OMEGA, Vol.

24(2) 97-108, 1991-92

THROUGH A GIASS DARKLY:

IMAGESOFTHEDEADINDREAMS

DEIRDRE BARRETT, PH.D.

Harvard Medical School
Cambridge, Massachusetts

ABSTRACT
This study examined dreams about the dead. There were four categories of
activities reported in these: the deceased described the state of death,
delivered messages to the living, sought to change the circumstances of their
death, or gave loved ones a chance to say 'goodbye.' Some of these categories
occurred at a particular point in the grief process; others occurred at any time
after the death. A remarkably large number of the dead telephoned. These
dreams are discussed in terms of what they illuminate about attitudes toward
mortality and loss.

"The dead have largely lost their social importance, visibility, and impact in
American society," Charles Jackson observed in the opening of his essay "Death
Shall Have No Dominion" [1], "In this century, connection between the world of
the dead and that of the living has been largely severed and the dead world is
disappearing. Communion between the two realms has come to an end. It is a
radical departure because for three centuries prior, life and death were not held
apart. Meaning flowed freely between the two worlds."
The dominion of the dead in dreams, however, has not diminished. The most
distinctive characteristics of dreams include the breaching of waking logic, social
taboos, and denial. Apparitions of the dead in dreams have a long history;
although modem trends may have altered beliefs about their veracity, they have
done nothing to stem their occurrence.
The prominent 16th century Swiss physician and philosopher, Paracelsus
wrote [2, p. 92]:

97

© 1992, Haywood Publishing Co., Inc.

doi: 10.2190/H9G7-7AK5-15TF-2AWA
http://baywood.com
98 I BARRETT

It may happen that the soul of a person who has died perhaps fifty years ago
may appear to us in a dream, and if it speaks to us we should pay special
attention to what it says, for such a vision is not an illusion or delusion ••• and
if in such a case a soul appears to him and he asks questions he will then hear
that which is true .... Some people that were sick have been informed during
their sleep [by the dead] what remedies they should use, and after using the
remedies, they became cured.

Early this century, Myers [3] and Rogers [4] compiled veridical dreams about
the deceased from files of the Societies of Psychical Research and presented them
as evidence for the survival of bodily death. As the spiritist movement lost favor,
however, popular works began to describe dreams about the dead in metaphoric
terms. Miller reported persons having such dreams and thought they offered sound
advice. He offered a view of their nature disparate from Paracelsus's: "The voice
of relatives is only that higher self taking form to approach more distinctly the
mind that lives near the material plane.... The writer does not hold that such
knowledge is obtained from external or excarnate spirits" (5, p. 92].
More recent discussions of dreams about the dead have emphasized their
symbolic meaning. Carl Jung recounted the following dream in his autobiograptJ,y
[6, p. 296]:

After the death of my wife I saw her in a dream which was like a vision. She
stood at some distance from me, looking at me squarely. She was in her prime,
perhaps about thirty, and wearing the dress which had been made for her
many years before. It was perhaps the most beautiful thing she had ever worn.
Her expression was neither joyful nor sad, but, rather objectively wise and
understanding, without the slightest emotional reaction, as though she was
beyond the mist of affects. I knew it was not she, but a portrait she had made
or commissioned for me. It contained the beginning of our relationship, the
' events of thirty-five years of marriage, and the end of her life also. Face to
face with such a wholeness one remains speechless, for it can scarcely be
comprehended.

Many discussions focus on how these dreams symbolize attitudes toward death
and loss. Some of these dreams are seen as a warning that the dreamer is not over
a traumatic loss. An example is the following dream of a young woman whose
parents had been murdered by the Nazis ten years before as presented by Herzog
[7, p. 144]:

My mother is lying asleep in bed at home. She is covered up to the neck.

