑧 = 2 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 3
Note:
• 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑧𝑧 = −𝜋𝜋⁄3 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 [−𝜋𝜋 ≤ 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑧𝑧 ≤ 𝜋𝜋]
5𝜋𝜋 −𝜋𝜋
• arg 𝑧𝑧 = + 2𝜋𝜋𝑘𝑘 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 arg 𝑧𝑧 = + 2𝜋𝜋𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, …
3 3
𝜋𝜋⁄ +2𝜋𝜋 𝑘𝑘
General Form: 𝑧𝑧 = 2 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 3 𝑘𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, …
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 25

17.2 Powers & Roots
𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬: 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = − 3 − 𝑗𝑗 𝑦𝑦
2
• 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = − 3 + −1 2 = 3+1 = 4=2 7𝜋𝜋
6 𝜋𝜋
𝜋𝜋 6
𝑦𝑦 −1 1 − 3
• 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜃𝜃 = = ⇒ 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 ( ) ⇒ 𝜃𝜃 = (Calculator Answer) 𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥 − 3 3 6
𝜋𝜋 7𝜋𝜋
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵, 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 3𝑟𝑟𝑑𝑑 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 ⇒ 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧 = + 𝜋𝜋 =
6 6
−1
𝑧𝑧 = − 3 − 𝑗𝑗
7𝜋𝜋
7𝜋𝜋 7𝜋𝜋 𝑗𝑗
• Polar or Exponential form: 𝑧𝑧 = 2 cos + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑧𝑧 = 2 𝑒𝑒 6
6 6
𝜋𝜋 −5𝜋𝜋
𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑧𝑧 = −𝜋𝜋 + = 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 − 𝜋𝜋 ≤ Arg 𝑧𝑧 ≤ 𝜋𝜋
6 6
5𝜋𝜋
−5𝜋𝜋 −5𝜋𝜋 −𝑗𝑗
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹: 𝑧𝑧 = 2 cos + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑧𝑧 = 2 𝑒𝑒 6
6 6
5𝜋𝜋
−𝑗𝑗 +2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
G𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 𝑭𝑭𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐: 𝑧𝑧 = 2 𝑒𝑒 6 𝑘𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, …
Note: Use the Complex tools on the Calculator instead of calculating the angle manually
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 26
17.2 Powers & Roots
M𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮 & 𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯 sin 𝜃𝜃1 ± 𝜃𝜃2 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃2 ± 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃1 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃2
cos 𝜃𝜃1 ± 𝜃𝜃2 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃2 ∓ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃1 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃2
𝒆𝒆±𝒋𝒋𝜽𝜽 = 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝜽𝜽 ± 𝒋𝒋 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜽𝜽

• L𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧1 = 𝑟𝑟1 cos 𝜃𝜃1 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝜃𝜃1 & 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑟𝑟2 cos 𝜃𝜃2 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝜃𝜃2
⇒ 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑟𝑟1 cos 𝜃𝜃1 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝜃𝜃1 𝑟𝑟2 [cos 𝜃𝜃2 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝜃𝜃2 ]
= 𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃2 + 𝑗𝑗 cos 𝜃𝜃1 sin 𝜃𝜃2 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝜃𝜃1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃2 − sin 𝜃𝜃1 sin 𝜃𝜃2
= 𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃1 − sin 𝜃𝜃1 sin 𝜃𝜃2 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝜃𝜃1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃2 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃1 sin 𝜃𝜃2
⇒ 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟2 cos 𝜃𝜃1 + 𝜃𝜃2 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝜃𝜃1 + 𝜃𝜃2
• Let: 𝑧𝑧1 = 𝑟𝑟1 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃1 and 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑟𝑟2 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃2 ⇒ 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟2 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 𝜃𝜃1 +𝜃𝜃2 (preferred form)
𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯: 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟2 & 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧2
𝑧𝑧1 𝑟𝑟1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃1 +𝑗𝑗 sin 𝜃𝜃1 𝑟𝑟1 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃1 𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟1
• = = = 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 𝜃𝜃1 −𝜃𝜃2
= 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃1 − 𝜃𝜃2 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝜃𝜃1 − 𝜃𝜃2 (𝑧𝑧2 ≠ 0)
𝑧𝑧2 𝑟𝑟2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃2 +𝑗𝑗 sin 𝜃𝜃2 𝑟𝑟2 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃2 𝑟𝑟2 𝑟𝑟2
𝑧𝑧1
⇒ 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧1 − 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧2
𝑧𝑧2
𝑧𝑧1
𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵: In General 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 ≠ 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑧𝑧1 + 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑧𝑧2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ≠ 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑧𝑧1 − 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑧𝑧2
𝑧𝑧2
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 27

17.2 Powers & Roots
E𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙: 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧1 = −1 & 𝑧𝑧2 = 5𝑗𝑗 𝑦𝑦
• 𝑧𝑧1 = −1 ⇒ 𝑧𝑧1 = 1𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑧𝑧1 = 𝜋𝜋 𝑧𝑧2 5𝑗𝑗
𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗�
• 𝑧𝑧2 = 5𝑗𝑗 ⇒ 𝑧𝑧2 = 5𝑒𝑒 2 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝜋𝜋⁄2 𝑧𝑧1
𝑥𝑥
−𝑗𝑗𝜋𝜋⁄2
⇒ 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 = −1 5𝑗𝑗 = −5𝑗𝑗 ⇒ 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 = 5𝑒𝑒
−1
𝜋𝜋 3𝜋𝜋
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁: 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 = − 𝜋𝜋⁄2 ≠ 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑧𝑧1 + 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝜋𝜋 + =
2 2
−𝑧𝑧2 −5𝑗𝑗 𝜋𝜋⁄ −𝑧𝑧2

• = = +5𝑗𝑗 = 5𝑒𝑒 +𝚥𝚥̇ 2 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = + 𝜋𝜋⁄2
𝑧𝑧1 −1 𝑧𝑧1
−𝑧𝑧2 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 3𝜋𝜋
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁: 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = ≠ 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 −𝑧𝑧2 − 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑧𝑧1 = − − π = −
𝑧𝑧1 2 2 2
𝜋𝜋�
−𝑧𝑧2 = −5j = 5𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 2
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 28

17.2 Powers & Roots
𝑦𝑦
𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 𝟐𝟐: 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧1 = 𝑗𝑗 & 𝑧𝑧2 = 1 − 𝑗𝑗 3
1) 𝐶𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
𝑧𝑧1
2) 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 &
𝑧𝑧2
𝑧𝑧1 𝑗𝑗
S𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐:
1
• 𝑧𝑧1 = 𝑗𝑗 ⇒ 𝑟𝑟1 = 1 & 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜃𝜃1 = → ∞ ⇒ 𝜃𝜃1 = 𝜋𝜋⁄2 ⇒ 𝑧𝑧1 = 1𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜋𝜋⁄2 1
0 𝑥𝑥
2
• 𝑧𝑧2 = 1 − 𝑗𝑗 3 ⇒ 𝑟𝑟2 = 1 2 + − 3 = 1+3= 4 =2
− 3𝑗𝑗 𝑧𝑧2
− 3
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜃𝜃2 = ⇒ 𝜃𝜃2 = − 𝜋𝜋�3 ⇒ 𝑧𝑧2 = 2𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝜋𝜋⁄3
1
𝜋𝜋� 𝜋𝜋 3𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋�
𝑗𝑗 −
𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑗𝑗 1 − 𝑗𝑗 3 = 𝑗𝑗 − ( 3) 𝑗𝑗 2
= 3 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 = 1𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 2 2𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 3 = 2𝑒𝑒 6 6 = 2𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 6
Rectangular Exponential
𝑧𝑧1 𝑗𝑗 𝑗𝑗 1+𝑗𝑗 3 𝑗𝑗+ 3 𝑗𝑗 2 − 3+𝑗𝑗 𝑧𝑧1 − 3 1

• = = = = ⇒ = + 𝑗𝑗
𝑧𝑧2 1−𝑗𝑗 3 1−𝑗𝑗 3 1+𝑗𝑗 3 1+3 4 𝑧𝑧2 4 4
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝑧𝑧1 1𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜋𝜋⁄2 1 𝑗𝑗 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
+ 1 𝑗𝑗 3𝜋𝜋+2𝜋𝜋 𝑧𝑧1 1 𝑗𝑗5𝜋𝜋�
= = 𝑒𝑒 2 3 = 𝑒𝑒 6 6 ⇒ = 𝑒𝑒 6
𝑧𝑧2 2𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝜋𝜋�3 2 2 𝑧𝑧2 2
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 29

SPFI Special Power Functions
 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷: A complex power function is a function of the form 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧 𝛼𝛼
w𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 𝑧𝑧: complex number and 𝛼𝛼: complex constant
1
• If 𝛼𝛼 is an integer (i. e. 𝑧𝑧 2 = 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 & 𝑧𝑧 −3 = ) (see Section 17.6 if 𝛼𝛼 is Not an integer )
𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧
• Restrict discussion here to integer powers more complicated powers will be discussed later on
1⁄
𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛 & 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛 where : 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 2 and 𝑛𝑛 is an integer
1) 𝒇𝒇 𝒛𝒛 = 𝒛𝒛𝒏𝒏 𝒏𝒏 ≥ 𝟐𝟐
𝑦𝑦
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 = 2 − 𝑗𝑗 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧 2 = 2 − 𝑗𝑗 2 − 𝑗𝑗 = 3 − 4𝑗𝑗
• Generally Speaking: 2 3
𝜽𝜽 𝒛𝒛 = 𝟐𝟐 − 𝒋𝒋 𝑥𝑥
𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃 2
L𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑧𝑧 2 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃 ⇒ 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 𝑟𝑟 2 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝑤𝑤=𝑧𝑧 2
𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃
𝑧𝑧 = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑟𝑟 2 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃
𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 = 𝟑𝟑 − 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒
𝑟𝑟 → 𝑟𝑟 2
𝜃𝜃 → 2𝜃𝜃
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 30

SPF2 Special Power Functions
𝑦𝑦
𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍:
• Let 𝑧𝑧 = 2 (real) ⇒ 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧 2 = 4 𝑧𝑧 =
𝑗𝑗
2
⇒ 𝑧𝑧 = 2 → 𝑧𝑧 2 = 4 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 2 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
𝑗𝑗 𝑗𝑗 𝑗𝑗 1 1
• Let 𝑧𝑧 =
2
(imaginary) ⇒ 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧 2 = 2 2
=−
4
𝑧𝑧 = −
4
𝑧𝑧 = 2 𝑧𝑧 2 = 4 𝑥𝑥
𝑗𝑗 1 1
⇒ 𝑧𝑧 = → 𝑧𝑧 2 = − (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 & 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝜋𝜋⁄2)
2 4 2
In general, 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑧𝑧 2
i. Does not magnify the modulus of a point on 𝑧𝑧 = 1 [Unit Circle]
ii. Does not rotate points on the positive real axis
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 31

Integer Powers of 𝒛𝒛 L𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑟𝑟 cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃
2
⇒ 𝑧𝑧 2 = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃 = 𝑟𝑟 2 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃 = 𝑟𝑟 2 cos 2𝜃𝜃 +𝑗𝑗 sin 2𝜃𝜃
3
⇒ 𝑧𝑧 3 = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃 = 𝑟𝑟 3 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗3𝜃𝜃 = 𝑟𝑟 3 cos 3𝜃𝜃 +𝑗𝑗 sin 3𝜃𝜃
𝑛𝑛
𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰 𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕: 𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃 = 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃 = 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑛𝜃𝜃 +𝑗𝑗 sin 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
• 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 > 2 𝐢𝐢. 𝐞𝐞. 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛 where 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

𝑛𝑛
=> 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
Hence: 𝑟𝑟 → 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 [magnify or contract] & 𝜃𝜃 → 𝑛𝑛𝜃𝜃 [rotate]
−𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗�
𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 𝟑𝟑 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 = 1 − 𝑗𝑗 3 = 2𝑒𝑒 3
3
𝑧𝑧 3 = 2𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝜋𝜋⁄3 = 8𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗3𝜋𝜋⁄3 = 8𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝜋𝜋 = 8 cos −𝜋𝜋 − 𝑗𝑗 sin −𝜋𝜋 = 8 −1 − 𝑗𝑗 0 = −8
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 32
17.2 Powers & Roots
𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨:
𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = − 3 − 𝑗𝑗 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 3 ? −𝑗𝑗
5𝜋𝜋
𝑧𝑧 = − 3 − 𝑗𝑗 → 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 ⇒ 𝑧𝑧 = 2 𝑒𝑒 6
Solution: 5𝜋𝜋
• Arg 𝑧𝑧 = −
6
5𝜋𝜋� 𝑦𝑦
𝑧𝑧 = − 3 − 𝑗𝑗 = 2𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 6 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
3
−𝑗𝑗 5𝜋𝜋�6 15𝜋𝜋� 5𝜋𝜋�
3
= 8 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 = 8 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗
7𝜋𝜋
𝑧𝑧 = 2𝑒𝑒 6 2 6
5𝜋𝜋 5𝜋𝜋 − 3
= 8 cos − 𝑗𝑗 sin = 8 0 − 𝑗𝑗 1 = −8𝑗𝑗 𝑥𝑥
2 2
−5𝜋𝜋
⇒ 𝑧𝑧 3 = −8𝑗𝑗 6
𝑧𝑧 −𝑗𝑗
𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵
−5𝜋𝜋
• 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 − 𝜋𝜋 ≤ 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑧𝑧 ≤ 𝜋𝜋
6
5𝜋𝜋
𝑗𝑗 − +2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
• 𝑧𝑧 = 2 𝑒𝑒 6 𝑘𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, … 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
5𝜋𝜋
• arg 𝑧𝑧 = − + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
6
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 33

17.2 Powers & Roots
𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 𝟑𝟑: 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 = 1 + 𝑗𝑗 3, 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑧𝑧 9 (see #21 in Exercise 17.2)
𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺:
𝑦𝑦
2
• 𝑧𝑧 = 12 + 3 = 1+3= 4=2
3 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
• 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑧𝑧 = tan−1 = −𝜋𝜋 ≤ ≤ 𝜋𝜋
1 3 3
𝜋𝜋
𝑗𝑗 3 𝜋𝜋
⇒ 𝑧𝑧 = 2𝑒𝑒 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑧𝑧 =
3
𝜋𝜋⁄ +2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋)
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑧𝑧 = 2𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗( 3 𝑘𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2 … . . 0 1 𝑥𝑥
𝜋𝜋 9
𝑗𝑗 3
𝑧𝑧 9 = 𝑧𝑧 9 = 2𝑒𝑒
𝜋𝜋
𝑗𝑗𝑗 3
= 512 𝑒𝑒 = 512 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗3𝜋𝜋 = 512 −1
= −1
⇒ 𝑧𝑧 9 = −512
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 34

17.2 Powers & Roots
Abraham de Moivre
(1667-1754)
DeMoivre’s Formula
𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝜽𝜽 + 𝒋𝒋 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝜽𝜽 𝒏𝒏 = 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒏𝒏𝜽𝜽 + 𝒋𝒋 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒏𝒏𝜽𝜽
𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷
𝑛𝑛 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃 𝑛𝑛
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑒𝑒 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃 = cos 𝑛𝑛𝜃𝜃 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝑛𝑛𝜃𝜃
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 35

17.2 Powers & Roots
 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹:
w is the 𝒏𝒏𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 root of a non zero complex number 𝒛𝒛 if 𝑤𝑤 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑧𝑧
𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 w = 𝜌𝜌 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗 & 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑛𝑛
𝑤𝑤 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑧𝑧 ⇒ 𝜌𝜌𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗∅ = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃 ⇒ 𝜌𝜌𝑛𝑛 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁:
1
• 𝜌𝜌𝑛𝑛 = 𝑟𝑟 ⇒ 𝜌𝜌 = (𝑟𝑟)𝑛𝑛
𝜃𝜃+2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
• 𝑛𝑛∅ = 𝜃𝜃 + 2𝜋𝜋𝑘𝑘 ⇒ ∅= 𝑘𝑘 = 0,1,2,3, … . , 𝑛𝑛 − 1
𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛
• 𝜌𝜌 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗∅ = 𝜌𝜌𝑛𝑛 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗∅ = 𝜌𝜌𝑛𝑛 [cos 𝑛𝑛∅ + 𝑗𝑗 sin(𝑛𝑛𝑛)]
• 𝑟𝑟 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃 = 𝑟𝑟[cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝜃𝜃] => cos 𝑛𝑛∅ = cos 𝜃𝜃 and sin 𝑛𝑛∅ = sin 𝜃𝜃
𝜃𝜃+2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝜃𝜃 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
1⁄ 𝑗𝑗 1⁄ 𝑗𝑗 +
⇒ 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅: 𝑤𝑤𝑘𝑘 = 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 𝑘𝑘 = 0,1,2, … , 𝑛𝑛 − 1
𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔:
𝜃𝜃
𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑛𝑛
1⁄
𝑤𝑤0 = 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛
𝜃𝜃+2𝜋𝜋
1⁄ 𝑗𝑗
𝑤𝑤1 = 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑛
𝜃𝜃+4𝜋𝜋
1⁄ 𝑗𝑗
𝑤𝑤2 = 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑛
⋮
𝜃𝜃+2𝜋𝜋(𝑛𝑛−1)
1⁄ 𝑗𝑗
𝑤𝑤𝑛𝑛−1 = 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑛
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 36

