LECTURE

on

UNIT –V

Digital Measurement of Electrical Quantities

&
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

Md Irshad Ahmad
irshad.ahmad@jit.edu.in
Electrical Engineering Department

ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT & MEASURING INSTRUMENTS (NEE-302)

 CONTENTS
UNIT V
 Digital Measurement of Electrical Quantities-
Concept of digital measurement, Block diagram
 Study of digital voltmeter,
 Frequency meter,
 Spectrum analyzer,
 Electronic multimeter.
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope-
Basic CRO circuit (block diagram), Cathode Ray
Tube (CRT) & its components,Applications of CRO
in measurement,
Lissajous Pattern, Dual trace & dual beam
oscilloscopes.
HOW A CRO LOOKS LIKE
 INTRODUCTION TO CRO
Versatile electronic instrument giving visual
display of signals
Used for measurement of frequency ,
amplitude, phase etc.
Also used in determining the nature and
characteristics of various components.
 Has a high bandwidth range thus making it a
sensitive and accurate device.
Easier to use as the internal routine act as a
guide to the user.
BASIC DIAGRAM
ANOTHER SCOOP….
WORKING OF A CRO
The main parts of Cathode Ray Tube are:

•Electron Gun Assembly

•Focusing Anodes
•Deflection Plates Assembly
•Screen for CRT
Multi-Input Oscilloscope
Oscilloscope can have multiple input and display
facilities.
The most common one is of - TWO INPUTS
.

Although FOUR and EIGHT inputs are

available for special applications
There are primary two types of multi-input
oscilloscope :-

Single Beam Oscilloscope

Dual Beam Oscilloscope

Both of them can be converted into a

further
Number of traces.
Dual Trace Oscilloscopes
Dual Trace Oscilloscopes
In this oscilloscope two separate
vertical input channels are used.

There are two common operating

modes for the Electronic Switch, called
Alternate and Chop which can be selected
from the instrument’s front panel.
BLOCK DIAGRAM
Dual Beam Oscilloscope
The Dual Beam Oscilloscope has two
separate electron beams , and therefore
two completely separate vertical
channels.
There are two methods used for
generating the two electron beams
within the CRT.

The first method is :-

Double gun tube

Split Beam
 Multiple input CRO works in
following two modes

alternate mode
chopped mode
 Alternate mode
In alternate mode the an electronic
switch alternates between sig A & B.
Waveform in alternate mode
 Chopped mode
In the chopped mode the switch free
runs at very high frequency.
Waveform of Chopped Mode
 Lissajous Pattern
When two sinusoidal voltage signals
of equal frequency having some phase
difference are applied to the
deflection plates of CRO, a straight
line or an ellipse appears on the
screen these figures are called
Lissajous figures or Lissajous curves or
pattern.
Some examples of lissajous figures……..
With the help of lissajous figures we
can measure…….

Frequency
Phase
 Frequency
Measurement
Fx/Fy = Hp/Vp

Fx = Unknown frequency

Fy = Known frequency
Hp = Points on horizontal tangencies
Vp = Points on vertical tangencies
 Phase
Measurement
sin Ф = c/b
Digital Storage Oscilloscope
B
L BLOCK DIAGRAM OF DSO
O
C
 Advantage Of DSO
Stores waveform for infinite time

Digitize waveform can be processed in any way

Writing speed is more

Processing of signal is easy

Analog Storage Oscilloscope
CRT: Cathode Ray Tube
CRT: Cathode Ray Tube
CRO: Cathode Ray Oscilloscope CRT+ control & input circuitry

CRT Block diagram:

Electrode system in evacuated glass tube which ends at screen
• Triode section
• Focussing Lens
• Deflection grids
• Post deflection acceleration
• Screen
 CRT Construction
Electron Gun

.
Triode Focussing Deflection Post deflection
section acceleration
 . Vertical
deflection
Horizontal
deflection
Aquadag

Glass tube plate plate

Cathode Isolation
Grid A1 A2 A3 shield
Filament Screen

-2 KV Electron beam
6.3 V -2.050 KV Resistive helix
-2 KV +12 KV
Power Supply
 CRT Construction: Triode section

• A electron beam is generated by a cathode heated by filament

• Consists of a cathode , grid and anode
• Grid is a Nickel cup with a hole in it
• Cathode is Nickel cylinder, with flat oxide coated electron emitting
surface towards the grid hole. Heating is provided by a filament
• Cathode is kept at -2 KV and grid is adjustable in the range –2KV to
-2.05 KV
• Grid cathode potential controls electrons flow rate towards screen,
thus Grid potential is brightness control.
 CRT Construction: Focussing
• Purpose is to focus electron beam at a fine point of screen
• A1 and A3 are grounded while A2 held around -2KV, resulting in equi-
potential lines as shown in figure. Lines in A1 converges electron
beam, while line in A3 diverges electron beam.
• Convergent/ divergent forces are adjusted by potential of A2. i.e
point of focus is shifted. A2 is sometimes referred as focus ring.
Equi-potential lines Line 1 Divergent Force
Line 2
Convergent Force A1 A2 A3 direction on beam
on beam