She looks young and very beautiful. Yet at the same time I know she is dead.
Then my father brings me a lovely blue dress. I know that my father is dead
and I am horrified. I refuse the present.
Suddenly my father is a ghostly skeleton that wants to embrace me and take
me away with him. I know that it is Death.
 THROUGH A GLASS DARKLY / 99

This theme of the dead proferring gifts is common in legends and fairy tales
usually with the implication that accepting the gift will doom one to death oneself
as in the myth of Persephone.
Other dreams presented as symbolizing attitudes about death indicate a greater
resolution of the grief process. Oift and Clift describe the dream of a recently
bereaved young woman in which the casket of her friend washes up on a beach
[8]. She opens the casket and finds a picture of her friend that pleases her. The
authors interpreted the dream as "encouraging her to look inside the 'casket'
where she is burying her pain" and to move forward by incorporating aspects of
her lost friend.
A second major group of interpretations of dreams about the dead discusses
how the dead can symbolize the loss, transformation, or rebirth of a part of the
dreamer. Oift and Oift [8] quoted a dream of the funeral of President Kennedy,
who was shot the same week that this dreamer's father died [8, p. 96]:

I moved alone in the line and when I got to the casket, he was propped up
on some pillows; I reached out my hand to shake hands with him. When I took
his hand it felt warm, and I said to him, There is a lot of life in you; it is a
shame for you to be buried ... just let them bury the casket."

Although this dream image could have been seen as an attempt to deny or
reverse the father's death, the authors described the dreamers' associations as
leading to an interpretation in terms of a part of the dreamer's self he has been
denying. Jaffe presents a book full of dreaJI).s about the dead which she explains as
manifestations of archetypes and representing instruction from the collective
unconscious [9].
Von Franz writes, "It seems to me that one can 'feel' whether the figure of a
dead person in a dream is being used as a symbol for some inner reality or whether
it 'really' represents the dead" [10, p. xv].
The present study examined these issues more empirically, by determining the
frequency and characteristics of dreams about the dead in which the dreamer
knows the person is dead. Major questions of interest include the following:
What is the tone of such a dream? What is the role of the dead person? How
long after the death do the dreams occur? What does the dream depict about
death and loss?

METHOD
In Part I of the study, 1412 dreams compiled from four previous experiments
were examined. The experiments had involved asking 149 volunteer under-
graduates to keep dream diaries for periods of time ranging from two to six seeks.
These dreamers included fifty-eight men and ninety-one women; 128 of them
were White, nine were Black. and twelve Hispanic. Their age range was seventeen
100 / BARRETT

to twenty-five years of age, with a mean age of twenty. Two readers judged the
dreams as to whether they contained overt content concerning a deceased char-
acter and rated it on a three-point scale of predominantly pleasant, neutral, or
unpleasant. They also propased main themes and noted how long ago the death of
the dream character had occurred to see if patterns between these emerged.
In Part II, more dreams of death were gathered by asking ninety-six college
students specifically if they had ever had a dream about someone who had died
"where you knew even in the dream that they were dead" and, if so, to give an
account of it including approximately how long after the death it took place.
Dreamers in this group were eighteen-forty-two years of age (mean = 24), thirty-
nine men, fifty-seven women, eighty-four White, two Black, and ten Hispanic.
This second group of dreams was rated for the pleasantness/unpleasantness
dimension and examined for other characteristic patterns.

RESULTS

In Part I of the study, 29 (2%) of the dreams recounted by eighteen dreamers

(12%) of the participants were found to contain an explicitly decreased character.
In Part II, forty-eight more accounts were generated from thirty-seven dreamers
(39% of those polled). During Part I, an acquaintance known to three of the
students keeping dream journals killed herself and each of the three had two to six
dreams about her over the remaining three weeks. In Part II of the study four of the
people queried turned in a series of dreams about the dead, each series primarily
concerning one person.
For further analyses dreams from Parts I and II were pooled. These seventy-
seven dream accounts fell into four categories derived from judges' and experi-
menter's theme classifications. These categories only occasionally overlapped;
9 percent of the dreams were sorted into two categories, the following categories
sum to 109 percent. Although how long after the death of the character the dream
occurred varied, some categories tended to occur sooner than others. They are
presented in approximate sequential order; Table 1 gives an overview of their
characteristics.

Back-to-Life Dreams

The first of these categories, containing 39 percent of the dreams, was one in
which the deceased came back to life. In most of these, the dead wanted to discuss
the situation surrounding their death. These dreams have a mixture of both intense
pleasant and intense unpleasant affect as dreamers often express both joy at the
wishfulfillment-type return and anger-as in the following example-or guilt
over the death. One person dreamed:
 Table 1.

Typeof %of Time Since Dream .Relationship Affect Main Theme Other
Dream Total Character Died to Dreamer in Dream Involved Characteristics

Back-to-Life 39 3days-7mo. Very close Unpleas. or mixed Denial or Guilt

(mode =3 mo.)