17.2 Powers & Roots
𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 4: 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑗𝑗
𝑦𝑦
𝑍𝑍 = 𝑗𝑗
𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
1 𝑊𝑊1 𝑊𝑊0
𝑧𝑧 = 𝑗𝑗 ⇒ 𝑟𝑟 = 1 & 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜃𝜃 = → ∞ ⇒ 𝜃𝜃 = 𝜋𝜋⁄2 5𝜋𝜋
0 𝜋𝜋
6
6
𝜋𝜋⁄
𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 2
𝑥𝑥
1⁄ 𝑗𝑗
𝑤𝑤𝑘𝑘 = 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑛 𝑘𝑘 = 0,1,2 3𝜋𝜋
2
𝜋𝜋⁄
𝑤𝑤0 = 1𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 6 (Principal)
𝜋𝜋
+2𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 4𝜋𝜋
𝑗𝑗 2 𝑗𝑗 + 5𝜋𝜋⁄ 𝑊𝑊2
𝑤𝑤1 = 1𝑒𝑒 3 = 1𝑒𝑒 6 6 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 6
𝜋𝜋
+4𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 8𝜋𝜋 9𝜋𝜋 3𝜋𝜋
𝑗𝑗 2 𝑗𝑗 +
𝑤𝑤2 = 1𝑒𝑒 3 = 𝑒𝑒 6 6 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 6 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 2
𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝒆𝒆 3 1 𝑗𝑗
𝜋𝜋
𝑧𝑧 = 𝑗𝑗1/3 = + 𝑗𝑗 → 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 ⇒ 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 6
𝜋𝜋
2 2
+6𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
𝑗𝑗 2 𝑗𝑗 +2𝜋𝜋
𝑤𝑤3 = 𝑒𝑒 3 = 𝑒𝑒 6 = 𝑤𝑤0 • Arg 𝑧𝑧 =
𝜋𝜋
6
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 37

17.2 Powers & Roots
𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 𝟓𝟓
1� 𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨:
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 = 1 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 4𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 (1 + 𝑗𝑗) 4
𝑗𝑗
𝜋𝜋
𝑧𝑧 = (1 + 𝑗𝑗)1/4 → 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 ⇒ 𝑧𝑧 = 21/8 𝑒𝑒 16
𝑺𝑺𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝜋𝜋
2 2 • Arg 𝑧𝑧 =
𝑧𝑧 = 1 + 𝑗𝑗 ⇒ r = 1 + 1 = 2 16
1
tan 𝜃𝜃 = ⇒ θ = 𝜋𝜋�4 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
1
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
𝑗𝑗 +2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝑧𝑧 = 1 + 𝑗𝑗 = 2 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 4 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑧𝑧 = 2 𝑒𝑒 4 𝑘𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, …
1⁄
𝜋𝜋� +2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
4
𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭:
1⁄ 4 𝑗𝑗 𝜃𝜃+2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝑤𝑤 = 𝑧𝑧 4 = 2 𝑒𝑒 4 𝑘𝑘 = 0,1,2,3 1 𝑗𝑗
𝑤𝑤𝑘𝑘 = 𝑟𝑟 �𝑛𝑛 𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑛
1⁄
1⁄ 4 𝜋𝜋⁄
𝑤𝑤0 = 𝑧𝑧 4 = 2 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 16
1⁄ 𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋 1⁄ 𝜋𝜋 8𝜋𝜋 1⁄ 9𝜋𝜋

𝑗𝑗 + 𝑗𝑗 +
𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 16
4 4 4
𝑤𝑤1 = 2 𝑒𝑒 16 4 = 2 𝑒𝑒 16 16 = 2
1� 𝜋𝜋 4𝜋𝜋 1� 𝜋𝜋 16𝜋𝜋 1� 17𝜋𝜋

𝑤𝑤2 = 2 4
𝑒𝑒 16 4 = 2 4
𝑒𝑒 16 16 = 2 4
1⁄ 𝜋𝜋 6𝜋𝜋 1⁄ 𝜋𝜋 24𝜋𝜋 1⁄ 25𝜋𝜋
4 4 4
𝑤𝑤3 = 2 𝑒𝑒 16 4 = 2 𝑒𝑒 16 16 = 2
1⁄ 𝜋𝜋 1⁄ 𝜋𝜋 32𝜋𝜋 1⁄
4 𝑗𝑗 +2𝜋𝜋 4 𝑗𝑗 + 4 𝜋𝜋⁄
𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒘𝒘𝟒𝟒 : 𝑤𝑤4 = 2 𝑒𝑒 16 = 2 𝑒𝑒 16 16 = 2 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 16
2𝜋𝜋
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 38

17.2 Powers & Roots
Example: 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒: 𝑧𝑧 4 + 1 = 0
𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺: 𝑧𝑧 4 + 1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑧𝑧 4 = −1 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = cos 𝜋𝜋 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝜋𝜋
⇒ 𝑧𝑧 4 = 1𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 𝜋𝜋+2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
1⁄ 𝑗𝑗 𝜋𝜋⁄4+
⇒ 𝑧𝑧𝑘𝑘 = 1 4 𝑒𝑒 4 𝑘𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, 3
𝜋𝜋⁄ 𝜋𝜋⁄
⇒ 𝑧𝑧0 = 1 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 4 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 4
𝜋𝜋⁄ +𝜋𝜋⁄ 3𝜋𝜋⁄ 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 − 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛:

𝑧𝑧1 = 1 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 4 2 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 4
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (𝑧𝑧 4 + 1 = 0, 𝑧𝑧)
𝜋𝜋⁄ +𝜋𝜋 5𝜋𝜋⁄
𝑧𝑧2 = 1 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 4 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 4
𝜋𝜋⁄ +6𝜋𝜋⁄ 7𝜋𝜋⁄

𝑧𝑧3 = 1 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 4 4 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 4
𝜋𝜋⁄ 2 2 2
𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵: 𝑧𝑧0 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 4 = + 𝑗𝑗 = 1 + 𝑗𝑗
2 2 2
3𝜋𝜋⁄ 2 2 2
𝑧𝑧1 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 4 =− + 𝑗𝑗 =− 1 − 𝑗𝑗
2 2 2
5𝜋𝜋⁄ 2 2 2
𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 4 = − − 𝑗𝑗 =− 1 + 𝑗𝑗
2 2 2
7𝜋𝜋⁄ 2 2 2
𝑧𝑧3 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 4 = − 𝑗𝑗 = 1 − 𝑗𝑗
2 2 2
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 39
Example: Compute the principal square root of 𝐳𝐳
𝟏𝟏�
𝟐𝟐 𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭:
1⁄ 𝑗𝑗
𝑤𝑤𝑘𝑘 = 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑛
a) 𝒛𝒛 = 𝟒𝟒 ⇒ 𝒛𝒛 = 𝟒𝟒𝒆𝒆𝒋𝒋𝟎𝟎
1 0⁄
𝑧𝑧 = 4 & 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑧𝑧 = 0 ⇒ 𝑧𝑧 ⁄2 = 4𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 2 =2 (Principal Square Root)
• To find all roots, we have:

1 0+2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝑧𝑧 �2 = 4 𝑒𝑒 2 𝑘𝑘 = 0,1
0+2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
1⁄ 𝑗𝑗0 1⁄ 𝑗𝑗
𝑧𝑧 2 = 2𝑒𝑒 =2 𝑘𝑘 = 0 [Principal] & 𝑧𝑧 2 = 2𝑒𝑒 2 = 2𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = −2 𝑘𝑘 = 1
𝒃𝒃) 𝒛𝒛 = −𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
−𝜋𝜋
+2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
2 1⁄ 𝑗𝑗 2
𝑧𝑧 = −2 =2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑧𝑧 = −𝜋𝜋/2 ⇒ 𝑧𝑧 2 = 𝑧𝑧 𝑒𝑒 2 𝑘𝑘 = 0,1
𝟏𝟏� −𝜋𝜋� 𝟏𝟏� 𝝅𝝅�

𝑘𝑘 = 0 ⇒ 𝒛𝒛 𝟐𝟐 = 2 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 4 ⇒ 𝒛𝒛 𝟐𝟐 = 𝟐𝟐 𝒆𝒆−𝒋𝒋 𝟒𝟒 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
−𝜋𝜋
+2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 −𝜋𝜋
1� 𝑗𝑗 2 𝑗𝑗 +𝜋𝜋 1� 𝜋𝜋�
𝑘𝑘 = 1 ⇒ 𝑧𝑧 2= 2 𝑒𝑒 2 = 2 𝑒𝑒 4 ⇒ 𝑧𝑧 2 = 2 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗 4
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 40

Example: 𝑧𝑧 = 1 − 𝑗𝑗 3 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧
1⁄
5 𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭:
1 𝑗𝑗
𝑤𝑤𝑘𝑘 = 𝑟𝑟 �𝑛𝑛 𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑛
2
𝑧𝑧 = 1 − 𝑗𝑗 3 ⇒ 𝑧𝑧 = 1 2 + − 3 = 1+3 =2
𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑧𝑧 = − 𝜋𝜋⁄3 [calculator]

𝜋𝜋⁄
𝑧𝑧 = 2𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 3 [exponential form]
−π
3 +2πk
ej
1⁄ 1⁄
𝑧𝑧 5 = 2 5 5 𝑘𝑘 = 0,1,2,3,4
1⁄ 1⁄ 𝜋𝜋⁄
• 𝑘𝑘 = 0 ⇒ 𝑧𝑧 5 = 2 5 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 15 [principal value]
−𝜋𝜋 5𝜋𝜋�
+2𝜋𝜋 3
1⁄ 1⁄ 𝑗𝑗 3 1⁄ 𝑗𝑗
• 𝑘𝑘 = 1 ⇒ 𝑧𝑧 5 = 2 5 𝑒𝑒 5 = 2 5 𝑒𝑒 5
1� 1� 𝜋𝜋�
𝑧𝑧 5 = 2 5 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 3 𝑘𝑘 = 1
• Similarly for 𝑘𝑘 = 2, 3, 4
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 41

17.2 Powers & Roots
𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒
• 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑟𝑟 cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑟𝑟 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃
𝑦𝑦
𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 ∶ 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜃𝜃 =
𝑥𝑥
𝑛𝑛
• 𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃 = 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃 = 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑛𝜃𝜃 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝑛𝑛𝜃𝜃
𝑛𝑛
• 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃 ⇒ cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝑛𝑛
= cos 𝑛𝑛𝜃𝜃 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝑛𝑛𝜃𝜃
𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵
𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃 = cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝜃𝜃
𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃 = cos 𝜃𝜃 − 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝜃𝜃
𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑: 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜃𝜃 = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 𝜃𝜃+2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋

1⁄ 𝜃𝜃+2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗
1⁄ 1⁄ 𝑛𝑛 1⁄
𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗(𝜃𝜃+2𝜋𝜋𝑘𝑘) = 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 𝑘𝑘 = 0,1,2, … … 𝑛𝑛 − 1
𝜃𝜃 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
1⁄ 𝑗𝑗 +
= 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 𝑘𝑘 = 0,1,2, … … 𝑛𝑛 − 1
1⁄ 1⁄
PRINCIPAL VALUE: 𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗(𝜃𝜃/𝑛𝑛) i.e. k = 0
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 42

Section 17.3
Chapter 17
Sets in the Complex Plane
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 43

17.3 Sets in the Complex Plane
𝑦𝑦
• Examine functions f z of a complex variable 𝒛𝒛 = 𝒙𝒙 + 𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋
𝑦𝑦 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧0 = 𝑥𝑥0 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑂𝑂 & 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑧𝑧0
𝑦𝑦0
𝑧𝑧 − 𝑧𝑧0 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 − 𝑥𝑥0 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦0 = 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥0 + 𝑗𝑗(𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦0 ) 𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥0 𝑥𝑥
2 2 distance
𝑧𝑧 − 𝑧𝑧0 = 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥0 + 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦0
This is the distance between 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 & 𝑧𝑧0 = 𝑥𝑥0 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗0 𝑦𝑦
If we fix that distance 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑧𝑧0 = 𝜌𝜌 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝜌𝜌 > 0 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
Hence, the points 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 that satisfy the equation 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑧𝑧0 = 𝜌𝜌 𝑧𝑧0
lie on a circle of radius 𝜌𝜌 centered at point 𝑧𝑧0 𝑥𝑥
=> 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥0 2 + 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦0 2 = 𝜌𝜌 ⇔ 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑧𝑧0 = 𝜌𝜌 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝜌𝜌 > 0
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 44

𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 𝑦𝑦
a) 𝑧𝑧 = 1 where 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2
𝑧𝑧 = 1 ⇒ 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 1 ⇒ 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 1
𝑥𝑥
Equation of a circle centered at 0,0 Example: Z-Transform −1 1
b) 𝑧𝑧 − 1 − 2𝑗𝑗 = 5 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑧𝑧 − 1 − 2𝑗𝑗 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 − 1 − 2𝑗𝑗 = 𝑥𝑥 − 1 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑦𝑦 − 2
= 𝑥𝑥 − 1 2 + 𝑦𝑦 − 2 2 𝑦𝑦
𝑧𝑧 − 1 − 2𝑗𝑗 = 5 ⇒ 𝑥𝑥 − 1 2 + 𝑦𝑦 − 2 2 =5
2𝑗𝑗
2 2 2
𝑥𝑥 − 1 + 𝑦𝑦 − 2 = 5 ⇔ 𝑧𝑧 − 1 − 2𝑗𝑗 = 5
𝑥𝑥
1 6
Equation of a circle with radius 𝑟𝑟 = 5 centered at 𝑧𝑧0 = 1 + 2𝑗𝑗
Note : 𝑧𝑧 − 1 − 2𝑗𝑗 = 5 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧0 = 1 + 2𝑗𝑗
=> 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑧𝑧0 = 5 Equation of circle centered at 𝑧𝑧0 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 = 5
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 45

Interior Point : A point 𝑧𝑧0 is Interior S: 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑧𝑧0 < 𝜌𝜌 Boundary : The collection of
said to be an interior point of Disk S: 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑧𝑧0 ≤ 𝜌𝜌 boundary points of a set S is
a set S of the complex plane if Boundary: 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑧𝑧0 = 𝜌𝜌 called the boundary of S.
there exists some 𝒚𝒚
neighborhood of 𝑧𝑧𝑜𝑜 that lies Set S: 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑧𝑧0 = 𝜌𝜌
entirely within S .
Boundary Point : If every
Open Set : If every point 𝑧𝑧 of a neighborhood of a point 𝑧𝑧1 of
set S is an interior point, then a set S contains at least one
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒛𝒛𝟎𝟎 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 point of S and at least one
S is said to be an Open set
point NOT in S , then 𝑧𝑧1 is said
Set S: 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑧𝑧0 < 𝜌𝜌 (Open Set) to be a boundary point of S
(All Interior Points and no Boundary Points)
𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟏 𝒙𝒙
Closed : A set that contains all Neighborhood of Point 𝑧𝑧1
of its boundary points is said
to be closed. Exterior Point : A point 𝑧𝑧 that
Region : A region is a domain is neither an interior point
e.g. Disk S: 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑧𝑧0 ≤ 𝜌𝜌 (closed) in the complex plane together nor a boundary point of a set
with all , some or none of its S is said to be an exterior
boundary points. point of S .
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 46
Interior S: 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑧𝑧0 < 𝜌𝜌 Boundary : The collection of
Disk S: 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑧𝑧0 ≤ 𝜌𝜌 boundary points of a set S is
Boundary: 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑧𝑧0 = 𝜌𝜌 called the boundary of S.
𝒚𝒚
Set S: 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑧𝑧0 = 𝜌𝜌2
Set S: 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑧𝑧0 = 𝜌𝜌1
Open Set : If every point 𝑧𝑧 of a

𝜌𝜌2
set S is an interior point, then Connected Set : If any pair of
S is said to be an Open set 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝑧𝑧0 𝒛𝒛𝟎𝟎𝜌𝜌1 points z1 & z2 in an open set
S can be connected by a
Set 𝜌𝜌1 < 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑧𝑧0 < 𝜌𝜌2 (Open) polygonal line that lies
(All Interior Points and no Boundary Points) entirely in the set, then the
open S is said to be connected
𝟏𝟏 𝒙𝒙
S: 𝜌𝜌1 < 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑧𝑧0 < 𝜌𝜌2 (Open)

S: 𝜌𝜌1 ≤ 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑧𝑧0 < 𝜌𝜌2 (Not Open and Not Closed)
S: 𝜌𝜌1 < 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑧𝑧0 ≤ 𝜌𝜌2 (Not Open and Not Closed)
S: 𝜌𝜌1 ≤ 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑧𝑧0 ≤ 𝜌𝜌2 (Closed)
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 47

• Let us examine the set 𝑺𝑺 defined as 𝑹𝑹𝒆𝒆(𝒛𝒛 ) ≥ 𝟏𝟏 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑆𝑆 𝑹𝑹𝒆𝒆(𝒛𝒛 ) ≥ 𝟏𝟏
𝑦𝑦
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒(𝑧𝑧 ) ≥ 1 is Not Open since every neighborhood
of a point on the line 𝑥𝑥 = 1 𝑖𝑖. 𝑒𝑒. 𝑧𝑧𝑜𝑜 = 1 + 2𝑗𝑗 will contain 2
points in 𝑆𝑆 and points not in 𝑆𝑆
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑆𝑆
• W𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚: 𝑆𝑆 = {𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒 (𝑧𝑧 ) > 1 }
0 1 𝑥𝑥
we can find a neighborhood for every point z ⊂ 𝑆𝑆
where the neighborhood is also included entirely in 𝑆𝑆 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑧𝑧
C𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨: 𝑆𝑆 = {𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒 (𝑧𝑧 ) ≥ 1 } is not open because all the points 𝑧𝑧 that are on the 𝑥𝑥 = 1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑖𝑖. 𝑒𝑒. 𝑧𝑧𝑜𝑜 = 1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 do not have a neighborhood 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑧𝑧𝑜𝑜 = 1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 that would be entirely included in 𝑆𝑆
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 48

Definition: Connected Set
• If any pair of points 𝑧𝑧1 & 𝑧𝑧2 in an open set S can be connected by a polygonal line that lies
entirely in the set, then the open set S is said to be connected.
• An open connected set is called a domain
Example : 𝑦𝑦 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2
𝑥𝑥
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 & 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦
𝑧𝑧 > 1
1 < 𝑧𝑧 < 2
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑧𝑧 < 0
1 2 1 2
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 & 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 & 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 & 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 49