Electro static focussing using focussing lens:

Equi-potential lines setup convergent /divergent forces -2 KV
 CRT Construction: Deflection
• With potential across plates, beam deflects to +ve potential.
• Voltage to produce one cm at screen (V/cm) is referred as deflection factor. Deflection by
1 V (cm/V) is termed as deflection sensitivity
• If horizontal/ vertical plates are grounded, beam is not deflected.
• When ac is applied at deflection plates, horizontal/vertical lines are produced at the
screen. Waveform to be displayed is fed to vertical plates while horizontal plates are fed
with a ramp.
• Grounded isolation shield is lie between horizontal/ vertical plates
 CRT Construction: Screen
• CRT Screen is formed by coating phosphor material to inside of the
screen. When electron beam strikes, electrons in the phosphor
material go to higher energy level and return to original statae while
emitting the visible light (Glow).
• The glow may persist for some time (ms to second) and may be of
colour Red, Blue , Green or White depending on the material.
• Phosphors are insulators. Secondary emission electrons are
collected by a graphite coating “aquadag” around the neck of tube.
• Post deflection acceleration is provided by helix of resistive material
deposited inside of tube between deflection plate and screen with
starting point at ground while ending point at aquadag (12 KV)
• Thus electrons leaving deflection plates finds continuous
acceleration before striking screen
 CRO Block diagram
Calibration
input

Input Vertical Delay

Attenuator
signal Amplifier Line
Screen

-2 KV
6.3 V -2.050 KV -2 KV +12 KV
Power Supply

Trigger Time base Horizontal

Circuit Circuit Amplifier

4
2
 CRO : Waveform Display
• When ac is applied to vertical plates 0 1 2
t
3 4 ms
and horizontal plates are grounded, +2 V
then spot on the screen produce a 0
vertical line by moving up and down -2 V
Input to vertical deflection plate
+2 V
• If ramp (a period of saw tooth wave)
is applied on horizontal plate, spot 0
moves horizontally along with up and -2 V
Input to horizontal deflection plate
down movement, thereby producing 3
a waveform 2 4

1 5
9
6 8
7
Display
 CRO time base: Horizontal sweep
generator
Ramp generator
VCC
IE1 R3
R1 VB1
Sweep time
VBE control switch
Q1 (time base)
R2 V1
I1 Upper trigger level
IB2 S1
Q2 V1 Lower trigger level
R4 C1 T
-V
V2
R5  (VCC – 1) V
VCC R6
+
 -(VEE = -1)V
- Sync
V2 -VEE R7 C2 input
Schmitt Trigger
Oscilloscope: X-Y and Z display
• Simple figures occur for waveforms of same frequency waveform, while for
different frequencies quite complex figures are formed. For stationary figures
there must be exact ratio of frequencies

• When time base is disconnected, and input waveforms are applied on

horizontal and vertical amplifiers, resulting display are called lissajou
figures and depends on relationship of two waveforms.

Vertical
input
Horizontal
input

Vertical input : sine wave Vertical input : No input Vertical input : Sine wave
Horizontal input: No input Horizontal input: sine wave Horizontal input: In-phase Sine
 Oscilloscope: Lissajou figures

Vertical
input
Horizontal
input

Vertical input : sine wave Vertical input : No input Vertical input : Sine wave
Horizontal input: anti phase sine wave Horizontal input: sine wave Horizontal input: Sine wave with
with 900 phaseshift phase difference between 0-900

Vertical
Input (f1)
Horizontal
Input (f2)

f1:f2=2:1 f1:f2=3:2
 Oscilloscope: Z-axis modulation
• CRO have a intensity modulation input termed as Z-axis modulation
• The input wave actually modulates the grid input of oscilloscope.
This dims or blank out the traces.
• For a lissajou figure ‘circle’ when z-axis modulation is applied, gaps
are formed. Ratio of modulating frequency (fm) to deflecting plate
signal frequency (fp) is equal to number gaps in the circle.
• When fm:fp is an exact quantity, gaps in circle will be stable

Vertical
input
Horizontal
input

fm:fp :: 3:1 fm:fp :: 8:1

 Oscilloscope specifications and
performance

 Sensitivity: defines the amplitude that can be displayed on screen

• Typically sensitivity ranges from 2 mV/div to 10 V/div.
• Using the probe measuring sensitivity can be increased.
 Voltage Measurement Accuracy:
• Accuracy of V/div sensitivity is typically 3%.
• Reading accuracy is typically 5% per division.
• For peak to peak voltage in 5 div, reading accuracy is 5%/5= 1%.
 Overall measurement accuracy becomes 1%+ 3%= 4%
 Frequency Response:
• Highest and lowest frequency of waveform that may be displayed
 with no more than 3 dB attenuation
4
8