--
0 Advice 23 2 mo.-10 yrs.
(mode =3 yrs.)
Usually close Usually pleasant Other Concerns
of the Dreamer

Leave-Taking 29 8 mo.-12 yrs. Very close Pleasant Acceptance 11% lucid

(mode =3 yrs.) of death

State-of-peath 18 4 mo.-15 yrs. Close, distance, Variable Own Mortality 13% lucid
(mode = 5 yrs.) even stranger 53% phone calls
102 / BARRETT

My old friend Jenny was taking me for a surprise trip, she said. We arrived
at this beach house with a lot of motorcycles. I was very nervous and then out
came Jenny's mother-who had been dead for two years. She grabbed me and
kissed me and told me she was sorry she had to lie about her death, that she
had been "in trouble with the gout." I was so mad and screamed "How could
you do this!" Jenny said "I just found out myself two weeks ago. "When I
woke up I was shaken, unsure of the actual death at first.

The following three dreams were reported by a young woman who had been the
primary caretaker for her grandmother until her death from cancer three months
previously. They demonstrate the frequent guilt content of this category and
an even more direct wish-fulfillment about rewriting events than did the last
example:

My grandmother came to me at school and told me she didn't die of cancer,

she was poisoned. She told me to tell the police. I told a friend Sam who was
supportive of me while I was taking care of her; we went to the police and
they didn't believe us.
I have a recurring dream that my grandmother calls me at my house while
my mother, sister, and I are preparing dinner. I answer the phone and she says
"Hi. It's me." I said "Hi Grandma," she asks "How are you?" The I want my
Mother to talk to her and she says "No, I called you." When my mother comes
to the phone, my grandmother hangs up. My mother replies "Stop saying it's
grandma, she's not there."
Another recurring dream I have is that my grandmother visits me in a hotel.
I say "Oh you've come back to me," and she says, "Yes, we are going to try it
again and see if I live this time." Suddenly she collapses on the bathroom
floor, I try to revive her, but I can't. I am panic-stricken and scream, "You
can't die, I have to do this right this time."

These back-to-life dreams tended to occur shortly after the loss of a loved one.
All three of the students acquainted with the woman who committed suicide had
at least one of this type of dream. The dreams ranged from seeing her wink from
her coffin to having her get up out of it and discuss why she had killed herself.

Advice Dreams

A second common category is the dream in which the deceased returns to offer
advice to the dreamer. This category contained 23 percent of the dreams. The
content spanned mundane through life-threatening situations. These dreams were
usually pleasant and typically featured dead loved ones long after the time of their
death. One dreamer wrote:

My father died nine years ago but I often dream that he returns especially at
times of stress in my life. He looks older than he ever got to be in real life and
very wise-looking. I tell him problems I am having and sometimes he just
listens and I feel better. But usually he gives me advice, sometimes very clear,
 THROUGH A GLASS DARKLY / 103

somet.imes garbled. In the instances where it is clear, it is always good advice

but things I already know I should do. But just seeing him and hearing it from
him makes me feel better.

A few dreams in this category seemed to the dreamers to contain paranormal

information, such as the following one in which the advice aspect is indirect:

At the time of the dream I had made plans to attend a family reunion in
California in about a month. I dreamed I saw my grandmother who had died
the year before. She was glad to see me and she hugged me and we talked.
Then she said, "Well, I'll see you in California." I was very taken aback and
decided she must not realize she was dead and couldn't be at the reunion.
After a long, awkward pause I said hesitantly, because it seemed rude to point
it out, "But Grandma, you're dead." She said cheerfully, "I know that. You'll
be dead too when you get to California." At least partly because of this dream,
I cancelled my plans and never went to that reunion.

Leave-Taking Dreams

Leave taking was the third category of reasons for the deceased appearing; these
comprised 29 percent of the total dreams. Most of these were extremely positive
dreams the dreamers felt helped resolve their grief in waking life as in the
following example:

After my grandmother died, I felt terrible because I had visited her when
she was in the hospital but I never went to see her in the hospice. I thought she
would be coming home; she died suddenly just when we thought things were
getting better. The first thing I thought of when I was told of her death was
that I didn't get to say good-bye or tell her that I loved her. For two months
after her death I was tormented by guilt and anger over not saying how I felt
to her. However, one night I dreamed that I was awakened by a phone ringing
in the hallway upstairs in my house. I got up out of bed and went to answer the
phone. As I picked up the phone, the dark hallway I was standing in became
fully illuminated. I said "hello" and my grandmother's voice said "Hello,
Sally, this is Grandma." I said "Hi, how are you?" We spoke for about 10
minutes until we were ready to hang up (I can't recall what we spoke about)
Finally, my grandmother said she had to go. I said, "OK Gram, take care, I
love you." She said "I love you too, goodbye." I said "Goodbye." As I hung
up the phone, the illuminated hallway became dark again. I walked back to
bed and fell asleep. When I awoke (for real this time) the next morning, and
ever since then, I have been at peace with my grandmother's death.