𝑦𝑦
• −1 < 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒 (𝑧𝑧) < 1 open & connected set
−1 1 𝑥𝑥
• Open set but 𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍 connected. [Not possible to join points on

either side of the vertical line x = 4 by a polygonal line without
𝑦𝑦
leaving the 𝑆𝑆]
𝑧𝑧2 𝑧𝑧1
4 𝑥𝑥
𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍: points on 𝑥𝑥 = 4 are NOT in the set
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑧𝑧 ≠ 4
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑧𝑧 = 4 (𝑖𝑖. 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 = 4 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸)
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 50

Definition : [Summary]
1) Disk: we say that the set of points defined by
|𝑧𝑧 − 𝑧𝑧𝑜𝑜 | ≤ ℓ ⇒ is a disk of radius ℓ centerted @ 𝑧𝑧𝑜𝑜

𝑧𝑧 − 𝑧𝑧𝑜𝑜 < ℓ ⇒ within the circle.
|𝑧𝑧 − 𝑧𝑧𝑜𝑜 | = ℓ ⇒ on the circle.
2) Interior Point: A point 𝑧𝑧0 is said to be an interior point of a set S of the complex plane if there
exists some neighborhood of 𝑧𝑧𝑜𝑜 that lies entirely within S .
3) Open Set: If every point 𝑧𝑧 of a set S is an interior point, then S is said to be an Open set
4) Boundary Point: If every neighborhood of a point 𝑧𝑧𝑜𝑜 of a set S contains at least one point of S
and at least one point NOT in S , then 𝑧𝑧𝑜𝑜 is said to be a boundary point of S
5) Boundary: The collection of boundary points of a set S is called the boundary of S
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𝟔𝟔) Exterior Point: A point 𝑧𝑧 that is neither an interior point nor a
boundary point of a set S is said to be an exterior point of S .
7) Connected Set: If any pair of points z1 & z2 in an open set S can be connected by a polygonal
line that lies entirely in the set, then the open S is said to be connected.
8) 𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃𝐃: An open connected set is called a domain
9) Region: A region is a domain in the complex plane together with all, some or none of its
boundary points.
10) Closed: A set that contains all of its boundary points is said to be closed.
11) Bounded Sets: we say that a set S in the complex plane is bounded if there exists a real
number 𝑅𝑅 > 0 such that 𝑧𝑧 < 𝑅𝑅 for every 𝑧𝑧 in S
12) Unbounded: A set is unbounded if it is NOT bounded.
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 52

Section 17.4
Chapter 17 Functions of a Complex
Variable
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17.4 Functions of a Complex Variable
Function f: rule of correspondance between 2 sets A & B - assign to each element in A one and
only one element in B .
𝐢𝐢. 𝐞𝐞 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 & 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝐵𝐵
𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦
image of a 𝑓𝑓
A B
Example:
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
A: set of real numb𝑒𝑒rs defined by 3 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 < ∞
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = (𝑥𝑥 − 3)
A: domain of the function 𝑓𝑓
⇒ 𝑓𝑓 3 = 3−3 =0 B: range of the function 𝑓𝑓
⇒ 𝑓𝑓(4) = (4 − 3) = 1 = 1
B: range of 𝑓𝑓 would be 0 ≤ y ≤ ∞
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥−3
𝐢𝐢. 𝐞𝐞. A ∶ 3 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 < ∞ B∶0≤y≤∞ 𝑓𝑓: function of real variable 𝑥𝑥.
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Definition: A complex function is a function whose domain & range are subsets of the set ℂ of
complex numbers.
A: domain ⇒ set of all complex numbers 𝑧𝑧 ; B: range ⇒ set of all complex numbers 𝑤𝑤
𝒘𝒘 = 𝒇𝒇 𝒛𝒛 : function of a complex variable 𝑧𝑧 (image of z)

𝑧𝑧 − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑤𝑤 − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑦𝑦 𝑣𝑣
⇒ 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑢𝑢(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧)
z w
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒(𝑤𝑤) 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚(𝑤𝑤)
𝑥𝑥 𝑢𝑢
Examples:
𝑤𝑤 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧): mapping or
• 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧 2 − 4𝑧𝑧 ∀ 𝑧𝑧 Let 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 transformation from 𝑧𝑧 to 𝑤𝑤 plane
𝑧𝑧
• 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 2 𝑧𝑧 ≠ 𝑗𝑗 & 𝑧𝑧 ≠ −𝑗𝑗
𝑧𝑧 +1
Let 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧 2 − 4𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 2 − 4 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

= 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 𝑗𝑗 2 𝑦𝑦 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 − 4𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 − 𝑦𝑦 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 − 4𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
= 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑦𝑦 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 4𝑦𝑦 = 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑢𝑢(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) 𝑣𝑣(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 55
Example 1: Find the image of the line 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒(𝑧𝑧) = 1 under the mapping 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧) = 𝑧𝑧 2
Let 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧) = 𝑧𝑧 2 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 2

= 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 𝑗𝑗 2 𝑦𝑦 2 (𝑗𝑗 2 =-1)
⇒ 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧) = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑦𝑦 2 + 2𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑢𝑢(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) 𝑣𝑣(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)
Note: 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 but we are given that 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒(𝑧𝑧) = 1 ⇒ 𝑥𝑥 = 1
⇒ 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 1 − 𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 ⇒ 𝑢𝑢 = 1 − 𝑦𝑦 2 & 𝑣𝑣 = 2𝑦𝑦

𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧 2
𝑢𝑢 𝑦𝑦 𝑣𝑣
𝑣𝑣
𝑤𝑤 − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
2
𝑧𝑧 − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑢𝑢 = 1 − 𝑦𝑦 2
� parametric equations of a curve in the 𝑤𝑤 − plane 1
𝑣𝑣 = 2𝑦𝑦
𝑥𝑥 𝑢𝑢
𝑣𝑣 2
since: 𝑣𝑣 = 2𝑦𝑦 ⇒ 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑣𝑣⁄2 ⇒ 𝑢𝑢 = 1 − 𝑦𝑦 2 = 1 − 𝑥𝑥 = 1
2 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑧𝑧 = 1 −2
𝑣𝑣 2 𝑣𝑣 2
⇒ 𝑢𝑢 = 1 − ⇒ = 1 − 𝑢𝑢 ⇒ 𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐 = 𝟒𝟒 𝟏𝟏 − 𝒖𝒖 parabola in 𝑤𝑤 − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
4 4
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 56

Example 2: Find the image of the line Re z = 2 under the mapping
𝑤𝑤 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 1 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑧𝑧; where 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒:
𝑤𝑤 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 1 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑧𝑧 = 1 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 − 𝑦𝑦 ⇒ 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑗𝑗(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦)
• 𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 = 2 − 𝑦𝑦 ⇒ 𝑦𝑦 = 2 − 𝑢𝑢
2 − 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑣𝑣 − 2 ⇒ 𝒗𝒗 = 𝟒𝟒 − 𝒖𝒖
• 𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 = 2 + 𝑦𝑦 ⇒ 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑣𝑣 − 2
𝑦𝑦 𝑣𝑣
𝑧𝑧 − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 1 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑧𝑧
𝑥𝑥 = 2
4 𝑣𝑣 = 4 − 𝑢𝑢
𝑥𝑥 𝑢𝑢
0 4
1 2
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𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺 𝒇𝒇 𝒛𝒛 𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃 𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊: 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥 + 1?
⇒ 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑗𝑗(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦)
• 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑥 + 1 = 𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑥 − 1 = −𝑥𝑥 − 1 ⇒ 𝑥𝑥 = −𝑢𝑢 − 1

• 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑥 + 1 = 3𝑥𝑥 + 1
⇒ 𝑣𝑣 = 3 −𝑢𝑢 − 1 + 1 = −3𝑢𝑢 − 3 + 1 ⇒ 𝒗𝒗 = −𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 − 𝟑𝟑
𝑣𝑣
𝑦𝑦
𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 1 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑧𝑧
1 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥 + 1
𝑣𝑣 = −3𝑢𝑢 − 2 1
𝑥𝑥 𝑢𝑢
0
−1 2 −1
2
−2
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17.4 Limits
Definition: f is said to possess a limit at 𝐳𝐳𝒐𝒐 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝐿𝐿
𝑧𝑧→𝑧𝑧0
if for each ε > 0 , there exists a 𝛿𝛿 > 0 such that 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 − 𝐿𝐿 < 𝜀𝜀 whenever 0 < 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑧𝑧0 < 𝛿𝛿
the points f(z) can be made arbitrarily close to the point 𝐿𝐿 if we choose the point z sufficiently
close, but not equal to the point 𝑧𝑧𝑜𝑜
• For real variables 𝒙𝒙:

𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 𝒇𝒇 𝒙𝒙 = 𝑳𝑳
𝒙𝒙→𝒙𝒙𝟎𝟎 𝒙𝒙 𝒙𝒙𝟎𝟎 𝒙𝒙
means 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 → 𝐿𝐿 as 𝑥𝑥 approches 𝑥𝑥0 either from the right or from the left
• For complex variables 𝐳𝐳: 𝑦𝑦 𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧

𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 𝒇𝒇 𝒛𝒛 = 𝑳𝑳
𝒛𝒛→𝒛𝒛𝟎𝟎 𝑧𝑧0
𝑧𝑧
means 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 → 𝐿𝐿 as 𝑧𝑧 approches 𝑧𝑧𝑜𝑜 from any direction
𝑥𝑥
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Criterion for the Non Existence of a limit
If f approches two complex numbers 𝐋𝐋𝟏𝟏 ≠ 𝐋𝐋𝟐𝟐 along two different curves or paths through 𝒛𝒛𝒐𝒐 , then:
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 does not exist

𝑧𝑧
𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄: show that 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 does not exist. Let 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 & 𝑧𝑧̅ = 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑧𝑧→0 𝑧𝑧̅
• let 𝑧𝑧 approach 0 along the real axis 𝑦𝑦 = 0
𝑧𝑧 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗0
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 1 = 1
𝑧𝑧→0 z
� 𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑗𝑗0 𝑥𝑥→0
• let 𝑧𝑧 approach 0 along the imaginary axis 𝑥𝑥 = 0
𝑧𝑧 𝑥𝑥+𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 0+𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 −1 = −1
𝑧𝑧→0 𝑧𝑧̅ 𝑦𝑦→0 𝑥𝑥−𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑦𝑦→0 0−𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑦𝑦→0
𝑧𝑧
S𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢, the two values are not equal ⇒ 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � does not exist.
𝑧𝑧→0 𝒛𝒛
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17.4 Limits
Theorem: Real & imaginary parts of a limit
Suppose that 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 , 𝑧𝑧0 = 𝑥𝑥0 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦0 & 𝐿𝐿 = 𝑢𝑢0 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗0
Then: 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝐿𝐿 if and only if:

𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑢𝑢0 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑣𝑣0

𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦 → 𝑥𝑥0 𝑦𝑦0 𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦 → 𝑥𝑥0 𝑦𝑦0
Note: Could compute many complex limits by computing a pair of real limits.
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17.4 Limits
𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩: Compute 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧 2 + 𝑗𝑗 z = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑧𝑧→1+𝑗𝑗
• 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧 2 + 𝑗𝑗 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 2
+ 𝑗𝑗 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑗𝑗 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑗𝑗 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 1
𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦 𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦
• 𝑧𝑧0 = 1 + 𝑗𝑗 = 𝑥𝑥0 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦0 𝑥𝑥0 = 1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑦𝑦0 = 1
𝑢𝑢0 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑦𝑦 2 = 12 − 12 = 0

𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦 → 1,1 𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦 → 1,1
𝑣𝑣0 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 1 = 2 + 1 = 3

𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦 → 1,1 𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦 → 1,1
𝐿𝐿 = 𝑢𝑢0 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗0 ⇒ 𝐿𝐿 = 0 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗 ⇒ 𝐿𝐿 = 3𝑗𝑗 ⇒ 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧 2 + 𝑗𝑗 = 3𝑗𝑗

Alternate: 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧 2 + 𝑗𝑗 = 1 + 𝑗𝑗 2
+ j = 1 + 2j + 𝑗𝑗 2 + j = 1 + 2j − 1 + j = 3j
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17.4 Limits
Example: Find 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 2 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
• 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 2 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑧𝑧 = 2 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 2𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 − 𝑦𝑦
= 2𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦
• 𝑧𝑧0 = 1 + 𝑗𝑗 = 𝑥𝑥0 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗0 ⇒ 𝑥𝑥0 = 1 & 𝑦𝑦0 = 1
𝑢𝑢0 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 2𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 = 2 − 1 = 1

𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦 → 1,1 𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦 → 1,1
𝑣𝑣0 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 = 1 + 2 = 3

𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦 → 1,1 𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦 → 1,1
𝐿𝐿 = 𝑥𝑥0 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗0 = 1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 2 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑧𝑧 = 1 + 3𝑗𝑗
Alternate: 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 2 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑧𝑧 = 2 + j 1 + j = 2 + 2j + j − 1 = 1 + 3j
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17.4 Limits
Theorem:
let 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝐿𝐿1 & 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 = 𝐿𝐿2

𝑧𝑧→𝑧𝑧0 𝑧𝑧→𝑧𝑧0
i. 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 = 𝐿𝐿1 + 𝐿𝐿2

ii. 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 = 𝐿𝐿1 𝐿𝐿2

𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 𝐿𝐿1
iii. 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝑳𝑳𝟐𝟐 ≠ 𝟎𝟎
𝑧𝑧→𝑧𝑧0 𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 𝐿𝐿2
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17.4 Limits
3+𝑗𝑗 𝑧𝑧 4 −𝑧𝑧 2 +2𝑧𝑧
Example: 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑧𝑧→𝑗𝑗 𝑧𝑧+1
Using the above theorems, we have:
• 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧 2 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(𝑧𝑧)(𝑧𝑧) = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧 = (𝑗𝑗)(𝑗𝑗) = 𝑗𝑗 2 = −1

𝑧𝑧→𝑗𝑗 𝑧𝑧→𝑗𝑗 𝑧𝑧→𝑗𝑗 𝑧𝑧→𝑗𝑗
• 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧 4 = 𝑗𝑗 4 = (𝑗𝑗 2 )(𝑗𝑗 2 ) = −1 × −1 = 1

𝑧𝑧→𝑗𝑗
• lim[ 3 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑧𝑧 4 − 𝑧𝑧 2 + 2𝑧𝑧] = 3 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧 4 − 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧 2 + 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 2𝑧𝑧 = 3 + 𝑗𝑗 1 − −1 + 2𝑗𝑗 = 4 + 3𝑗𝑗

𝑧𝑧→𝑗𝑗 𝑧𝑧→𝑗𝑗 𝑧𝑧→𝑗𝑗 𝑧𝑧→𝑗𝑗
• 𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑖𝑚𝑚 𝑧𝑧 + 1 = 𝑗𝑗 + 1
𝑧𝑧→𝑗𝑗
lim[ 3+𝑗𝑗 𝑧𝑧 4 −𝑧𝑧 2 +2𝑧𝑧]

3+𝑗𝑗 𝑧𝑧 4 −𝑧𝑧 2 +2𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧→𝑗𝑗 4+3𝑗𝑗 4+3𝑗𝑗 𝑗𝑗−1 4𝑗𝑗−4−3−3𝑗𝑗 −7+𝑗𝑗 7 1
⇒ 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = = = = = = − 𝑗𝑗
𝑧𝑧→𝑗𝑗 𝑧𝑧+1 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧+1 𝑗𝑗+1 𝑗𝑗+1 𝑗𝑗−1 −1−1 −2 2 2
𝑧𝑧→𝑗𝑗
3 + j z 4 − z 2 + 2z 3 + j j4 − j2 + 2𝑗𝑗 3 + j 1 + 1 + 2j 3 + j + 1 + 2j 4 + 3j 7 1
or lim = = = = = − j
z→j z+1 j+1 j+1 j+1 j+1 2 2
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17.4 Limits
𝑧𝑧 2 −2𝑧𝑧+4
Example: 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑧𝑧→1+𝑗𝑗 3 𝑧𝑧−1−𝑗𝑗 3
• 𝑧𝑧 2 − 2𝑧𝑧 + 4 = 0 (Factor using Quadratic equation)

1� 1 1� 1�
2± 4−4 1 4 2 2± −12 �2 2± 12𝑗𝑗 2 2 2± 4+3𝑗𝑗 2 2
2±2𝑗𝑗 3
𝑧𝑧 = = = = = = 1 ± 𝑗𝑗 3
2 2 2 2 2
⇒ 𝑧𝑧 2 − 2𝑧𝑧 + 4 = 𝑧𝑧 − 1 + 𝑗𝑗 3 𝑧𝑧 − (1 − 𝑗𝑗 3)
𝑧𝑧 2 − 2𝑧𝑧 + 4 𝑧𝑧 − 1 − 𝑗𝑗 3 𝑧𝑧 − 1 + 𝑗𝑗 3
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧 − 1 + 𝑗𝑗 3
𝑧𝑧→1+𝑗𝑗 3 𝑧𝑧 − 1 − 𝑗𝑗 3 𝑧𝑧→1+𝑗𝑗 3 𝑧𝑧 − 1 − 𝑗𝑗 3 𝑧𝑧→1+𝑗𝑗 3
𝑧𝑧 2 − 2𝑧𝑧 + 4
= 1 + 𝑗𝑗 3 − 1 + 𝑗𝑗 3 = 2𝑗𝑗 3 ⇒ 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 2𝑗𝑗 3
𝑍𝑍→1+𝑗𝑗 3 𝑧𝑧 − 1 − 𝑗𝑗 3
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17.4 Continuity
Definition: A complex function f is continuous at a poin𝑡𝑡 𝑧𝑧0 if
lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧0
Criteria for Continuity at a Point: A complex function f is continuous at a point 𝑧𝑧0 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖:
i. lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
ii. 𝑓𝑓 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧0
iii. lim 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧0

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17.4 Continuity
Example: 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧 2 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 2. 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 continuous at 𝑧𝑧0 = 1 − 𝑗𝑗 ?
Solution:
• 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧 2 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 2 = 1 − 𝑗𝑗 2