• For CRO upper cutoff frequency (fH) having negligible

effect on displayed waveform, signal frequency should not exceed fH/10
 Oscilloscope specifications and
performance
 Time Base Accuracy:
•Accuracy of V/div sensitivity is typically 5%.
•Reading accuracy of time base is typically 5% per division.
•For peak to peak voltage in 5 div, reading accuracy is
5%/5= 1%. Overall measurement accuracy becomes
1%+ 5%= 6%
 Rise Time Measurement:
•is rise time imposed on oscilloscope on an input pulse
wave.
 • tro=0.35/fH
 Delay time based
Oscilloscopes
• In normal CRO, the input signal is used to trigger the time base,
while vertical plates are fed with some delay. This facilitates study of
leading/ lagging edge of a pulse type waveform. However this delay
time may not be high enough to cover full signal.
• In Delay time based CRO, a variable delay is introduced in time base.
• Un-blanking pulse of delayed time base (DTB) is added with that of
main time base (MTB). This increases the intensity of CRT in the
duration of DTB ramp, and highlights the portion of waveform.
• The part of waveform highlighted, can be displayed on CRT by
switching the DTB ramp to horizontal plate amplifier.
• Using alternate mode selection of MTB and DTB, the waveform
with highlighted portion and magnified waveform of the portion
can be displayed simultaneously on the screen.
Delay time based Oscilloscopes
MTB
Un-blanking
Un-blanking Main Time +V pulse
circuit Base MTB MTB ramp
-V waveform
Ramp output
Trigger level Voltage DC trigger level
control comparator +V DTB ramp
waveform
-V
Un-blanking Delayed Time DTB
Summing Un-blanking
circuit Base DTB
pulse
summed
Un-blanking
To CRT grid
pulse
td summed
Un-blanking
Horizontal deflection DTB pulse
amplifier time
 Digital Multimeters

 Digital multimeters (DMMs) are often (inaccurately) referred

to as digital voltmeters or DVMs
 at their heart is an analogue-to-digital converter (ADC)

A simplified block diagram

Measuring alternating quantities

 Measuring alternating quantities

 moving coil meters respond to both positive and negative voltages,
each producing deflections in opposite directions
 a symmetrical alternating waveform will produce zero deflection
(the mean value of the waveform)
 therefore we use a rectifier to produce a unidirectional signal
 meter then displays the average value of the waveform
 meters are often calibrated to directly display r.m.s. of sine waves
 all readings are multiplied by 1.11 – the form factor for a sine wave
 as a result waveforms of other forms will give incorrect readings
 for example when measuring a square wave (for which the form
factor is 1.0, the meter will read 11% too high)
 Analogue Ammeters and
Voltmeters

 Most modern analogue

ammeters are based on
moving-coil meters
 see Chapter 4 of textbook

 Meters are characterised by their full-scale deflection (f.s.d.) and

their effective resistance (RM)
 typical meters produce a f.s.d. for a current of 50 A – 1 mA
 typical meters have an RM between a few ohms and a few
kilohms
Concept of Digital Measurement

 The digital techniques used in Electronic

Instrumentation enrich the user with high accuracy
measurement.
 Scheme besides digital system provides high input impedance
to ensure less loading effect on the input circuit. The numerical
readout of the digital system allows the worker to perform
measurement with zero parallax error unlike analog system.
 What is Voltmeter
 A Voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring the
electrical potential difference between two points in an
electrical circuit.
 There are generally seven types of voltmeter
1) Analog Voltmeter
2) Digital Voltmeter
3) Electrostatic Voltmeter
4) Oscilloscope Voltmeter
5) Micro-Voltmeter
6) Vacuum Tube Voltmeter
7) Solenoid Voltmeter
 What’s so special being
“Digital”?

 General purpose analog voltmeters may have an accuracy

of a few percent of full scale, and are used with voltages
from a fraction of a volt to several thousand volts. Digital
voltmeters can be made with high accuracy, typically
better than 1%.
Digital Voltmeter (DVM)
 Introduction
 Digital Voltmeter is an instrument which use to measured the
voltage & display the measured voltage using LCDs or LEDs to
display the result in a floating point format. They are an instrument of
choice for voltage measurements in all kinds of situations.
 Digital voltmeters usually have scales that are 0-0.3v, 0-3v, 0-30v, 0-
300v.
 Digital voltmeter is essentially an analog to digital converter (A to D)
with a digital display
 Working
 INTEGRATOR:-The integrator stabilizes the voltage as a first step in
measuring it. It takes a brief time sample, integrates it and outputs a
proportional voltage. Integrating a time sample makes the voltmeter
more immune to noise in the signal.

 ANALOG/DIGITAL CONVERTOR:-The analog/digital converter

or ADC, is the heart of the voltmeter. It is a clocked circuit that takes
an input voltage sample and outputs a number representing the voltage
value. Since it's clocked, you get a steady stream of numbers that
change when the input voltage changes.
Advantages of Digital Voltmeter

 Higher accuracy and resolution.

 Greater speed.
 No parallax.
 Reduced human error.
 Compatibility with other digital equipment
for further processing and recording.
 Application

 Digital voltmeter mostly used in electronics

laboratory & in industry for measure the voltage
between two points with accuracy.
Thank You