A leave-taking dream was reported by the woman who had cared for her
grandmother with cancer and who earlier had reported the back-to-life dreams
about the ghostly phone calls, the poisoning message, and the failed chance
to save her:
104 / BARRETT

I had a lucid dream about my grandmother that was probably the best dream
I have ever had. In this dream I was little, about five or six years old and I was
in the bathroom at my grandmother's house. She was giving me a bath in this
big claw-footed tub. The old steam radiator was turned on making it very
cozy. I knew that I was dreaming and that I was getting to see my
Grandmother well again. After the bath, she lifted me out onto the spiral
cotton rug and dried me with a blue towel. When that was done she said
she had to leave now; this seemed to mean for heaven. I said, "Goodbye,
grandma. I love you." She said, "I love you too Mary." I woke up feeling
wonderful. She had been delirious in the last months of her life, so I'd never
really gotten to say goodbye.

Leave-taking dreams were likelier to be lucid. Eight of the dreams in this category
(11 %) were lucid, as compared to only one lucid dream in each of the first two
categories.

State-of-Death Dreams

The rmal category of dreams is one in which the dream character describes the
state of death. This category contained 18 percent of the total dreams and had the
highest rate of lucidity at 13 percent. Most surprisingly, 53 percent of the dreams
in this category involved telephone calls from the deceased. Telephone calls were
depicted in 24 percent of the dreams about the dead in the other categories. An
assessment of 300 randomly selected dreams from the original pool revealed only
3 percent of general dreams contain phone calls. These dreams about the state of
death occurred at any time after the death and could be of someone close to the
dreamer, as in the first example that follows, or not as in the second:

I had a lucid dream that the phone rang and it was my [deceased] mother. I
knew it was a dream but I thought it was really her and that she could contact
me in the dream state. I was frightened to talk to her but I didn't want to let
that show and hurt her feelings, so I tried to act cheerful and make banal
conversation. I said, "Hi, how are you? She said, "I'm pregnant." I thought
she must have gone insane and think she's alive and young again but to humor
her I asked, "Are you going to have a boy or a girl?" She said, "I am going to
be a girl." I felt more and more uncomfortable and said, "I've got to go now;
I'll talk to you later," and hung up. As soon as I Woke up, the dream sounded
like a reincarnation statement but during the dream it just sounded crazy and
threatening somehow.

This dream was really strange! I was talking on the phone to a man who was
describing the wonderful place where he was. The man was very familiar. I
was told by another person (or perhaps it was a thought), that I was talking to
Pa (my boyfriend's dad, who just died). I saw his face in a phone booth
floating among the clouds. There were angels flying around too! Three
angels. When I asked if this was Pa, he said, "No, Pa died, how could you talk
to him?" But Pa's image and voice were the ones that told me that. I accepted
this and continued to speak to this person.
 THROUGH A GLASS DARKLY / 105

In four of the state-of-death dreams, the reports contained more evasion than
information. Two characters were teasing about whether they should reveal infor-
mation: "That would be telling!" one deceased friend replied when asked about
what death was like. Another explicitly stated limits on the amount of information
the living could be told. One young man dreamed his dead grandmother appeared
on a television talk show to be interviewed about what it was like to be dead but
then was incapable of speech.