− 𝑗𝑗 1 − 𝑗𝑗 + 2 = 1 − 2𝑗𝑗 − 1 − 𝑗𝑗 − 1 + 2 = 1 − 3𝑗𝑗
𝑧𝑧→𝑧𝑧0 𝑧𝑧→1−𝑗𝑗
2
• 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧0 = 1 − 𝑗𝑗 − 𝑗𝑗 1 − 𝑗𝑗 + 2 = 1 − 3𝑗𝑗
𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧0 ) ⇒ 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧0 = 1 − 𝑗𝑗

Theorem: If 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 and 𝑧𝑧0 = 𝑥𝑥0 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦0 , then the complex
function f is continuous at the point 𝑧𝑧0 if and only if both real functions 𝑢𝑢 & 𝑣𝑣 are
continuous at the point 𝑥𝑥0 , 𝑦𝑦0
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17.4 Continuity
Example: let 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧 2 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 2 . Is it continuous at 𝑧𝑧0 = 1 − 𝑗𝑗 ?
Solution:
• 𝑧𝑧 2 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 2 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 2
− 𝑗𝑗 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 2 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 − 𝑦𝑦 2 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 𝑦𝑦 + 2
= 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑦𝑦 + 2 + 𝑗𝑗 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥
• 𝑧𝑧0 = 1 − 𝑗𝑗 = 1 − 𝑗𝑗 1 𝑧𝑧0 = 𝑥𝑥0 + 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦0 𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 𝑥𝑥0 = 1 & 𝑦𝑦0 = −1 𝑧𝑧0 → 1, −1
• 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑦𝑦 + 2 = 1 − −1 2

+ 2 = 1 − 1 − 1 + 2 = 1 = 𝒖𝒖𝟎𝟎
𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦 → 1,−1 𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦 → 1,−1
• 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 = 2 1 −1 − 1 = −2 − 1 = −3 = 𝒗𝒗𝟎𝟎

𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦 → 1,−1 𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦 → 1,−1
• 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝐿𝐿 = 𝑢𝑢0 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗0 = 1 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗

2
• 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧0 = 1 − 𝑗𝑗 − 𝑗𝑗 1 − 𝑗𝑗 + 2 = 1 − 3𝑗𝑗
𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒: 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧0 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 is continuous at 𝑧𝑧0 = 1 − 𝑗𝑗

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17.4 Continuity
Properties of Continuous Functions
Theorem: if f & g are continuous at the point 𝑧𝑧0 , then the following functions are continuous
at the point 𝑧𝑧0 :
i. 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ; 𝑐𝑐 is a complex constant
ii. 𝑓𝑓 ± 𝑔𝑔
iii. (𝑓𝑓)(𝑔𝑔)
𝑓𝑓
iv. 𝑔𝑔
provided 𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧0 ≠ 0
Theorem: Complex polynomial functions are continuous on the entire complex plane.
• Polynomial of degree 𝑛𝑛: 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛−1 𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎2 𝑧𝑧 2 + 𝑎𝑎1 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑎𝑎0 ; 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 ≠ 0
where: 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 0 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎: 𝑖𝑖 = 0,1,2, … , 𝑛𝑛 are complex constants
Note: 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 is continuous everywhere

𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧
• 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = rational function is continuous except at those points where ℎ 𝑧𝑧 = 0
ℎ 𝑧𝑧
• Rational functions are continuous on their domains.
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17.4 Derivative
Derivative 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 ∆𝑧𝑧 = ∆𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗∆𝑦𝑦
• f : Complex Function
• z0 : point in 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧0 +∆𝑧𝑧 −𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧0

 The derivative of 𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧0 is: 𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑧𝑧0 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
∆𝑧𝑧→0 ∆𝑧𝑧
• If above limit exists ⇒ 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 differentiable at z0
𝑑𝑑𝑤𝑤
• Let 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 ⇒ derivative is denoted by
𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧
Note: If f is differentiable at z0 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓 is continuous at 𝑧𝑧0
Note: In order for complex function 𝑓𝑓 to be differentiable at a point 𝑧𝑧 0

𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧0 + ∆𝑧𝑧 − 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧0
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
must approach the same complex number from any direction

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17.4 Derivative
 Important Rules of Differentiation 𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒

𝑑𝑑
i) 𝑐𝑐 =0 c is a constant
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑐𝑐 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑐𝑐 𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑧𝑧 z : complex
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
iii) 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 Sum rule
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑
iv) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 Product rule
𝑑𝑑 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 𝑓𝑓′ 𝑧𝑧 𝑔𝑔(𝑧𝑧)−𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 𝑔𝑔′ (𝑧𝑧)

𝑣𝑣) = Quotient rule
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 2
𝑑𝑑
vi) 𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 Chain rule
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑
vii) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛−1 Power rule 𝑛𝑛 : integer
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17.4 Derivative
Example 3:
a) 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 3𝑧𝑧 4 − 5𝑧𝑧 3 + 2𝑧𝑧
𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑧𝑧 = 4 3𝑧𝑧 3 − 3 5𝑧𝑧 2 + 2 = 12𝑧𝑧 3 − 15𝑧𝑧 2 + 2
𝑧𝑧 2
b) 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 =
4𝑧𝑧 + 1
′ 2𝑧𝑧 4𝑧𝑧+1 −4 𝑧𝑧 2 8𝑧𝑧 2 +2𝑧𝑧−4𝑧𝑧 2 4𝑧𝑧 2 +2𝑧𝑧

𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = = =
4𝑧𝑧+1 2 4𝑧𝑧+1 2 4𝑧𝑧+1 2
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17.4 Derivative
𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄: 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 4𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Solution: ∆𝑧𝑧 = ∆𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗∆𝑦𝑦
• 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 + ∆𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + ∆𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑦𝑦 + ∆𝑦𝑦
• 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 + ∆𝑧𝑧 − 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + ∆𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑦𝑦 + ∆𝑦𝑦 − 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑥𝑥 + ∆𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗∆𝑦𝑦 − 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
= 𝑥𝑥 + ∆𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗∆𝑦𝑦 − 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = ∆𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗∆𝑦𝑦
𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 + ∆𝑧𝑧 − 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = ∆𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗∆𝑦𝑦
𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧+∆𝑧𝑧 −𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 ∆𝑥𝑥+𝑗𝑗𝑗∆𝑦𝑦
• 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 lim = lim
∆𝑧𝑧→0 ∆𝑧𝑧 ∆𝑧𝑧→0 ∆𝑥𝑥+𝑗𝑗∆𝑦𝑦
• 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 ∆𝑧𝑧 → 0 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 ⫽ 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ⇒ ∆𝑦𝑦 = 0 ∆𝑧𝑧 = ∆𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗∆𝑦𝑦 = ∆𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗0 = ∆𝑥𝑥
∆𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗∆𝑦𝑦 ∆𝑥𝑥 + 0
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 1 = 1
∆𝑧𝑧→0 ∆𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗∆𝑦𝑦 ∆𝑧𝑧→0 ∆𝑥𝑥 + 0 ∆𝑧𝑧→0
• 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 ∆𝑧𝑧 → 0 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 ⫽ 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ⇒ ∆𝑥𝑥 = 0 ⇒ ∆𝑧𝑧 = ∆𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗∆𝑦𝑦 = 0 + 𝑗𝑗∆𝑦𝑦 = 𝑗𝑗∆𝑦𝑦
∆𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗∆𝑦𝑦 𝑗𝑗𝑗∆𝑦𝑦
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 =4
∆𝑧𝑧→0 ∆𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗∆𝑦𝑦 ∆𝑧𝑧→0 𝑗𝑗∆𝑦𝑦
• 𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇 the limit value is different as ∆z → 0 from different points

𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 is Not differentiable at any point
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Augustin-Louis Cauchy Bernhard Riemann
(1789-1857) (1826-1866)
Section 17.5
Chapter 17
Cauchy-Riemann Equations
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17.5 Cauchy-Riemann Equations
D𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞: A complex function 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 is said to be 𝐀𝐀𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧 at a point 𝑧𝑧0

if 𝑓𝑓 is differentiable at 𝑧𝑧0 and at every point in some 𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧 of 𝑧𝑧0
⇒ 𝑓𝑓 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐷𝐷 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐷𝐷
Note:
1. Analyticity is a neighborhood property
2. A function that is Analytic at every point z is said to be an Entire function
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Necessary Condition for Analyticity
Theorem: Let 𝒇𝒇 𝒛𝒛 = 𝒖𝒖 𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚 + 𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋 𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚 be differentiable at a point 𝒛𝒛 = 𝒙𝒙 + 𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋.

Then at 𝑧𝑧 , the 1𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 order partial derivatives of 𝑢𝑢 & 𝑣𝑣 exist and satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann (C-R)
Equations: 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
= and =−
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
Proof:
𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧+∆𝑧𝑧 −𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧
since 𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑧𝑧 exists 𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑧𝑧 = lim
but 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 and ∆𝑧𝑧 = ∆𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗∆𝑦𝑦
𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥 + ∆𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 + ∆𝑦𝑦 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑥𝑥 + ∆𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 + ∆𝑦𝑦 − 𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦

⇒ 𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑧𝑧 = lim
∆𝑧𝑧→0 ∆𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗∆𝑦𝑦
Since the limit exists ⇒ ∆𝑧𝑧 can approach zero from any direction.
Choose ∆𝒛𝒛 → 𝟎𝟎 𝐇𝐇orizontally ⇒ ∆𝑦𝑦 = 0 ⇒ ∆𝑧𝑧 = ∆𝑥𝑥 ∆𝑦𝑦 = 0
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′
𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥 + ∆𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑥𝑥 + ∆𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦
⇒ 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = lim
∆𝑥𝑥→0 ∆𝑥𝑥
𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥 + ∆𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥 + ∆𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦

= lim + 𝑗𝑗
∆𝑥𝑥→0 ∆𝑥𝑥 ∆𝑥𝑥
𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥 + ∆𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥 + ∆𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦

= lim + 𝑗𝑗 lim
∆𝑥𝑥→0 ∆𝑥𝑥 ∆𝑥𝑥→0 ∆𝑥𝑥
Since 𝒇𝒇′ 𝒛𝒛 exists ⇒ 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 above two limits exist
Note:
𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥 + ∆𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥 + ∆𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦

≜ lim ; ≜ lim
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 ∆𝑥𝑥→0 ∆𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 ∆𝑥𝑥→0 ∆𝑥𝑥
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑧𝑧 = + 𝑗𝑗
⇒ 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 78

• Now let ∆𝒛𝒛 → 𝟎𝟎 𝐕𝐕ertically ⇒ ∆𝑧𝑧 = 𝑗𝑗 ∆𝑦𝑦 ∆𝑥𝑥 = 0
𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦+∆𝑦𝑦 +𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦+∆𝑦𝑦 −𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦
⇒ 𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑧𝑧 = lim
∆𝑦𝑦→0 𝑗𝑗∆𝑦𝑦
𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦+∆𝑦𝑦 −𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦 𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦+∆𝑦𝑦 −𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦

= lim + 𝑗𝑗
∆𝑦𝑦→0 𝑗𝑗∆𝑦𝑦 𝑗𝑗∆𝑦𝑦
𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 + ∆𝑦𝑦 − 𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 + ∆𝑦𝑦 − 𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦

= lim + 𝑗𝑗 lim
∆𝑦𝑦→0 𝑗𝑗∆𝑦𝑦 ∆𝑦𝑦→0 𝑗𝑗∆𝑦𝑦
1 𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦+∆𝑦𝑦 −𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦 𝑗𝑗 𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦+∆𝑦𝑦 −𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦

= lim + lim
𝑗𝑗 ∆𝑦𝑦→0 ∆𝑦𝑦 𝑗𝑗 ∆𝑦𝑦→0 ∆𝑦𝑦
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

= −𝑗𝑗 + ⇒ 𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑧𝑧 = − 𝑗𝑗
𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 79

As a result, we have:
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢
𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑧𝑧 = + 𝑗𝑗 & 𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑧𝑧 = − 𝑗𝑗
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦
𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢

⇒ + 𝑗𝑗 = − 𝑗𝑗
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦
Equating the real & imaginary parts:
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
=
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
Cauchy –Riemann (C-R) Equations
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
=−
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
Summary: If a complex function 𝒇𝒇 𝒛𝒛 = 𝒖𝒖 𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚 + 𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋 𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚 is Analytic throughout a domain D

then 𝒖𝒖 & 𝒗𝒗 must satisfy the Cauchy – Riemann Equations at every point in D
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 80

Theorem - Criterion for Analyticity: let 𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 & 𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 be continuous & have
continuous first-order partial derivatives in a domain D. If 𝑢𝑢 & 𝑣𝑣 satisfy the
Cauchy-Riemann Equations at all points of D, then the complex function:
𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 is Analytic in 𝑫𝑫
Conclusion:
f is Analytic  Cauchy - Riemann Equations are Satisfied
Note: This is analogous to the discussion in Section 9.9 for F Conservative
𝜕𝜕𝑄𝑄 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
Recall: Let F(x,y) = P(x,y)i + Q(x,y)j F is Conservative  =
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 81

Theorem:
If 𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 & 𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 are continuous & have continuous 1𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 order partial derivatives
in a neighborhood of z and if 𝑢𝑢 & 𝑣𝑣 satisfy the Cauchy Riemann equations at the
point z, then:
𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 is differentiable a𝑡𝑡 𝑧𝑧
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
and 𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑧𝑧 = + 𝑗𝑗 = − 𝑗𝑗
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
C-S Equations in Polar Coordinates

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
= & =−
𝜕𝜕𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
Extra Credit: Prove the above equations
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 82
Example 1: 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧 2 + 𝑧𝑧 is it Analytic? ∀𝑧𝑧 where 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
2
𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 𝑗𝑗 2 𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦
𝒖𝒖 𝒙𝒙,𝒚𝒚 𝒗𝒗 𝒙𝒙,𝒚𝒚
𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣

• = 2𝑥𝑥 + 1 ; = 2𝑥𝑥 + 1 ⇒ =
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦
𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣
⇒ C-R Equations are satisfied
• = −2𝑦𝑦 ; = 2𝑦𝑦 ⇒ − =
𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥
Example 2: 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 2𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑦𝑦 2 − 𝑥𝑥 Is it Analytic?

𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 ; 𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦 2 − 𝑥𝑥

• = 4𝑥𝑥 ; = 2𝑦𝑦 ⇒ = only if 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥 (y = 2x Equation of a line)
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦
𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢
• = −1 ; =1 ⇒ =−
⇒ C-R Equations are NOT satisfied
⇒ f if NOT Analytic
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 83

𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦
Example 3: let 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = − 𝑗𝑗 Is it Analytic?
𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦2 𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦2
𝑢𝑢(𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦) 𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦
𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 1 𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦2 −2𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦2 −2𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦2 −𝑥𝑥 2

• = ⇒ = =
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦2 2 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦2 2 𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦2 2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
⇒ =
𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 −1 𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦2 − −𝑦𝑦 2𝑦𝑦 −𝑥𝑥 2 −𝑦𝑦2 +2𝑦𝑦 2 𝑦𝑦2 −𝑥𝑥 2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
• = = =
𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦2 2 𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦2 2 𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦2 2
𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 0 𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦2 −2𝑦𝑦 𝑥𝑥 −2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥

• = = 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦2 2 𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦2 2
⇒ =−
0 𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦2 − −𝑦𝑦 2𝑥𝑥
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 −2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
• − =− =
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦2 2 𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦2 2
• C-R Equations are satisfied except at 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 0

⇒ that is at z=0 [𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 0 Eq. of a circle of radius zero centered at (0, 0) ]
⇒ 𝒇𝒇 is Analytic in any domain not containing the point 𝑧𝑧 = 0
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑦𝑦2 −𝑥𝑥 2 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥

• 𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑧𝑧 = + 𝑗𝑗 = − 𝑗𝑗 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑧𝑧 = + 𝑗𝑗
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦2 2 𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦2 2
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 84

Example: 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧 2 with 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
⇒ 𝑧𝑧 2 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 2
= 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 𝑗𝑗 2 𝑦𝑦 2 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
⇒ 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
�
𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣

= 2𝑥𝑥 ; = −2𝑦𝑦 ; = 2𝑦𝑦 ; = 2𝑥𝑥

Hence : = 2𝑥𝑥 = and = −2𝑦𝑦 = − ⇒ Analytic
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑧𝑧 = + 𝑗𝑗 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑧𝑧 = 2𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 2 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 2𝑧𝑧
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
Summary
𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧 2 & 𝑓𝑓′ 𝑧𝑧 = 2𝑧𝑧
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 85

Harmonic Functions
𝜕𝜕2 𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕2 𝑢𝑢
• Laplace Eq: 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 2
+
𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 2
=0 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝐶𝐶𝐶. 13 − 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
Definition: Harmonic Functions
A real - valued function ∅ 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 that has continuous 2𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 order partial derivatives in a domain D
and satisfies Laplace′s Equation is said to be Harmonic in D
Theorem: Suppose 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 is analytic in D. Then,

𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 & 𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 are Harmonic functions
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 86

17.5 Harmonic Functions
• Proof: Assume 𝑢𝑢 & 𝑣𝑣 have continuous 2𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 order partial derivative.
• since f is Analytic C-R Equations are satisfied
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
= & =−
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝐈𝐈 𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈
• Let us differentiate both sides of 𝐈𝐈 w.r.t 𝑥𝑥 & 𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈 w.r.t 𝑦𝑦
𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕2 𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕2 𝑣𝑣

I. ⇒ = = 𝐀𝐀
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕2 𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕2 𝑣𝑣

II. ⇒ = − = − 𝐁𝐁
𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕2 𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕2 𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕2 𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕2 𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑢𝑢

𝐀𝐀 + 𝐁𝐁 + = − =0 ⇒ + =0
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 2 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 2 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 2 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 2
⇒ 𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 is Harmonic
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 87

17.5 Harmonic Functions
• since f is Analytic => C-R Equations are satisfied
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

= & =−
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝐈𝐈 𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈
• Now let us differentiate both sides of 𝐈𝐈 w.r.t 𝑦𝑦 & 𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈 w.r.t 𝑥𝑥

𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑣𝑣
I. ⇒ = ⇒ = 𝐂𝐂
𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 2
II. ⇒
𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢
=−
𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣
⇒ 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑣𝑣 𝐃𝐃
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 =− 2
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥
𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕2 𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕2 𝑣𝑣

𝐂𝐂 - 𝐃𝐃 − = − − 2
𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 2 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥
𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕2 𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕2 𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑣𝑣

⇒ − = + ⇒ + =0 𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 is Harmonic
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦2 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 2 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 2 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 2
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 88

17.5 Harmonic Conjugate Functions
Harmonic Conjugate Functions
• If 𝒇𝒇 𝒛𝒛 = 𝒖𝒖 𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚 + 𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋 𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚 is analytic in domain D, then 𝑢𝑢 & 𝑣𝑣 are Harmonic in D. Now, let
𝒖𝒖 𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚 be a given function that is Harmonic in D, it is sometimes possible to find another
function 𝒗𝒗 𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚 that is Harmonic in D so that:
𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 is an analytic function in D
The funct𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝒗𝒗 is called a Harmonic Conjugate Function of 𝒖𝒖
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 89

Example 4:
a) 𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 − 5𝑦𝑦 is it Harmonic?
b) Find the Harmonic Conjugate Function of 𝑢𝑢
Solution ∶
a) 𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 − 5𝑦𝑦
𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕2 𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕2 𝑢𝑢
⇒ = 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 3𝑦𝑦 2 ; = 6𝑥𝑥 ; = −6𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 5; = −6𝑥𝑥
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕2
𝜕𝜕2 𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕2 𝑢𝑢
⇒ + = 6𝑥𝑥 − 6𝑥𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 is Harmonic
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 2 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 2
𝒃𝒃) Since 𝑣𝑣 must satisfy the C-R Equations
𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 2 2

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
⇒ = ⇒ = 3𝑥𝑥 − 3𝑦𝑦 ⇒ 𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 3𝑦𝑦 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
⇒ 𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦 3 + ℎ 𝑥𝑥
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 90

Now, using the 2𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 C-R Equation
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣
=− ⇒ = − −6𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 5 ⇒ = 6𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 5 𝑨𝑨
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥
𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣
But 𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦 3 + ℎ 𝑥𝑥 ⇒ = 6𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + ℎ′ 𝑥𝑥 𝑩𝑩
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥
𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣
𝐀𝐀 & 𝐁𝐁 ⇒ = ⇒ 6𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 5 = 6𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + ℎ′ 𝑥𝑥 ⇒ ℎ′ 𝑥𝑥 = 5 ⇒ ℎ 𝑥𝑥 = 5𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥
The harmonic conjugate of u is: 𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦 3 + 5𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐
Hence , the analytic function is 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑢𝑢 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦
⇒ 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 − 5𝑦𝑦 + 𝑗𝑗 3𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦 3 + 5𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 91

17.5 Summary
1) f is Analytic  Cauchy-Riemann Equations are Satisfied

= and =−
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

2) 𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑧𝑧 = + 𝑗𝑗 = − 𝑗𝑗
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
3) If 𝒇𝒇 𝒛𝒛 = 𝒖𝒖 𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚 + 𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋 𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚 is Analytic in domain D, then

𝑢𝑢 & 𝑣𝑣 are Harmonic in D => 2 + 2 = 0 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝜕𝜕2 𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕2 𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕2 𝑣𝑣
2 +
𝜕𝜕2 𝑣𝑣
2 = 0
4) Given 𝒖𝒖 𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚 . Is it Harmonic? Find its Harmonic Conjugate 𝒗𝒗 𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚

and form the Analytic function: 𝒇𝒇 𝒛𝒛 = 𝒖𝒖 𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚 + 𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋 𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 92

Section 17.6
Chapter 17 Exponential & Logarithmic
Functions
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 93

17.6 Exponential Functions
I) Complex Exponential Functions
• Power Series Expansion of:
𝑥𝑥 𝑘𝑘 𝑥𝑥 2
• Real: 𝑒𝑒 = ∑∞
𝑥𝑥
𝑘𝑘=0 = 1 + 𝑥𝑥 + +⋯
𝑘𝑘! 2
𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑘𝑘 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 2 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 3 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 4

• Complex: 𝑒𝑒 = ∑∞
𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦
𝑘𝑘=0 𝑘𝑘!
= 1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 +
2!
+
3!
+
4!
+⋯
• Euler Relations: 𝑒𝑒 ±𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = cos 𝑦𝑦 ± 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝑦𝑦

• Euler equations can be proven using Power Series:
∞
𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋
𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑘𝑘 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 2 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 3 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 4
𝒆𝒆 =� = 1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + + + +⋯
𝑘𝑘! 2! 3! 4!
𝑘𝑘=0
𝑦𝑦 2 𝑦𝑦 4 𝑦𝑦 6 𝑦𝑦 3 𝑦𝑦 5 𝑦𝑦 7
= 1− + − + ⋯ + 𝑗𝑗 𝑦𝑦 − + − + ⋯ = 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝒚𝒚 + 𝒋𝒋 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝒚𝒚
2! 4! 6! 3! 5! 7!
cos(𝑦𝑦) sin(𝑦𝑦)
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 94

17.6 Complex Exponential Function
Let 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 ⇒ 𝒇𝒇 𝒛𝒛 = 𝒆𝒆𝒛𝒛 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥+𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑦𝑦
⇒ 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑗𝑗𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑦𝑦
where: u(x,y) = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 sin 𝑥𝑥
𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑:
a) 𝑧𝑧 = 0 ⇒ 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 0 = 1
b) 𝑧𝑧 = 2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 2+𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
= 𝑒𝑒 2 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 2 [cos(𝜋𝜋) + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝜋𝜋 ] = 𝑒𝑒 2 [−1 + 𝑗𝑗0] = −𝑒𝑒 2
c) if 𝑦𝑦 = 0 ⇒ 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 0 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 0 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 1 + 0 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 ⇒ 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥
d) if 𝑥𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑦𝑦 ⇒ 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
Example 1: Evaluate 𝒆𝒆𝟏𝟏.𝟕𝟕+𝟒𝟒.𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝑒𝑒 1.7+4.2𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 1.7 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗.2 = 𝑒𝑒 1.7 cos 4.2 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 4.2 = −2.6837 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗.7710
Exponential form Rectangular form

2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 95
Properties of f(z) = 𝒆𝒆𝒛𝒛
i) 𝑒𝑒 0 = 1
ii) If 𝑧𝑧1 = 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗1 & 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗2
⇒ 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧1 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧1 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥1 +𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗1 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥2 +𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗2 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥1 +𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗1 + 𝑥𝑥2 +𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗2
= 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧1 +𝑧𝑧2 ⇒ 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧1 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧1 +𝑧𝑧2
𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧1
iii) Similarly, we can prove that: = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧1 −𝑧𝑧2
𝑧𝑧
𝑒𝑒 2
iv) 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧1 𝑛𝑛
= 𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑛𝑧𝑧1 , 𝑛𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, … . .
v) 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧+2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 𝑒𝑒 2𝜋𝜋𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 cos 2𝜋𝜋 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 2𝜋𝜋 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧

𝟏𝟏 𝟎𝟎
⇒ 𝒇𝒇 𝒛𝒛 = 𝒆𝒆𝒛𝒛 is periodic with period 𝟐𝟐𝝅𝝅𝒋𝒋
Note: 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 is Not periodic (𝒙𝒙: real )
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 96

17.6 Modulus, Argument & Conjugate
vi) Modulus, Argument & Conjugate:
• Let 𝒘𝒘 = 𝒆𝒆𝒛𝒛 where 𝒛𝒛 = 𝒙𝒙 + 𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋
⇒ 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥+𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑗𝑗𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 sin 𝑦𝑦
• If 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 ⇒ 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

⇒ 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 (𝑟𝑟 : Modulus)
⇒ 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑦𝑦 + 2𝜋𝜋𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, … (𝜃𝜃 ∶ Argument)
Note:
1) 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥
2) arg 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑦𝑦 + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝑘𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2; … …
3) 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 > 0 (∀𝑥𝑥: real) ⇒ 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 > 0 ⇒ 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 ≠ 0 ∀𝑧𝑧
Hence : 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 can not equal 0 for any value of 𝑧𝑧
• Conjugate: 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝑦𝑦 Note:

cos −𝑦𝑦 = cos 𝑦𝑦
= 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 cos −𝑦𝑦 + 𝑗𝑗 sin −𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗(−𝑦𝑦) = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
sin −𝑦𝑦 = − sin 𝑦𝑦
= 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥−𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧̅ ⇒ 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧̅ ∀𝑧𝑧
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 97
vii) Mapping Diagram (z-plane to w-plane)
𝑦𝑦 𝑣𝑣
𝑧𝑧
3𝜋𝜋 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒
2𝜋𝜋
𝜋𝜋
Fundamental Region
𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎
𝑦𝑦
𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥
0
𝑢𝑢
−𝜋𝜋
• 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 & − 𝜋𝜋 ≤ 𝑦𝑦 ≤ 𝜋𝜋 ⇒ 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥+𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑟𝑟1 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

• Let 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 & 𝜋𝜋 ≤ 𝑦𝑦 ≤ 3𝜋𝜋 ⇒ 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥+𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑟𝑟1 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
• 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 & 0 ≤ 𝑦𝑦 ≤ 2𝜋𝜋 ⇒ 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥+𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 =𝑟𝑟1 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
⇒ 𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓 𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 have the same mapping from z to w plane
𝒆𝒆. 𝒈𝒈. 𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰 𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰 (𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭 𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫): 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 → 𝑍𝑍 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 (𝑧𝑧 − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝)
𝑠𝑠 = 𝜎𝜎 + 𝑗𝑗Ω → 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑒𝑒 𝜎𝜎+𝑗𝑗Ω 𝑇𝑇 = 𝑒𝑒 𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗Ω𝑇𝑇
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 98
Mapping Diagram (z-plane to w-plane)
𝑦𝑦 𝑣𝑣
𝑧𝑧
2𝜋𝜋
𝑒𝑒 𝑏𝑏
𝜋𝜋
Fundamental Region
𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎
𝑦𝑦
𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥
0
𝑢𝑢
−𝜋𝜋
• 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑏𝑏 & − 𝜋𝜋 ≤ 𝑦𝑦 ≤ 𝜋𝜋 ⇒ 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥+𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑏𝑏 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑟𝑟2 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

• 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑏𝑏 & 0 ≤ 𝑦𝑦 ≤ 2𝜋𝜋 ⇒ 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥+𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑏𝑏 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 =𝑟𝑟2 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
⇒ Both have the same mapping from z to w plane
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 99
Mapping Diagram (z-plane to w-plane)
𝑦𝑦 𝑣𝑣
𝑧𝑧
2𝜋𝜋
𝑒𝑒 𝑏𝑏
𝜋𝜋
Fundamental Region
𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎
𝑦𝑦
𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥
0
𝑢𝑢
−𝜋𝜋
𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐
• 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐 & − 𝜋𝜋 ≤ 𝑦𝑦 ≤ 𝜋𝜋 ⇒ 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥+𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 =𝑟𝑟3 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

• 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐 & 0 ≤ 𝑦𝑦 ≤ 2𝜋𝜋 ⇒ 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥+𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 =𝑟𝑟3 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
⇒ Both have the same mapping from z to w plane
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 100
viii) Analyticity of f z = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧
• 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥+𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 sin 𝑦𝑦

Apply C-R Equations:

𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
= 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑦𝑦 , = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 cos(𝑦𝑦) 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = −𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 sin 𝑦𝑦 , = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 sin(y)
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥

⇒ = and = −
• Since 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 satisfies the C-R Equations

⇒ 𝒇𝒇 𝒛𝒛 is Analytic ∀𝒛𝒛 ⇒ 𝒇𝒇: Entire Function
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 101

ix) Derivative
Let 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 ⇒ 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥+𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑦𝑦
⇒ 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 sin 𝑦𝑦 C-R Equations:

𝒖𝒖 𝒙𝒙,𝒚𝒚 𝒗𝒗 𝒙𝒙,𝒚𝒚 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
= 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑦𝑦 =
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 = −𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 sin 𝑦𝑦 =
𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑧𝑧) = + 𝑗𝑗 = − 𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
⇒ 𝒇𝒇′ (𝒛𝒛) = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑗𝑗𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 sin 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥+𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝒆𝒆𝒛𝒛
𝑑𝑑 𝑧𝑧
⇒ 𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 102
Example: Find derivative of:
a) 𝑗𝑗𝑧𝑧 4 𝑧𝑧 2 − 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 Product Rule

𝑑𝑑
𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 4 𝑧𝑧 2 −𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑗𝑗4𝑧𝑧 3 𝑧𝑧 2 − 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑗𝑗𝑧𝑧 4 2𝑧𝑧 − 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 4𝑗𝑗𝑧𝑧 5 − 4𝑗𝑗𝑧𝑧 3 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 + 2𝑗𝑗𝑧𝑧 5 − 𝑗𝑗𝑧𝑧 4 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧

= 6𝑗𝑗𝑧𝑧 5 − 𝑗𝑗𝑧𝑧 4 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 − 4𝑗𝑗𝑧𝑧 3 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧
2−
𝑏𝑏) 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 1+𝑗𝑗 𝑧𝑧+3
𝑑𝑑 2− 2−
𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 1+𝑗𝑗 𝑧𝑧+3 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 1+𝑗𝑗 𝑧𝑧+3 2𝑧𝑧 − 1 + 𝑗𝑗
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2−
= 2𝑧𝑧 − 1 − 𝑗𝑗 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 1+𝑗𝑗 𝑧𝑧+3
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 103

17.6 Logarithmic Functions
II) Logarithmic Functions
The Logarithm of a complex number 𝒛𝒛 = 𝒙𝒙 + 𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋 , 𝒛𝒛 ≠ 𝟎𝟎 is defined as the inverse of the

Exponential function ⇒ 𝒘𝒘 = 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍(𝒛𝒛) if 𝒛𝒛 = 𝒆𝒆𝒘𝒘
Note: 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(𝑧𝑧) is not defined for 𝑧𝑧 = 0 since we cannot find a value for 𝑤𝑤 such that 𝑒𝑒 𝑤𝑤 = 0
• Let us find the real & imaginary parts of 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍(𝒛𝒛):

𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝒘𝒘 = 𝒍𝒍 𝒏𝒏 𝒛𝒛 = 𝒖𝒖 + 𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑤𝑤 ⇒ 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢+𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 cos 𝑣𝑣 + 𝑗𝑗 sin 𝑣𝑣
⇒ ⏟ ⏟ = 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 cos 𝑣𝑣 + 𝑗𝑗𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 sin 𝑣𝑣

𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 cos 𝑣𝑣
⇒�
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 sin 𝑣𝑣
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 104

𝑥𝑥 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 cos 𝑣𝑣
⇒�
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 sin 𝑣𝑣
𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆, 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇 𝒖𝒖 & 𝒗𝒗:
• 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 cos 𝑣𝑣 2
+ 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 sin 𝑣𝑣 2
= 𝑒𝑒 2𝑢𝑢 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 𝑣𝑣 + 𝑒𝑒 2𝑢𝑢 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑒𝑒 2𝑢𝑢 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 𝑣𝑣 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝑣𝑣
=𝟏𝟏
⇒ 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 +𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐 = 𝒆𝒆𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
but 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
⇒ 𝑟𝑟 2 ≜ 𝑧𝑧 2 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2
⇒ 𝑒𝑒 2𝑢𝑢 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 𝑧𝑧 2
Take the Log base e

⇒ 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒 2𝑢𝑢 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 2 Note:
of both sides
• 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 denotes the real natural
⇒ 2𝑢𝑢 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒 = 2 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 logarithm of the modulus of 𝑧𝑧
• 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(𝑧𝑧) denotes the logarithm of a

⇒ 𝒖𝒖 = 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒆 𝒛𝒛 complex number 𝑧𝑧
• 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒 = 1
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 105

𝑦𝑦 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑣 𝑦𝑦 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑣 𝑦𝑦
• = ⇒ = = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑣𝑣 ⇒ 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥
𝜽𝜽
⇒ 𝒗𝒗 = 𝜽𝜽 + 𝟐𝟐𝝅𝝅𝒌𝒌 ; 𝑘𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, … . .