Dream Series

All of the series of dreams about a departed loved one began with disturbing
dreams from the back-to-life category, usually progressed through advice dreams,
and then concluded with a leave-taking one. The dream series of the young
woman caring for her terminally ill grandmother progressed from failed chances
to save her to the bath-time good-bye. In addition, a woman reported a pre-
monitory dream on the night of her brother's death followed by back-to-life ones
in which he was: 1) a ghost (interestingly the only time that common phrase was
used in any dream) who did not know he was dead although everyone else did,
2) a stitched together Frankenstein monster causing fear at a college party, and
3) a bridegroom allowed to live again only long enough to marry his (real life)
fiancee and then return to the world of the dead. The bereaved sister then experi-
enced a period of advice dreams and finally a leave-taking one in which she asked
him for her customary advice, and he told her he could not answer her questions
any longer, that he was moving on to another plane e,_· existence.
The acquaintances of the woman who died by suicide all had predominantly
back-to-life dreams, but these represented only a three-week period; clearly, the
acquaintances had not yet progressed to a full resolution.
A much larger proportion of the dreams in Part I contained a character who was
deceased in real life, but the dreamer did not remember this in the dream. Six
percent of the dream reports contained an aside that a dream character was
deceased, and many more of the dreams probably presented such characters
without denoting them as dead. Most of the dreams with asides about the deceased
status of characters primarily seemed to be concerned with what the person meant
to the dreamer when alive; more than half of these dreams were set before the time
of the person's death. Although themes about death might be contained in some of
these dreams, they were more subtle and open to various altering interpretations
and so were not analyzed in the present study.

DISCUSSION
This study demonstrates that dreams about someone who has died have a higher
lifetime remembrance than Barrett found for dreams of the dreamer's death by 39
percent versus 11 percent [11 ]. The earlier study concluded that dreams about the
106 / BARRETT

dreamer dying most often represent issues other than death. However, the dreams
in the present study seem to largely grapple with issues about mortality and loss.
Thls is consistent with Coolidge and Fish's finding that the terminally ill dream
about death but tend to project it onto other characters [12].
Herzog describes what he terms "horror" about the death of others as repre-
sented in dreams and fairy tales evoking a more existential, philosophical aspect
of the fear of death than aspects of one's own death [7, p. 24]:

The decisive thing is that the experience of horror is clearly different from
the purely instinctive terror of death when it threatens the life of the individual
himself. We are concerned with the death of the other person, of the tribal or
family comrade, and when man is gripped by terror and horror at the inex-
plicable change in his comrade it is because that which was living and
comprehensible has suddenly changed into something different and incom-
prehensibly uncanny. Since he feels momentarily cut off form the known
world, his existence is threatened in a deeper sense than it is by the instinctive
fear of death. Thus it is likely that the primary psychological aspect of the
encounter with death is this being gripped by a 'wholly other' which seems to
open up strange dimensions, and so to call into question the secure and
self-evident character of existence.

The categories derived from the present sample are not intended to be so
definitive that the dreams can not be sorted usefully along other dimensions.
These categories do however, distinguish meaningful subgroups that differ in their
affective tone, differ in aspects of death issues addressed, and most importantly
tend to occur at different points in the process of resolving grief. The first or
back-to-life category is consistent with what major theorists such as Bowlby [13],
Kubler-Ross [14], and Lindemann [15] describe as the early stages of reacting to
a loss. They all emphasize denial as the predominant reaction in early stages of
grief over Joss of a loved one and describe fantasies of the person coming back to
life or of being able to rearrange events leading to the death-much as they appear
in these dreams. This category also resonates with folktales about death that
usually emphasize death as a mistake, accident, punishment, or joke [16].
The leave-taking category reflects Kubler-Ross's last stage of 'acceptance.'
Leave-taking dreams in the present study are much like those Laberge describes
among lucid dreams [17]. Three of his four examples of "finishing unfinished
business" are about the death of loved ones. He wrote: "As demonstrated by the
examples ... lucid dreaming can help people settle unfinished emotional business
with family members and intimate friends." The dreams in the present study make
it clear this can happen with or without lucidity. This category of dreaming might
be one therapists want to cultivate by suggesting the possibility to patients at an
appropriate point in grief resolution. It is much easier to influence dream content
in general ways (and meaningfully only if the person is ready for it) than to induce
a fully lucid dream.
 THROUGH A GLASS DARKLY / 107