Note: 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑦𝑦⁄𝑥𝑥 ⇒ 𝑣𝑣 is an argument of 𝑧𝑧 ⇒ 𝑣𝑣 = arg 𝑧𝑧
but since there is no unique argument of a complex number 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 ⇒ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 θ is an argument of
𝑧𝑧, then 𝜃𝜃 + 2𝜋𝜋𝑘𝑘, 𝑘𝑘 = 0, ±1±, 2 … . . is also an argument of 𝑧𝑧
⇒ 𝒍𝒍𝒏𝒏 (𝒛𝒛) = 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒆 𝒛𝒛 + 𝒋𝒋 𝜽𝜽 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝑘𝑘 = 0, ±1±, 2 … . .
where: 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 & tan 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑦𝑦⁄𝑥𝑥
Conclusion: Given a complex number z, we can compute its complex logarithm ln(z)
Note:
• Complex Exponential is periodic
• Infinitely many values of 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(𝑧𝑧)
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 106

Summary: The multiple - valued function 𝑙𝑙𝑛𝑛 𝑧𝑧 is called the Complex Logarithm.
𝑙𝑙𝑛𝑛 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧

𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 𝑙𝑙𝑛𝑛 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧 = 𝜃𝜃 + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝑘𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2 …
𝜃𝜃: Principal Value
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 107

Principal Value Multiple Value
L𝒏𝒏 𝒛𝒛 = 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒆 𝒛𝒛 + 𝒋𝒋 𝑨𝑨𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 𝒛𝒛 𝒍𝒍𝒏𝒏 𝒛𝒛 = 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒆 𝒛𝒛 + 𝒋𝒋 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝒛𝒛
Capital real Principal value Small real multiple values
Since Arg(z) is unique, there is only one

value for L𝑛𝑛 𝑧𝑧 for 𝑧𝑧 ≠ 0 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧 = 𝜃𝜃 + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 ; 𝑘𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2 …
Example: Compute ln(5)
• 𝑙𝑙𝑛𝑛 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧 ⇒ 𝑙𝑙𝑛𝑛 5 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 5 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 5 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 (5) + 𝑗𝑗(0 + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋)
=> 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙: 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 5 = 1.6094 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝜋𝜋𝑘𝑘 (𝑘𝑘: 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)
• 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿: 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 5 ≈ 1.6094 (unique)

• 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑘𝑘 = 0 ⇒ 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 5 = 1.6094 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 5 (Real Log)
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 108

Theorem: Algebraic Properties of ln(z)
If 𝑧𝑧1 & z2 are non zero complex numbers and 𝑛𝑛 is an integer, then:
i. 𝑙𝑙𝑛𝑛 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧2
𝑧𝑧1
ii. 𝑙𝑙𝑛𝑛 𝑧𝑧2
= 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧1 − 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧2
iii. 𝑙𝑙𝑛𝑛 𝑧𝑧1𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛 𝑙𝑙𝑛𝑛 𝑧𝑧1
Note:
• The identities above are not necessarily satisfied by the principle value of the complex logarithm.
• In general: 𝐿𝐿𝑛𝑛 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 ≠ 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧1 + 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧2
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 109

17.6 Logarithmic Functions-Summary
𝑖𝑖 ln 𝑧𝑧 → 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
ln 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑗𝑗 arg(𝑧𝑧)
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 → 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 − 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑗𝑗 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴(𝑧𝑧)
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
� 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙.
� 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ln 𝑧𝑧 .
𝑖𝑖. 𝑒𝑒. , 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 ≡ 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(𝑧𝑧)
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
⇒ 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 P𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝐵𝐵𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
𝑧𝑧 > 0 & − 𝜋𝜋 < 𝜃𝜃 < 𝜋𝜋 (𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣)

𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ln(𝑧𝑧)
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑗𝑗 𝜃𝜃 + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 ; 𝑘𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, … . .
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 110

𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
−∞ < 𝑥𝑥 < ∞; −𝜋𝜋 < 𝑦𝑦 < 𝜋𝜋 (𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 )
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 − 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 − 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 & 𝑓𝑓 −1 𝑧𝑧 = 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 .
⇒ 𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿(𝑧𝑧) = 𝑧𝑧 ∀𝑧𝑧 ≠ 0.
𝑣𝑣 𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻: 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑧𝑧1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 − 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖, 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡:
𝑣𝑣𝑣 ln 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 = ln 𝑧𝑧1 + ln(𝑧𝑧2 )
𝑧𝑧1
𝑣𝑣𝑣 ln = ln 𝑧𝑧1 − ln(𝑧𝑧2 )
𝑧𝑧2
𝑣𝑣𝑣 ln( 𝑧𝑧1 𝑛𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝑛 ln(𝑧𝑧1 )
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑣𝑣𝑣 :

ln 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 + 𝑗𝑗 arg(𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 ) = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧2 + 𝑗𝑗 arg 𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑗𝑗 arg(𝑧𝑧2 )
= 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑗𝑗 arg 𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧2 + 𝑗𝑗 arg 𝑧𝑧2 = ln 𝑧𝑧1 + ln(𝑧𝑧2 )
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 111

𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧 = 0 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎.
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁: −𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑦𝑦
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 − 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
D𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝜋𝜋
⇒ 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿(−𝑧𝑧) = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿(−𝑧𝑧) = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑗𝑗 −𝜋𝜋
= 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑥𝑥
−2 0
−𝜋𝜋
𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃𝒃 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄
⇒ 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑧𝑧 = 0 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑧𝑧 > 0 & −𝜋𝜋 < arg(𝑧𝑧) < 𝜋𝜋
(𝑖𝑖. 𝑒𝑒. , 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧 = 0 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 112

(vii) Mapping Diagram 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿(𝑧𝑧) 𝑣𝑣
𝑦𝑦 𝑤𝑤 − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
3𝜋𝜋
𝑧𝑧 − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 5𝜋𝜋
𝜋𝜋 ≤ 𝜃𝜃 ≤ 3𝜋𝜋
2
2𝜋𝜋
𝑏𝑏
𝑎𝑎 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝜋𝜋 𝜃𝜃 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑢𝑢
−𝜋𝜋 0
−𝜋𝜋
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 (𝑎𝑎) 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 (𝑏𝑏)
• 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 − 𝜋𝜋 < 𝜃𝜃 < 𝜋𝜋 ⇒ Ln z = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝜋𝜋 < 𝜃𝜃 < 3𝜋𝜋
• 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑏𝑏𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 − 𝜋𝜋 < 𝜃𝜃 < 𝜋𝜋 ⇒ Ln z = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑏𝑏 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝜋𝜋 < 𝜃𝜃 < 3𝜋𝜋
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 113

Theorem:
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
is an Analytic function & its derivative is given by:
𝑑𝑑 1
Ln 𝑧𝑧 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑧𝑧
Note:
• Ln(z) is discontinuous at the point z=0 since this function is not defined there.
• Ln(z) is also discontinuous at every point on the negative real axis (multiple values)
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 114

Other branches of 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧
• Principal branch: 𝑓𝑓1 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝐿𝐿𝑛𝑛 𝑧𝑧
𝑟𝑟 = 𝑧𝑧 > 0 & − 𝜋𝜋 < 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧 < 𝜋𝜋

=𝜽𝜽
• 𝐹𝐹 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧 (multiple-valued function)

−𝜋𝜋 3𝜋𝜋
⇒ 𝑓𝑓2 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 < 𝜃𝜃 <
2 2
[ i.e define other branches by changing the interval definig θ to a different interval of length 2π ]
Recall: 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑗𝑗 𝜃𝜃 + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝑘𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, … . .

𝑓𝑓2 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑗𝑗 𝜃𝜃 + 2𝜋𝜋
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 115

Example 2:
a) 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 −2 ; z = −2
0
Since 𝑧𝑧 = −2 = −2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗 ⇒ tan 𝜃𝜃 = = 0 ⇒ 𝜃𝜃 = 𝜋𝜋 (principal value )
−2
𝑧𝑧 = −2 2 + 0 2 = 4=2
𝑙𝑙𝑛𝑛 −2 = ln 2 + 𝑗𝑗𝜋𝜋 = 0.693 + 𝑗𝑗𝜋𝜋
⇒ 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 2 = 0.693
Hence: 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑗𝑗 𝜃𝜃 + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝑘𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, … . .

⇒ 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 −2 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 (2) + 𝑗𝑗 𝜋𝜋 + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
⇒ 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 −2 = 0.693 + 𝑗𝑗 𝜋𝜋 + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝑘𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, … . .
Principal Value: L𝑛𝑛 −2 = 0.693 + 𝑗𝑗𝜋𝜋
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 116

𝑦𝑦
𝑏𝑏) 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑗𝑗 ; z=j 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑧𝑧 = 𝑗𝑗
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑗𝑗 𝜃𝜃 + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋

0 𝑥𝑥
1 𝜋𝜋
𝑧𝑧 = 0 + 1 = 1 ; 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜃𝜃 = ⇒ 𝜃𝜃 = + 2𝜋𝜋𝑘𝑘
0 2
𝜋𝜋
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑗𝑗 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 (1) + 𝑗𝑗 + 2𝜋𝜋𝑘𝑘
2
𝜋𝜋
⇒ 𝑙𝑙𝑛𝑛 𝑗𝑗 = 0 + 𝑗𝑗 + 2𝜋𝜋𝑘𝑘
2
𝜋𝜋 𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨:

⇒ 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑗𝑗 = 𝑗𝑗 + 2𝜋𝜋𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, … . 𝜋𝜋
2 𝑙𝑙𝑛𝑛 𝑗𝑗 = 𝑗𝑗
2
𝜋𝜋
Principal Value: 𝐿𝐿𝑛𝑛 𝑗𝑗 = 𝑗𝑗 2
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 117

𝑦𝑦
𝒄𝒄) 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 −1 − 𝑗𝑗 ; 𝑧𝑧 = −1 − 𝑗𝑗
−1 𝑥𝑥
⇒ 𝑧𝑧 = −1 2 + −1 2 = 1+1= 2
−1 3𝜋𝜋 𝑧𝑧 −𝑗𝑗
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜃𝜃 = =1 ⇒ 𝜃𝜃 = − + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
−1 4
3𝜋𝜋
𝑙𝑙𝑛𝑛 −1 − 𝑗𝑗 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 2 − 𝑗𝑗 + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
4
3𝜋𝜋
⇒ 𝑙𝑙𝑛𝑛 −1 − 𝑗𝑗 = 𝑂𝑂. 3466 − 𝑗𝑗 + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝑘𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, …
4
3𝜋𝜋 𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨:

Principal Value: 𝐿𝐿𝑛𝑛 −1 − 𝑗𝑗 = 𝑂𝑂. 3466 − 𝑗𝑗 4 ln(2) 3𝜋𝜋
𝑙𝑙𝑛𝑛 −1 − 𝑗𝑗 = − 𝑗𝑗
2 4
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 118

17.6 Principal Value of Complex Logarithm
Example: Compute 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(1 + 𝑗𝑗) ; 𝑧𝑧 = 1 + 𝑗𝑗
⇒ 𝑧𝑧 = 1 2 + 1 2 = 2
1 𝜋𝜋
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜃𝜃 = ⇒ 𝜃𝜃 = + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 ⇒ 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑧𝑧 = 𝜋𝜋�4
1 4
𝜋𝜋 1� 𝜋𝜋
𝑙𝑙𝑛𝑛 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 ( 2) + 𝑗𝑗 + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 2 2 + 𝑗𝑗 + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
4 4
⇒ 1 𝜋𝜋
𝑙𝑙𝑛𝑛 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 (2) + 𝑗𝑗 + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝑘𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, …
2 4

1 𝜋𝜋 ln(2) 𝜋𝜋
Principal Value: 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 = 2
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 (2) + 𝑗𝑗
4 𝑙𝑙𝑛𝑛 1 + 𝑗𝑗 = + 𝑗𝑗
2 4
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 119

Example 3: Find the values of 𝑧𝑧 such that 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 3 + 𝑗𝑗
Solution: 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 3 + 𝑗𝑗 ⇒ 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 3 + 𝑗𝑗 ⇒ 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 3 + 𝑗𝑗
2
• 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑤𝑤 = 3 + 𝑗𝑗 ⇒ 𝑤𝑤 = 3 +1= 3+1= 4=2
1 𝜋𝜋
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜃𝜃 = ⇒ 𝜃𝜃 = + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
3 6
Hence:
𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 3 + 𝑗𝑗 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 ( 𝑤𝑤 ) + 𝑗𝑗 𝜃𝜃 + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
⇒ 𝜋𝜋
𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 3 + 𝑗𝑗 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 2 + 𝑗𝑗 + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝑘𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, …
6
𝜋𝜋
Principal Value: 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 3 + 𝑗𝑗 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 2 + 𝑗𝑗
6
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 120

Example:
𝑑𝑑 1
a) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑧𝑧 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 = 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑧𝑧 = 1 + 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧
𝑧𝑧
Note:
• z is entire & Ln(z) is differentiable on the domain 𝑧𝑧 > 0 ; −𝜋𝜋 < 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑧𝑧 < 𝜋𝜋
d 1 1
b) dz
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 z+1 =
z+1
1 =
z+1
𝑦𝑦
z + 1 = 0 ⇒ z = −1
−1
not differentiable on z = −1 𝑥𝑥
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 121

CP1 Complex Powers
III) Complex Powers
Definition : If α is a complex number & z ≠ 0, then the complex power z α is defined as:
𝑧𝑧 𝛼𝛼 = 𝑒𝑒 𝛼𝛼 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧 [known as Complex Power Function]
Note:
• 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔, 𝑧𝑧 𝛼𝛼 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧 is multiple-valued.
• Special Case: If α is an integer i.e α = 𝑛𝑛
⇒ 𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑛 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑛 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 +𝑗𝑗 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧

= 𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑛 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧
Let 𝜃𝜃 = 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑧𝑧 ⇒ 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧 = 𝜃𝜃 + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝑘𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, …

𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
⇒ 𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑛 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗[𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛+2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋] = 𝑒𝑒 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴(𝑧𝑧)
since 𝑛𝑛 & 𝑘𝑘 are integers ⇒ 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 1 and Arg(z) is unique ⇒ 𝑧𝑧 𝑛𝑛 is unique
Definition: Principal Value of a Complex Power Capital L
If α a complex number & 𝑧𝑧 ≠ 0 then: 𝑧𝑧 α = 𝑒𝑒 α 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧

is the principal value of the complex power z α
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 122

CP2 Complex Powers
Properties
Homework: Prove all properties and show
i. z α1 z α2 = z α1+α2 that z α1 α2 ≠ z α1 α2 in general
zα 1
ii. = z α1−α2
zα 2
iii. z α 𝑛𝑛 = z 𝑛𝑛α 𝑛𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, … …

iv. z1 z2 α = z1α z2α (for any non zero complex numbers z1 & z2 )
 Remarks:
• z α1 α2
≠ z α1 α2 unless α2 is an integer
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝛼𝛼
• 𝑧𝑧 𝛼𝛼 = 𝑒𝑒 𝛼𝛼 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝛼𝛼 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 𝛼𝛼𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝛼𝛼 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧 𝛼𝛼 𝛼𝛼𝑧𝑧 −1 = 𝛼𝛼𝑧𝑧 𝛼𝛼−1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑧𝑧
Note: 𝑧𝑧 𝛼𝛼 = 𝑒𝑒 𝛼𝛼 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 123

CP3 Complex Powers
Analyticity
• Principal value: 𝑧𝑧 α = 𝑒𝑒 α𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧
• 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝜃𝜃 ≡ 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑧𝑧
• 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 is continuous on the domain 𝑧𝑧 > 0 , −𝜋𝜋 < 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑧𝑧 < 𝜋𝜋
⇒ 𝑓𝑓1 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 α 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 +𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 is a branch of the multiple-valued function 𝐹𝐹 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧 𝛼𝛼 = 𝑒𝑒 𝛼𝛼 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧
⇒ 𝑓𝑓1 𝑧𝑧 ≡ Principal branch
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 124

CP4 Complex Powers
Derivative
• Principal value: 𝑧𝑧 α = 𝑒𝑒 α𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧
• 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝜃𝜃 ≡ 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑧𝑧
• 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 is continuous on the domain 𝑧𝑧 > 0 , −𝜋𝜋 < 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑧𝑧 < 𝜋𝜋
⇒ 𝑓𝑓1 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 α 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 +𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 is the principal branch of the multiple-valued function 𝐹𝐹 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧 α = 𝑒𝑒 α 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝛼𝛼
• Derivative: 𝑓𝑓1′ 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = [𝑒𝑒 α𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 ] = 𝑒𝑒 α𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 α𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 α𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑧𝑧
𝛼𝛼 𝛼𝛼
• 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵: 𝑧𝑧 α = 𝑒𝑒 α𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 => 𝑓𝑓1′ 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 α𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧 α = α𝑧𝑧 𝛼𝛼−1
𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧
𝑑𝑑 𝛼𝛼
⇒ 𝑧𝑧 = α𝑧𝑧 𝛼𝛼−1 ; 𝑧𝑧 > 0 , −𝜋𝜋 < 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑧𝑧 < 𝜋𝜋
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 125

CP5 Complex Powers
Example 1:
a) 𝑗𝑗 2𝑗𝑗 Using the formula 𝑧𝑧 𝛼𝛼 = 𝑒𝑒 𝛼𝛼 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧 where 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑗𝑗 & 𝛼𝛼 = 2𝑗𝑗
⇒ 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑗𝑗 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑗𝑗 ⇒ 𝑧𝑧 = 1 & 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑧𝑧 = �2 𝜋𝜋
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
⇒ 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 1 + 𝑗𝑗 + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = 0 + 𝑗𝑗 1 + 4𝑘𝑘
2 2
𝜋𝜋
⇒ 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑗𝑗 1 + 4𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, …
2
𝜋𝜋
2𝑗𝑗 𝑗𝑗 (1+4𝑘𝑘)
⇒ 𝑗𝑗 2𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 𝛼𝛼 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 2𝑗𝑗 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 2 = 𝑒𝑒 −𝜋𝜋(1+4𝑘𝑘)
⇒ 𝑗𝑗 2𝑗𝑗
= 𝑒𝑒 −𝜋𝜋 1+4𝑘𝑘
𝑘𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2,…
b) 1 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑗𝑗 Using the formula 𝑧𝑧 𝛼𝛼 = 𝑒𝑒 𝛼𝛼 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧 where 𝑧𝑧 = 1 + 𝑗𝑗 & 𝛼𝛼 = 𝑗𝑗

𝜋𝜋
Hence , 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 1 + 𝑗𝑗 1 + 𝑗𝑗 = 2 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 ⁄4+2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝜋𝜋 1 𝜋𝜋
⇒ 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 1 + 𝑗𝑗 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 2 + 𝑗𝑗 + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 2 �2 + 𝑗𝑗 + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
4 4
1 𝜋𝜋
= 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 2 + 𝑗𝑗 1 + 8𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
2 4
1 𝜋𝜋
𝑗𝑗 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 2 +𝑗𝑗 1+8𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝑗𝑗� 𝜋𝜋
𝑗𝑗 𝛼𝛼 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧 2 4 2 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 2 − �4 1+8𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
⇒ 1 + 𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 = 𝑒𝑒 = 𝑒𝑒
𝜋𝜋 𝑗𝑗
⇒ 1 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑗𝑗
= 𝑒𝑒 −
4
1+8𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 + 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 2
2
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 126