The dreams in the advice category may sometimes by about loss. However, they
vary from those of other categories by more often addressing issues in the
dreamer's life other than death or loss about which they seek advice. The theoreti-
cal concept most directly relevant to theses is Bowlby's idea that in satisfactory
resolution of grief there is some incorporation of the lost person [13].
The state-of-death dreams describing death are the likeliest to involve deceased
persons to whom the dreamer was not extremely close. This may be because these
dreams reflect more concerns about the dreamer's own mortality rather than the
loss by death of a significant other. These dreams are even more likely than dreams
in the other categories to contain telephone calls. The telephone may be an especial-
ly potent metaphor for a disembodied entity. A large number of waking reports of
apparitions of the dead taking this form are reported by Rogo and Bayless in their
book, Phone Calls From the Dead [18]. This subspeciality within parapsychology
has also spawned a number of articles and conference presentations with similar
titles leading to the inevitable jokes such as: "All I want to know is the area code."
Rogo and his colleagues suggested that the electromagnetic nature of telephone
transmission makes this an especially easy way for the dead to communicate. It
seems more likely that, even for the waking experiences, the power of the metaphor
may lead to this perception. Indeed many of their examples occur during sleep and
may represent dreams similar to the current sample.
One type of dream about the dead described in previous literature did not figure
prominently in the present sample: those typical of post-traumatic stress disorder.
Victims of PTSD, especially combat veterans, often have frequent nightmares that
are repetitive and that reenact the death of a close buddy whom they feel guilty
about surviving. Some of these dreams elaborate on the actual events by having
the deceased return (19]. A good example of this category of death dream occurs
in Kurosaswa's 1990 film, Dreams, which was closely based on his own dreams.
One segment depicts an army captain confronted by one of his soldiers who had
died in battle marching out of a dense fog to report to him. He must explain to the
young man that he is dead and can never see his family again. Then his entire
deceased battalion appears, and, with anguish, he orders them to march back into
the mists of oblivion.
Dreams are an especially fertile area in which to explore attitudes toward death,
since they bypass much of the usual denial. The present study demonstrates a rich
variety of conflicts and curiosities about death in young adult dreamers, especially
those recently bereaved. The dreamworld may be an especially important area to
attend to in grief counseling, because this is the dominion of the dead in the lives
of the living.

REFERENCES
1. C. 0. Jackson, Death Shall Have No Dominion: The Passing of the World of the Dead
in America, Omega: Journalof Death and Dying, 8, pp. 195-203, 1977.
108 / BARRETT

2. Paracelsus, as quoted in G. Miller, Ten Thousand Dreams Interpreted, Rand McNally,

Chicago, 1979.
3. F. Myers, Human Personality and Its Survival of Bodily Death, l.ongsmans, Green &
Co., London, 1915.
4. L W. Rogers, Dreams and Premonitions, Theosophical Book Co., Chicago, 1923.
5. G. Miller, The Thousand Dreams Interpreted, Rand McNally, Chicago, 1979.
6. C. Jung, Memories, Dreams, Reflection, Random House, New York, 1963.
7. E. Herzog, Psyche and Death, Putnam's Son's, New York, 1969.
8. J. D. Clift and W. B. Oift, Symbols of Transformation in Dreams, Cros.voad Publish-
ing Co., New York, 1984.
9. A. Jaffe, Apparitions: An Archetypal Approach to Death Dreams and Ghosts, Spring,
Irving, Texas, 1979.
10. M. L. Von Franz, On Dreams and Death, Shambhala, Boston, 1986.
11. p. L Barrett, Dreams of Death, Omega: Journal of Death and Dying, 19, pp. 95-101,
1988.
12. F. Coolidge and C. Fish, Dreams of the Dying, Omega: Journal of Death and Dying,
14, pp. 1-8, 1983.
13. J. Bowlby, Processes of Mourning, The International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 42,
pp. 317-340, 1963.
14. E. Kilbler-Ross, On Death and Dying, MacMillan, New York, 1969.
15. E. Lindeman, Symptomatology and Management of Acute Grief, American Journal of
Psychiatry, 101, pp.141-148, 1944.
16. A. Corcos and L. Krupka, How Death Came to Mankind: Myths and Legends, Omega:
Journal ofDeath and Dying, 14, pp.187-191, 1983.
17. S. LaBerge and H. Rheingold, Exploring the World of Lucid Dreaming, Ballentine
Books, New York, 1990.
18. D. S. Rogo and R. Bayless, Phone Calls from the Dead, Berkeley Books, New York,
1979.
19. B. A. van der Kolk, S. Adinolfi, R. Blitz, E. Hartmann, and W. Burr, Lifelong Versus
Traumatic Nightmares, Sleep Research, 10, p. 178, 1981.

Direct reprint requests to:

Deirdre Barrett, Ph.D.
Bel)avioral Medicine Program
Harvard Medical School
1493 Cambridge Street
Cambridge, MA 02139