CP7 Complex Powers
Example 2: Find principal value
a) −3 𝑗𝑗⁄𝜋𝜋 Note: 𝑧𝑧 = −3 & 𝛼𝛼 =
𝚥𝚥̇
𝜋𝜋
𝑧𝑧 = −3 ⇒ 𝑧𝑧 = 3 & 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑧𝑧 = 𝜋𝜋
⇒ 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 −3 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 3 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
capital
−3 𝑗𝑗 ⁄𝜋𝜋
= 𝑒𝑒 𝛼𝛼𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 ⁄𝜋𝜋 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 3 +𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑗𝑗
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 3 −1
= 𝑒𝑒 𝜋𝜋
𝑗𝑗 𝑗𝑗
⇒ −3 𝜋𝜋 = 𝑒𝑒 −1+𝜋𝜋 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 3 principal value
(1−j)
Note: 𝑧𝑧 = 2𝑗𝑗 & 𝛼𝛼 = 1 − 𝑗𝑗
b) 2𝑗𝑗
If 𝑧𝑧 = 2𝑗𝑗 ⇒ 𝑧𝑧 = 2 & 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑧𝑧 = 𝜋𝜋⁄2
⇒ 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 = 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 2𝑗𝑗 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗(𝑧𝑧) = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 2 + 𝑗𝑗 𝜋𝜋⁄2
(1−𝑗𝑗) 1−𝑗𝑗 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 2 +𝑗𝑗 𝜋𝜋�2
⇒ 2𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 ∝𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 𝑒𝑒
⇒ 2𝑗𝑗 (1−𝑗𝑗)
= 𝑒𝑒 1−𝑗𝑗 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 2 +𝑗𝑗 𝜋𝜋�2 principal value
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 127
CP8 Complex Powers
Example 3: Find the derivative of the principal value 𝒛𝒛𝒋𝒋 at the point 𝐳𝐳 = 𝟏𝟏 + 𝐣𝐣
𝑑𝑑 𝑗𝑗
Solution: z = 1 + 𝑗𝑗 => 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑗𝑗𝑧𝑧 (𝑗𝑗−1) = 𝑗𝑗 1 + 𝑗𝑗 (𝑗𝑗−1)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1+𝑗𝑗 𝑗𝑗 𝑗𝑗 1−𝑗𝑗 𝑗𝑗 = 𝑗𝑗+1 𝑗𝑗 1+𝑗𝑗 𝑗𝑗

= 𝑗𝑗 = 1 + 𝑗𝑗 1 + 𝑗𝑗 = 1 + 𝑗𝑗
(1+𝑗𝑗) 1+𝑗𝑗 1−𝑗𝑗 1+1 2
𝑗𝑗
• Let us evaluate: 1 + 𝑗𝑗
𝜋𝜋⁄
• 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧 = 1 + 𝑗𝑗 = 2𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 4 [ principal value ] a𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝛼𝛼 = 𝑗𝑗
𝑗𝑗
𝑗𝑗 𝛼𝛼 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑗𝑗 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 1+𝑗𝑗 𝑗𝑗 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 2+𝑗𝑗 𝜋𝜋 ⁄4 −𝜋𝜋 ⁄4 + 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 2
⇒ 1 + 𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 = 𝑒𝑒 = 𝑒𝑒 = 𝑒𝑒 2 [ principal value ]
⇒ 𝑑𝑑 𝑗𝑗 1 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑗𝑗
1 + 𝑗𝑗 −𝜋𝜋 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 2
𝑧𝑧 = 1 + 𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 4 2 ≈ 0.1370 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗.2919
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 2
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 128

Section 17.7
Chapter 17 Trigonometric & Hyperbolic
Functions
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 129

17.7 Trigonometric Functions
i. Trigonometric Functions
let 𝑥𝑥 be a real variable ⇒
1) 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥

Euler’s Formula
−𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
2) 𝑒𝑒 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥
𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝟏𝟏 + 𝟐𝟐 ⇒ 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 ⇒ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑒𝑒 + 𝑒𝑒
2
𝟏𝟏 − 𝟐𝟐 ⇒ 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥 = 2𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥 ⇒ 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 −𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥 =
2𝑗𝑗
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 130

Definition: For any Complex Number 𝒛𝒛 = 𝒙𝒙 + 𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋 , we have:
𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 = & 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧 =
2𝑗𝑗 2
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 1
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑧𝑧 = ; 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧 =
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑧𝑧
1 1
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 = ; 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧 =
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧
• If 𝑦𝑦 = 0 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑥𝑥
𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑥𝑥 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑥𝑥 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

⇒ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥 = & 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 =
2𝑗𝑗 2
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 131

Example: Compute
a) 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒋𝒋 ⇒ 𝒛𝒛 = 𝒋𝒋
𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 𝑗𝑗
+ 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝑗𝑗
𝑒𝑒 −1 + 𝑒𝑒
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑗𝑗 = = ≈ 1.5431
2 2
b) 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝟐𝟐 + 𝒋𝒋 ⇒ 𝒛𝒛 = 𝟐𝟐 + 𝒋𝒋
𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 2+𝑗𝑗
− 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 2+𝑗𝑗
𝑒𝑒 2𝑗𝑗−1
− 𝑒𝑒 −2𝑗𝑗+1
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 2 + 𝑗𝑗 = =
2𝑗𝑗 2𝑗𝑗
𝑒𝑒 −1+2𝑗𝑗 − 𝑒𝑒 1−2𝑗𝑗 𝑒𝑒 −1 𝑒𝑒 2𝑗𝑗 − 𝑒𝑒 1 𝑒𝑒 −2𝑗𝑗

= =
2𝑗𝑗 2𝑗𝑗
𝑒𝑒 −1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 2 − 𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 −2 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 −2

=
2𝑗𝑗
0.9781 + 2.8062 𝑗𝑗 0.9781 2.8062 𝑗𝑗

≈ = −𝑗𝑗 + ≈ 1.4031 − 0.4895𝑗𝑗
2𝑗𝑗 2 2
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 132

c) 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝝅𝝅 − 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 ⇒ 𝒛𝒛 = 𝝅𝝅 − 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐

𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 𝜋𝜋−2𝑗𝑗
− 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝜋𝜋−2𝑗𝑗
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜋𝜋 − 2𝑗𝑗 2𝑗𝑗
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜋𝜋 − 2𝑗𝑗 = = 𝑗𝑗
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜋𝜋 − 2𝑗𝑗 𝑒𝑒 𝜋𝜋−2𝑗𝑗 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝜋𝜋−2𝑗𝑗
2
𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 𝜋𝜋−2𝑗𝑗 −𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝜋𝜋−2𝑗𝑗
= 𝑗𝑗 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 𝜋𝜋−2𝑗𝑗 +𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝜋𝜋−2𝑗𝑗
𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑒𝑒 2 −𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑒𝑒 −2 Note:

= 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = −1 and 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = −1
𝑗𝑗 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑒𝑒 2 +𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑒𝑒 −2
−𝑒𝑒 2 − −1 𝑒𝑒 −2 −𝑒𝑒 2 + 𝑒𝑒 −2
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜋𝜋 − 2𝑗𝑗 = = −𝑗𝑗
𝑗𝑗 −𝑒𝑒 2 − 𝑒𝑒 −2 −𝑒𝑒 2 − 𝑒𝑒 −2
−𝑒𝑒 2 + 𝑒𝑒 −2
= 𝑗𝑗 2 ≅ −0.9640𝑗𝑗
𝑒𝑒 + 𝑒𝑒 −2
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜋𝜋 − 2𝑗𝑗 ≅ − 0.9640𝑗𝑗
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 133

Identities
Most of the familiar identities for real trigonometric functions hold for complex
trigonometric functions. Let 𝒛𝒛 ≡ 𝒙𝒙 + 𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋
• 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 −𝑧𝑧 = − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧

• 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 −𝑧𝑧 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧
• cos 2 𝑧𝑧 + sin2 𝑧𝑧 = 1
• 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧1 ± 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧2 ± 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧1 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧2
• 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧1 ± 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧2 ∓ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧1 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧2
• 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 = 2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧
• 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2𝑧𝑧 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝑧𝑧
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 134

Periodicity let 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 to be periodic ⇒ 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑇𝑇 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 period T
Recall: If 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧
⇒ 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 + 2𝜋𝜋𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧+2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 𝑒𝑒 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2𝜋𝜋 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 2𝜋𝜋 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 1 + 𝑗𝑗0 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧
𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧+2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 ⇒ periodic with period 𝟐𝟐𝛑𝛑𝛑𝛑
• what about 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 ?

𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 + 2𝜋𝜋 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 𝑧𝑧+2𝜋𝜋
= 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑧𝑧 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗2𝜋𝜋 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑧𝑧 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2𝜋𝜋 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 2𝜋𝜋 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑧𝑧 1 + 𝑗𝑗0 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑧𝑧
𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 𝑧𝑧+2𝜋𝜋
= 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑧𝑧 ⇒ periodic with period 𝟐𝟐𝛑𝛑
• what about 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 ?

𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 + 2𝜋𝜋 = 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝑧𝑧+2𝜋𝜋
= 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2𝜋𝜋 − 𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 2𝜋𝜋 = 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 1 − 𝑗𝑗0 = 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝑧𝑧+2𝜋𝜋
= 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 ⇒ periodic with period 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
• what about 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 & 𝑓𝑓 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧
𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 𝑧𝑧+2𝜋𝜋
− 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝑧𝑧+2𝜋𝜋
𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 + 2𝜋𝜋 = = = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 + 2𝜋𝜋 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧
2𝑗𝑗 2𝑗𝑗
Similarly 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧 + 2𝜋𝜋 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 135

𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑦𝑦 𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑦𝑦
Recall: 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑦𝑦 = & 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑦𝑦 = y: real
2 2
let 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 𝑥𝑥+𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
− 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝑥𝑥+𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
1 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 −𝑦𝑦 1 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑦𝑦
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 = = = 𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒 − 𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒
2𝑗𝑗 2𝑗𝑗 2𝑗𝑗 2𝑗𝑗
1 1
= 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 −𝑦𝑦 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦
2𝑗𝑗 2𝑗𝑗
1 1 1 1
= 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 −𝑦𝑦 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 −𝑦𝑦 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦
2𝑗𝑗 2 2𝑗𝑗 2
1 𝑦𝑦 1 −𝑦𝑦 1 −𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦
𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑦𝑦 𝑒𝑒 −𝑦𝑦 − 𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦
= 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 + 𝑒𝑒 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 − 𝑒𝑒 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑗𝑗 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥
2 2 2𝑗𝑗 2 2
𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑦𝑦 𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑦𝑦
= 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 ⇒ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 sinh 𝑦𝑦 𝟏𝟏
2 2
• S𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢:
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑦𝑦 𝟐𝟐
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 136

Note: 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐2 𝑦𝑦 = 1 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝑦𝑦 y: real
Proof:
2
2
𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑦𝑦 1 2𝑦𝑦
1 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑦𝑦 = 1 + =1+ 𝑒𝑒 − 2𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 𝑒𝑒 −𝑦𝑦 + 𝑒𝑒 −2𝑦𝑦
2 4
1 2𝑦𝑦 1 1 1 1 1 1
=1+ 𝑒𝑒 − 2 + 𝑒𝑒 −2𝑦𝑦 = 1 + 𝑒𝑒 2𝑦𝑦 − + 𝑒𝑒 −2𝑦𝑦 = + 𝑒𝑒 2𝑦𝑦 + 𝑒𝑒 −2𝑦𝑦
4 4 2 4 2 4 4
2
1 1 1 𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑦𝑦
= 𝑒𝑒 2𝑦𝑦 + 2 + 𝑒𝑒 −2𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 2𝑦𝑦 + 2𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 𝑒𝑒 −𝑦𝑦 + 𝑒𝑒 −2𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑦𝑦 2
= = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐2 𝑦𝑦
4 4 4 2
1 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐2 𝑦𝑦
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 137

Recall: 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑦𝑦
2 2 2
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑦𝑦
= 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐2 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 𝑥𝑥 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝑦𝑦
= 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝑥𝑥 1 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 𝑥𝑥 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝑦𝑦
= 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝑥𝑥 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 𝑥𝑥 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝑦𝑦
= 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝑦𝑦 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 𝑥𝑥 ⇒ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 2

= 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝑦𝑦
=1
2
Similarly 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝑦𝑦
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 138

2
Note: A complex number 𝑧𝑧 = 0 if and only if 𝑧𝑧 =0
2
⇒ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 = 0 ⇒ 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑧𝑧 = 0 ⇒ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑧𝑧 = 0 ⇒ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ2 𝑦𝑦 = 0
⇒ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝑥𝑥 = 0 & 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝑦𝑦 = 0
⇒ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥 = 0 & 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑦𝑦 = 0
⇒ 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 & 𝑦𝑦 = 0
zeros of 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 are the real numbers 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑘𝑘𝜋𝜋 + 𝑗𝑗0 𝑘𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2 … .
Similarly
𝜋𝜋
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧 = 0 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑧𝑧 = 2𝑘𝑘 + 1 𝑘𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, …
2
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 139

Example 1: 𝐂𝐂ompute 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝟐𝟐 + 𝒋𝒋 (see earlier notes ) 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑦𝑦
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑦𝑦
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 2�
+ 𝑗𝑗 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 1 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 1
𝑧𝑧
𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑧𝑧 = 2 + 𝑗𝑗 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 ⇒ 𝑥𝑥 = 2 & 𝑦𝑦 = 1
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 2 + 𝑗𝑗 ≅ 1.4031 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗.4891
Example 2: Solve 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒛𝒛 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 +𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

⇒ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧 = 10 ⇒ = 10 ⇒ 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 20
2
⇒ 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 − 20 = 0 (multiply Equation by 𝒆𝒆𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋 )
⇒ 𝑒𝑒 2𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 − 20 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 1 = 0 (quadratic Equation)
𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
−𝑏𝑏 ± 𝑏𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 20 ± 400 − 4 1 1
⇒ 𝑒𝑒 = =
2𝑎𝑎 2
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 140

1 1 6
⇒ 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 10 ± 396 = 10 ± 36 × 11 = 10 ± 11
2 2 2
𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 10 ± 3 11
Recall: If z = ew ⇒ w = ln z ⇒ w = ln z = log e z + j θ + 2πk
𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 10 ± 3 11
• let us first tackle: 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 10 + 3 11 ⇒ jz = ln(10 + 3 11) Note: z1 is real

𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏
⇒ 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑗𝑗 𝜃𝜃1 + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 but 𝑧𝑧1 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ⇒ 𝜃𝜃1 = 0
1
⇒ 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 10 + 3 11 +𝑗𝑗2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 ⇒ 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 10 + 3 11 +2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝑗𝑗
𝑧𝑧 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 − 𝑗𝑗𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 10 + 3 11
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 141

• 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 10 − 3 11 ⇒ 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = ln 10 − 3 11 𝑧𝑧2 : real ⇒ 𝜃𝜃2 = 0
𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐
⇒ 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧2 + 𝑗𝑗 𝜃𝜃2 + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 10 − 3 11 +𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
1
⇒ 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 10 − 3 11 +𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 ⇒ 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 10 − 3 11 +𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑗𝑗
1 10 + 3 11
⇒ 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 10 − 3 11 +𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑗𝑗 10 + 3 11
100 − 99 1
⇒ 𝑧𝑧 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 − 𝑗𝑗 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 − 𝑗𝑗 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒
10 + 3 11 10 + 3 11
⇒ 𝑧𝑧 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 − 𝑗𝑗 −𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 10 + 3 11 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 + 𝑗𝑗𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 10 + 3 11
𝑧𝑧 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 + 𝑗𝑗𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 10 + 3 11
Therefore: 𝑧𝑧 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 ± 𝑗𝑗 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 10 + 11 𝑘𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, … .
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 142

Analyticity
• 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 & 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 are Entire functions
⇒ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 & 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧 are Entire functions
𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀:
sin 𝑧𝑧 = 0 if 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, … . .

π
cos z = 0 if z = 2k + 1 𝑘𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, … . .
2
⇒ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑧𝑧 & 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 are analytic except @ the points 𝑧𝑧 = (2𝑘𝑘 + 1) 𝜋𝜋⁄2
⇒ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧 & 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧 are analytic except @ the points 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑘𝑘 𝜋𝜋
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 143

Derivatives
𝑑𝑑 𝑧𝑧 𝑑𝑑 𝑗𝑗𝑧𝑧 𝑑𝑑 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
Recall∶ 𝑒𝑒 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 ⇒ 𝑒𝑒 = 𝑗𝑗𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑧𝑧 & 𝑒𝑒 = −𝑗𝑗𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 1 𝑑𝑑 1
• 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 = = 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑗𝑗𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 − −𝑗𝑗 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝑗𝑗 2𝑗𝑗 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝑗𝑗
1 𝑗𝑗 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
= 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 +𝑗𝑗𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = ⇒ 𝑑𝑑
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧
2𝑗𝑗 2𝑗𝑗 2
𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒛𝒛
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Similarly:
𝑑𝑑
• 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧 = − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
• 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 2 𝑧𝑧 ; 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧 = −𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 𝑧𝑧
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
• 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑧𝑧 ; 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧 = − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 144

17.7 Hyperbolic Functions
Definition : 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑧𝑧 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑧𝑧
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 = , 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧 =
2 2
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 1 1 1
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡ℎ 𝑧𝑧 = , 𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜ℎ 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡ℎ 𝑧𝑧 ; 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 = , 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧 =
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧
Note:
1) 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 & 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧 are entire functions
2) 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑧𝑧 , 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧, 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 , 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧 are analytic except at points where the 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
3) 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧 and 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑧𝑧 1 𝑑𝑑 𝑧𝑧 1 1
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 = = 𝑒𝑒 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 − (−1) 𝑒𝑒 −𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑧𝑧 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 2
𝑑𝑑
Similarly: 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 145

𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑧𝑧
let 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 & given: 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 =
2
𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑤𝑤 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑤𝑤 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑤𝑤 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑗𝑗𝑤𝑤 = = 𝑗𝑗 = 𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑤
2 2𝑗𝑗
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑗𝑗𝑤𝑤 = 𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑤
Similarly 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑗𝑗𝑤𝑤 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑤𝑤
Hence:
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧
And: 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 = −𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
Also: 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 = −𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 146

Zeros
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 = −𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = − 𝑗𝑗𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑗𝑗 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
= −𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 −𝑦𝑦 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
= −𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 −𝑦𝑦 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 −𝑦𝑦 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥
= −𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 −𝑦𝑦 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 −𝑦𝑦 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥
but 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 −𝑦𝑦 = − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑦𝑦 & 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 −𝑦𝑦 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑦𝑦
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑦𝑦 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑦𝑦 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑦𝑦 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 147

𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑦𝑦
• 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 = −𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
⇒ 𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛: 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 0 ⇒ 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 0 − 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
−𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
⇒ 𝑧𝑧 = ⇒ 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑗𝑗
⇒ 𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑗𝑗𝜋𝜋𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2 … .
• 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝜋𝜋
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 0 ⇒ 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = − 2𝑘𝑘 + 1
2
𝜋𝜋
𝑧𝑧 = 2𝑘𝑘 + 1 𝑗𝑗 𝑘𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2 … .
2
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 148

Periodicity
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 + 2𝜋𝜋 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 2𝜋𝜋 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥 + 2𝜋𝜋 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
= 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥 + 2𝜋𝜋 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 + 2𝜋𝜋 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑦𝑦
= 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 + 2𝜋𝜋 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 (real period 2π)
• Similarly, 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧 + 2𝜋𝜋 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧

Also:
𝑒𝑒 (𝑧𝑧+2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋) − 𝑒𝑒 −(𝑧𝑧+2𝜋𝜋𝑗𝑗) 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 𝑒𝑒 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑧𝑧 𝑒𝑒 −2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑧𝑧
• 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 + 2𝜋𝜋𝑗𝑗 = = = = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧
2 2 2
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 (𝑧𝑧 + 2𝜋𝜋𝑗𝑗) = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧 + 2𝜋𝜋𝑗𝑗 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑧𝑧 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒛𝒛 & 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒛𝒛 are periodic and have the imaginary period 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 149

Section 17.8
Inverse Trigonometric &
Chapter 17
Hyperbolic Functions
(Self Study)
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 150

17.8 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Digression:
 let 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = 0 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0 , b, c are real
1�
−𝑏𝑏 ± 𝑏𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 −𝑏𝑏± 𝑏𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 2
 Solution : 𝑥𝑥 = =
2𝑎𝑎 2𝑎𝑎
If b2 − 4ac < 0 ⇒ Complex Roots
Example: 𝑥𝑥 2 −2𝑥𝑥 + 10 = 0
1�
2 ± 4 − 4 1 10 2 2 ± −36 2 ± 36𝑗𝑗 2
𝑥𝑥 = = =
2 2 2
2±6𝑗𝑗
= 𝑧𝑧1 = 1 + 3𝑗𝑗 & 𝑧𝑧2 = 1 − 3j
2
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 151

Note: The ± is incorporated into the Equation
−𝑏𝑏 ± 𝑏𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑥𝑥 =
2𝑎𝑎
to highlight the fact that the will result in 2 roots 𝐢𝐢. 𝐞𝐞. 4 = ±2 & 9 = ±3
but we could choose to write the Equation as ∶

1
−𝑏𝑏 + 𝑏𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 �2
𝑥𝑥 =
1⁄
2𝑎𝑎
2
with the knowledge that ∶ b − 4ac 2 will provide 2 roots .
Now, let us assume that: 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = 0 where 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐 are all complex numbers
1�
−𝑏𝑏 + 𝑏𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 2
𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒 ∶ 𝑧𝑧 =
2𝑎𝑎
1⁄
Note: 𝑏𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 2 will provide 2 roots of the complex number 𝑏𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
Two complex solutions 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 & 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 152

Example : 𝑧𝑧 2 + 1 − 𝑗𝑗 𝑧𝑧 − 3𝑗𝑗 = 0
Note: 𝑎𝑎 = 1 ; 𝑏𝑏 = 1 − 𝑗𝑗 ; 𝑐𝑐 = −3𝑗𝑗
1 1�
−𝑏𝑏 + 𝑏𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 �2 − 1 − 𝑗𝑗 + 1 − 𝑗𝑗 2 − 4 1 −3𝑗𝑗 2 𝑦𝑦
𝑧𝑧 = = 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
2𝑎𝑎 2
1 1 10𝑗𝑗
𝑧𝑧 = −1 + 𝑗𝑗 + 1 − 𝑗𝑗 − 𝑗𝑗 − 1 + 12𝑗𝑗 1⁄2 = −1 + 𝑗𝑗 + 10𝑗𝑗 1⁄2
2 2
𝜋𝜋
1⁄ 𝑗𝑗 2
let us find the square roots of 𝑧𝑧1 = 10𝑗𝑗 2 Note: 10𝑗𝑗 = 10 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥
𝜋𝜋
+2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
1� 𝑗𝑗 2
𝑤𝑤𝑘𝑘 = 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑛 𝒏𝒏 = 𝟐𝟐
𝜋𝜋 ⁄2 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 1 1
1� 𝑗𝑗 1� 𝑗𝑗 1� 1�
𝑤𝑤0 = 10 2 𝑒𝑒 2 = 10 2 𝑒𝑒 4 = 10 2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 10 2 + 𝑗𝑗
4 4 2 2
⇒ 𝑤𝑤0 = 5 + 𝑗𝑗 5
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 153

𝑦𝑦
𝜋𝜋 5𝜋𝜋
+ 2𝜋𝜋 𝑗𝑗 2
𝑤𝑤1 = 10
1�
2 2 = 10
1�
2 𝑒𝑒 2 = 10
1�
2 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 5𝜋𝜋 ⁄4
2 10𝑗𝑗
5𝜋𝜋 5𝜋𝜋 1 1
= 10 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 10 − − 𝑗𝑗 = − 5 − 𝑗𝑗 5
4 4 2 2 𝑥𝑥
Hence: 𝑤𝑤0 = 5 + 𝑗𝑗 5 & 𝑤𝑤1 = − 5 − 𝑗𝑗 5

1 1⁄2
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅: 𝑧𝑧 = −1 + 𝑗𝑗 + 10𝑗𝑗 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑤𝑤0 = 5 + 𝑗𝑗 5 & 𝑤𝑤1 = − 5 − 𝑗𝑗 5
2
Hence:
1 1
𝑧𝑧1 = −1 + 𝑗𝑗 + 5 + 𝑗𝑗 5 & 𝑧𝑧2 = −1 + 𝑗𝑗 − 5 − 𝑗𝑗 5
2 2
Or
1 1
𝑧𝑧1 = 5 − 1 + 𝑗𝑗 5+1 & 𝑧𝑧2 = − 5 + 1 + 𝑗𝑗 5−1
2 2
End of Digression
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 154
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
If 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑤 ⇒ 𝑤𝑤 ≜ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−1 𝑧𝑧 [inverse 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠]

𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑤𝑤 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑧𝑧 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑤 ⇒ 𝑧𝑧 = ⇒ 2𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑤𝑤 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
2𝑗𝑗 𝒆𝒆𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋 − 𝒆𝒆−𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋
Note: 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒘𝒘 =
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
⇒ 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑤𝑤 − 2𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 0 ⇒ multiply Eq. by 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑤𝑤
⇒ 𝑒𝑒 2𝑗𝑗𝑤𝑤 − 2𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑤𝑤 − 1 = 0 ⇒ quadratic Eq.
𝒊𝒊. 𝒆𝒆. 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝛼𝛼 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑤𝑤 ⇒ 𝛼𝛼 2 −2𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝛼𝛼 − 1 = 0
Quadratic Eq. 𝑒𝑒 2𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 − 2𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑤𝑤 − 1 = 0 ⇒ Using the quadratic formula

1� 1�
−𝑏𝑏 + 𝑏𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 2 2𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + −2𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 2
− 4 1 −1 2
𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑤𝑤 = =
2𝑎𝑎 2
1� 1� 1� 1�
2𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 4𝑗𝑗 2 𝑧𝑧 2 + 4 2 2𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 4 − 4𝑧𝑧 2 2 2𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 4 1 − 𝑧𝑧 2 2 2𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 2 1 − 𝑧𝑧 2 2
= = = =
2 2 2 2
1�
𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑤𝑤 = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 1 − 𝑧𝑧 2 2
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 155

1⁄
Note: we know that 1 − z 2 2 has two values ⇒ 2 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
1�
⇒ 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 1 − 𝑧𝑧 2 2
1�
⇒ 𝑗𝑗𝑤𝑤 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑒𝑒 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 1 − 𝑧𝑧 2 2
1�
⇒ 𝑗𝑗𝑤𝑤 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 1 − 𝑧𝑧 2 2
1 1� 1�
⇒ 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 1 − 𝑧𝑧 2 2 = −𝑗𝑗 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 1 − 𝑧𝑧 2 2
𝑗𝑗
1�
𝑤𝑤 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−1 𝑧𝑧 = −𝑗𝑗 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 1 − 𝑧𝑧 2 2
𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒
1�
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 −1 𝑧𝑧 = −𝑗𝑗 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑗𝑗 1 − 𝑧𝑧 2 2
𝑗𝑗 𝑗𝑗 + 𝑧𝑧
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
2 𝑗𝑗 − 𝑧𝑧
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 156
Example: Find all values of 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔−𝟏𝟏 𝟓𝟓
1⁄2
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−1 𝑧𝑧 = −𝑗𝑗 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 1 − 𝑧𝑧 2
2 1⁄2
−1
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 5 = −𝑗𝑗 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑗𝑗 5 + 1 − 5
1⁄2
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−1 5 = −𝑗𝑗 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑗𝑗 5 + 1 − 5
1⁄2
= −𝑗𝑗 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑗𝑗 5 + −4 −4 = 4𝑗𝑗 2
1⁄2
= −𝑗𝑗 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑗𝑗 5 + 4𝑗𝑗 2
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−1 5 = −𝑗𝑗 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑗𝑗 5 ± 2𝑗𝑗

𝜋𝜋
= −𝑗𝑗 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 5 ± 2 𝑗𝑗 𝑧𝑧 = 5 ± 2 𝑗𝑗 & 𝑧𝑧 = 5±2 & 𝜃𝜃 =
2
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−1 5 = −𝑗𝑗 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑗𝑗 𝜃𝜃 + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝜋𝜋
= −𝑗𝑗 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 5 ± 2 + 𝑗𝑗 + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
2
𝜋𝜋
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−1 5 = + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 − 𝑗𝑗𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 5 ±2 𝑘𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, …
2
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 157
Derivatives
• let 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑤 ⇒ 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−1 𝑧𝑧
• let us differentiate the above w.r.t. 𝑧𝑧:
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑤𝑤 𝑑𝑑𝑤𝑤 1
𝑧𝑧 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑤 ⇒ 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑤 ⇒ 1 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑤𝑤 ⇒ =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑤𝑤
• Also: 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 𝑤𝑤 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝑤𝑤 = 1 ⇒ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 𝑤𝑤 = 1 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝑤𝑤

1
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑤𝑤 = 1 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝑤𝑤 �2 ⇒ 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑧𝑧
1� 𝑑𝑑𝑤𝑤 1 1 𝑑𝑑 1
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑤𝑤 = 1 − 𝑧𝑧 2 2 ⇒ = = 1� ⇒ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−1 𝑧𝑧 =
𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑤𝑤 1 − 𝑧𝑧 2 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1�
1 − 𝑧𝑧 2 2
Similarly: 𝑑𝑑 −1
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 −1 𝑧𝑧 = 1�
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 − 𝑧𝑧 2 2
𝑑𝑑 1
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 𝑧𝑧 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 + 𝑧𝑧 2
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 158
17.8 Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
1�
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ−1 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑧𝑧 2 + 1 2
1�
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐−1 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑧𝑧 2 − 1 2
1 1 + 𝑧𝑧
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
2 1 − 𝑧𝑧
and derivatives:
𝑑𝑑 1
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−1 𝑧𝑧 = 1�
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑧𝑧 2 + 1 2
𝑑𝑑 1
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐−1 𝑧𝑧 = 1�
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑧𝑧 2 − 1 2
𝑑𝑑 1
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 −1 𝑧𝑧 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 − 𝑧𝑧 2
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 159
17.8 Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
Example :
Compute 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐−1 −1 𝒊𝒊. 𝒆𝒆. 𝑧𝑧 = −1
1� 1�
−1 2 2
⇒ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 −1 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 −1 + −1 −1 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 −1 + 1 − 1 2
𝑦𝑦
= 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 −1 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑗𝑗 𝜃𝜃 + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋

𝑧𝑧 = −1
𝑥𝑥
⇒ 𝑧𝑧 = −1 ⇒ 𝑧𝑧 = 1 & 𝜃𝜃 = 𝜋𝜋
⇒ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐−1 −1 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 1 + 𝑗𝑗 𝜋𝜋 + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
⇒ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐−1 −1 = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 1 + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝑘𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, … …
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 160

2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 161
Chapter 17 APPENDIX
2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 162

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EEEE709 Advanced Engineering Math

Dr. Eli Saber

2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 2

17.1 Complex Numbers (Low Priority)

Prerequisite: Math 381 - Complex Variables or Equivalent

2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 3

2/21/2019 Dr. Eli Saber 4

Example: 𝑧𝑧1 = 1 + 2𝑗𝑗 ; 𝑧𝑧2 = 2 − 3𝑗𝑗; 𝑧𝑧3 = 4𝑗𝑗

𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑧𝑧1 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑧𝑧2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑧𝑧1 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑧𝑧2

Then: 𝑧𝑧1 = 𝑧𝑧2 iff 𝑥𝑥1 = 𝑥𝑥2 and 𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑦𝑦2

e.g. 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 0 if 𝑥𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑦𝑦 = 0

𝑧𝑧1 𝑥𝑥1 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑦𝑦1 𝑦𝑦2 𝑦𝑦1 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 𝑦𝑦2

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• Associative Laws: (Can be similarly proven)

• Distributive Laws: 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 + 𝒛𝒛𝟑𝟑 = 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 + 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 𝒛𝒛𝟑𝟑

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• Zero is the Additive Identity:

• Unity is the Multiplicative Identity:

• Additive Inverse: −𝑧𝑧 = −𝑎𝑎 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

1 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑎𝑎 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑎𝑎2 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 𝑏𝑏2 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏2

• 𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑧𝑧2 = 2 + 4𝑗𝑗 + −3 + 8𝑗𝑗 = 2 − 3 + 𝑗𝑗 4 + 8 = −1 + 12𝑗𝑗

• 𝑧𝑧1 − 𝑧𝑧2 = 2 + 4𝑗𝑗 − −3 + 8𝑗𝑗 = 2 + 3 + 𝑗𝑗 4 − 8 = 5 − 4𝑗𝑗

• 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 = 2 + 4𝑗𝑗 −3 + 8𝑗𝑗 = −6 + 16j − 12j + 32𝑗𝑗 2

• 𝑧𝑧1 (𝑧𝑧2 + 𝑧𝑧3 ) = 2 + 4𝑗𝑗 −3 + 8j + 1 − 3j

𝑧𝑧1 2+4𝑗𝑗 2+4𝑗𝑗 −3−8𝑗𝑗 −6−16𝑗𝑗−12𝑗𝑗+32 26−28𝑗𝑗 26 28

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Example: 𝑧𝑧 = 2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗 → 𝑧𝑧̅ = 2 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗

𝑧𝑧 = 7 → 𝑧𝑧 = 7 + 𝑗𝑗0 → 𝑧𝑧̅ = 7 − 𝑗𝑗0 = 7

𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵: 𝒛𝒛 = 𝒛𝒛� for real numbers

𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 + 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 = 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 + 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐

= 𝑥𝑥1 − 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦1 + 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑗𝑗𝑦𝑦2 = 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 + 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐

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𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 = 𝒛𝒛� 𝟏𝟏 𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐

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• 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑧𝑧̅ = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 2𝑥𝑥 𝑧𝑧 + 𝑧𝑧̅ = 2 Re 𝑧𝑧 = 2𝑥𝑥

• z 𝑧𝑧̅ = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 𝑦𝑦 2 z 𝑧𝑧̅ = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2

• 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑧𝑧̅ = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 − 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 − 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 2𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

𝑧𝑧 − 𝑧𝑧̅ = 2𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼(𝑧𝑧)

• z + z� = 2𝑥𝑥 = 2 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧+2 𝑧𝑧̅

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𝑧𝑧1 𝑥𝑥1 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑦𝑦1 𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑗𝑗(𝑦𝑦1 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 𝑦𝑦2 )

Example: 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧1 = 2 − 3𝑗𝑗 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧2 = 4 + 6𝑗𝑗

𝑧𝑧1 2 − 3𝑗𝑗 2 − 3𝑗𝑗 4 − 6𝑗𝑗 8 − 12𝑗𝑗 − 12𝑗𝑗 − 18 −10 − 24𝑗𝑗 −5 6

1 1 1 2+3𝑗𝑗 2+3𝑗𝑗 2+3𝑗𝑗 1 2 3

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Other Forms of Notation: 𝑧𝑧1 = 2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 2

Definition: Modulus or Absolute Value

The Modulus or Absolute Value of z = 𝒙𝒙 + 𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋 is denoted by 𝑧𝑧 . 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 is a real number

𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧̅ 𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵: 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦 2

𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬: 𝑧𝑧1 = 2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗 ⇒ 𝑧𝑧1 = 4 + 9 = 13

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• 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧̅ = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2

• If 𝑧𝑧1 = 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑧𝑧 ⇒ 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 = 𝑧𝑧1 𝑧𝑧2 becomes: 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧 2 = 𝑧𝑧 2

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𝑥𝑥1𝑥𝑥2+𝑦𝑦1𝑦𝑦2 𝑥𝑥2𝑦𝑦1−𝑥𝑥1𝑦𝑦2 𝑥𝑥1𝑥𝑥2+𝑦𝑦1𝑦𝑦2 2 𝑥𝑥2𝑦𝑦1−𝑥𝑥1𝑦𝑦2 2 𝑥𝑥1𝑥𝑥2+𝑦𝑦1𝑦𝑦2 2 + 𝑥𝑥2𝑦𝑦1−𝑥𝑥1𝑦𝑦2 2

𝑥𝑥12 𝑥𝑥22 +𝑦𝑦12 𝑦𝑦22 +2𝑥𝑥1𝑥𝑥2𝑦𝑦1𝑦𝑦2+𝑥𝑥22 𝑦𝑦12 +𝑥𝑥12 𝑦𝑦22 −2𝑥𝑥1𝑥𝑥2𝑦𝑦1𝑦𝑦2